Bio Final Review Session Notes January 20 2013

Experimental design: Independent variable: A.k.a. the manipulated variable, what you change. Dependent variable: A.k.a. the responding variable. What is affected by the change Controlled variables: what is kept the same in all groups Control groups: the group you are not changing, where you expect no change. Level of treatment: the value of the independent variable Replication: number of times repeated, control group is included Sample size: number of individuals in each group Conclusion: you need To state the hypothesis to state whether the data supported the hypothesis or not the state the data points (high and low points) and an explanatory statement that explains the data Food for Animals: Food is needed for energy and building blocks Food molecules are Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins Carbs: Simple: sugars, Monosaccharide: one sugar ex glucose, fructose Disaccharide: two sugars linked ex sucrose (fructose and glucose), lactose Complex: polymers and simple sugars Polymers: large molecule made of small, linked molecules The three main polymers are Starch: made by plants. Made and broken by bacteria. For storage for plants glucose. Animals break it down using amylase. Forms a spiral/helix when placed in stands. It does this because of the bond and molecules (alpha molecules), very compact, storage. Glycogen: made by animals. Made and broken by bacteria. Also made of alpha glucose molecules, linked like starch but has a different structure; it has many branches which allows a lot of energy to be available quickly. It still spirals. Several hours worth of energy are stored in muscles and the liver; muscles for movement and in the liver so it can regulate blood sugar. Cellulose: made by plants. Made and broken by bacteria (which doesnt sound right, especially the made part, someone check please.) This consists of the structure of plants, they form in long strands attracted to each other through H(ydrogen) Bonds. It is very strong

Lipids/Fats: made of glycerol and three fatty acids, also called triglycerides. Saturated Fats: solid at room temperature, have all single bonds so they stick together and are difficult to separate.

Unsaturated Fats: liquid at room temperature, they are not as compact and the fatty acids are not parallel, so not as much energy is needed to separate them. They are not parallel because they have double bonds between a carbon.

Fats can be used for cellular respiration too, along with proteins. However, bodies will only use these if they have to. Proteins: Chains of amino acids, they are bonded though dehydration , the bond was a peptide bond. Pepsin breaks down proteins.

Summary: The main molecules are Proteins, Fats and Carbs. They all are bonded through dehydration and are broken through hydrolysis. Proteins are used to do work and provide structure, all enzymes are proteins. Carbohydrates are used for energy and energy storage. Cellulose is used for structure. Fats are used for long term energy storage, to make cell membranes, insulation and protection of organs.

Digestion: Major organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, fall bladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine and rectum. The liver, gall bladder and pancreas aid in digestion but are not the organs the digest. Digestion: we digest for energy, growth and cell repair. Mouth: mechanical and chemical digestion- starch with amylase Esophagus: peristalsis occurs, the movement of muscle contractions to move food toward the stomach. Stomach: mechanical and chemical digestion- uses pepsin to digest proteins, but requires a low pH, so stomach has HCL in it, this kills bacteria. Pepsin is unusual because it functions in low pH only. Small Intestine: chemical digestion- it has amylase, pepsin and other proteins to break down fats. Many of these enzymes came from the pancreas. The liver makes bile that is stored in the gall bladder that then is dumped into the small intestine to break down fats. They are broken down into Carbs- simple sugars Proteins- AA (amino acids) Fats- fatty acids and glycerol Absorption: subunits are absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine because of diffusion. This is because the subunits are going from a high concentration area in the small intestine to the low concentration in the bloodstream. Circulation: subunits carried through bloodstream to all cells. Uptake into Cells: in cells subunits are 1) Used in cellular respiration 2) Reconstructed into new polymers for growth and repair Large Intestine: water is reabsorbed and the body eliminates indigestible molecules Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O + 6 CO2 Purpose: provide energy for cell and to make ATP. Energy stored in glucose becomes usable energy in ATP. Energy and Matter diagrams: 60% lost as thermal energy, 40% becomes ATP

ATP can be used to do chemical reactions, all work in cells is done by using ATP. All of the energy becomes thermal or is passed on to the next trophic level (consumption). Plants:

Photosynthesis: 6H2O + 6CO2 = C6H12O6 + 6O2 To preform photosynthesis light energy is required. Plants cannot photosynthesize without light, but they can grow without light because of stored energy. They preform photosynthesis to make glucose/food plants need to grow (carbs, proteins and fats). To do work plants need energy and building blicks that they get from food. Seeds have stored food. Chlorophyll: it is used to absorb light so plants can photosynthesize. It absorbs red and blue light. Plants need light for long-term growth nutrients from the soil (not necessarily the soil itself) water Decomposers: Break down matter for food, they preform cellular respiration. Saprotrophs: breaks down molecules by excreting chemicals to break down matter and then they absorb the subunits. They are organisms like bacteria, fungi and mold. Detritivores: more complex but they still eat dead matter. They are organisms such as insects, worms and vultures. Ecosystems: Water Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Know: That Cloro-Floro-Carbons break down the Ozone layer. Btb: tests for CO2. It is blue when there is no CO2 and turns yellow with CO2 Lugols: tests for starch. It is yellow brown with not starch present and turns purple black when starch is present. Benedicts: tests for glucose (only, not starch)it is blue without sugar.Turns: Blue- greenwhite- yellow- orange- brown, as levels increase. Population Dynamics: Limiting factors: determines the carrying capacity for example predators, food, space, disease. Birth rate is NOT a limiting factor, just speeds up how soon it reaches the carrying capacity. Diffusion: Movement of (solute or another material) from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. The movement of particles is random but the net movement is from high to low concentration. This describes non water molecules.

Osmosis: The net movement of water (only) from lower concentration of solute to higher concentration of solute across a semipermeable membrane.