Book 1 Module 2. ee Reale aan nn PHYSICS MATTER MECHANICS. MATERIALS FLUIDS ° BUOYANCY Licence By Post... ee he aap a ako each iE fingers Nt suable for smal Licance By Post © copyrightAUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority [the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local- procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments, ~ NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements, This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis LBP. 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 194 UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433873 Fax [+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: www.infod icencebypest.com Website: www licencebypost.comCONTENTS Matter Atomic structure Chemical reactions Mechanics Force Moment of a force Equilibrium A couple Scalar & vector quantities Centre of gravity Density Strength of materials Tension Compression Shear Stress Strain Hooke’s Law Young’s modulus of elasticity Fluids & gases Pressure Pressure due to depth Buoyancy Page 12 12 12 14 18 18 23 26 27 27 27 27 29 29 30 31 32 32 34 38HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written to the level 2 of the B1 technician syllabus, but most of the book should be studied to level 1 for the B2 and A line mechanic. Check the syllabus or contact your tutor ~ for AS and FS students. It is comprehensive and many parts will need more that one read to fully understand the subject. If it does “not go in” straight away, this is not unusual ~ it happens to most people (except for the lucky few), Read that part again and possibly take up the subject the following day. Complete all the examples and take the revision questions in the last book as a test and see how you do. For those that are AS and FS students you always have your tutor to fall back on. The Atomic Model The structure of the atom is dealt with so as to give the student a reasonable understanding of the basic layout at this level. It is really just an introduction to atomic theory. The important point to remember is that the present model (scientists have developed others) is simplified and based on that that gives the best answers to observations on practical experiments - to date. As research continues so new papers are published which up-dates/amends current theory. Any sizes quoted for atomic particles are approximate with different reference manuals not giving exactly the same value Details of scientists /inventers are included for interest only and need not be committed to memory.MATTER Nature of Matter All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. A molecule is defined as the smallest particle that any substance can be reduced to and still retain the unique properties of the original substance from which it can still be identified. These molecules are packed tightly together so that substances appear as solids, liquids or gases. Forces of attraction and repulsion exist between all molecules and these forces which are electro-magnetic, vary with the state in which the substance exists. Molecules of all matter are in constant motion, the amount of motion or vibration is dependent on the temperature. In a solid the molecules are packed closely together and vibration is about a fixed position, held there by strong bonding forces. This forms a rigid intermolecular structure. A solid, therefore, holds its shape and volume, changing size only with temperature changes (or large external forces). In liguids the motion of molecules is much greater and this prevents any permanent intermolecular structure from occurring. However, temporary bonds are formed and broken continually between molecules. These bonds prevent the molecules from totally moving apart so that a liquid will occupy, to the extent of it’s volume, the shape of the container into which it is poured. In a gas, the molecules are spaced widely apart, the force of attraction is so small that they continue to drift apart with relative ease, occupying the complete volume of the container that the gas is in. — Between molecules, whether in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, an empty space exists. This space allows materials to be compressed, forcing the molecules to move closer together and occupying a smaller volume. As the volume is gradually reduced the compressive force required has to increase providing evidence of a repulsive force existing between molecules. On the other hand, to produce a gradual extension of a solid bar, for example, an increasing tensile or stretching force would have to be applied, indicating that a force of attraction is also present between molecules. The force that holds molecules of a particular substance together is called a COHESIVE force. Where molecules of different substances are held together the force is known as an ADHESIVE force.Atomic Structure Molecules are constructed of even smaller particles called ATOMS. The size of an atom is small and may be defined as being the smallest particle that any substance can chemically be broken down to. The size of an atom is difficult to comprehend - a fine grain of salt would contain about a million, million, million (1018) atoms, Even at this size research has lead to the discovery that the atom itself is made up of many smaller particles, Of these, three are considered as being fundamental in its construction. These are the electron, the proton and the neutron, An atom consists largely of empty space. At its centre is the nucleus, which is formed from closely packed protons and neutrons. Surrounding this is a ‘cloud’ of orbiting electrons (figure 1) circulating around it in all directions. PATH OF ELECTRONS, Fig. 1 AN ATOM The size of the proton and neutron are very similar being about 1.6 x 107g and 1.7 x 10g respectively, whereas the electron is about 1/2000th times as small, it's mass being about 9 x 101g. Theory suggests that ‘binding forces’ hold the nucleus together. These forces are very strong but of short range and act only within the nucleus. Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged particles, whilst the neutron, as it’s name suggests is neither positive or negative but neutral. As a whole, the atom, is seen from outside as having no electrical charge. The positive charge on the nucleus being cancelled by the negative charge of the orbiting electron. It follows that there must be as many electrons orbiting the nucleus as there are protons within the nucleus so as to keep its charge neutral. -2-Where the molecules of a substance consists of only one type of atom, the substance is classified as an element. Carbon, gold, iron, mercury, oxygen and hydrogen are all examples of elements. There are more than one hundred elements, and the most recent ones discovered are unstable and change spontaneously into other known elements The abundance of materials in the world varies considerably with fewer than ten elements making up 98% of the total All atoms of a particular element contain a definite number of protons and subsequent electrons. Different elements will contain different numbers of protons in the nucleus. It is the number of protons in an atom that provide the ATOMIC NUMBER, and the total mass of all the sub-atomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons) that provide a measure of the ATOMIC WEIGHT. Atomic weight is now often referred to as RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS. Forms of an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different relative atomic masses, as a result of different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, are called ISOTOPES, Atomic weights are comparative. Originally the weight of the hydrogen atom was taken as 1 and the weights of all other atoms made relative to it. Atomic weights are now based on a value of 12, based on carbon 12, which has six neutrons and six protons. On this comparative scale, hydrogen has an atomic weight of 1.008. MASS NUMBER is the total number of protons and electrons in the nucleus, each being taken as a unit of mass. FIRST QUANTUM NUMBER (SHELL NUMBER), NucLeus. MAXIMUM NUMBER OF Jr2|e ELECTRONS IN EACH SHELL ‘SHELL IDENT LETTER MAXIMUM NUMBER OF SHELLS =7 Fig. 2 THE ELECTRON SHELLS eu