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1 C 6402310- Gramtica Inglesa

Curso 2012 -2013

Basic Points Summary.

UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS. MODULE 1: LANGUAGE AND MEANING. 1.1. What is a speech act? Book page. 3 It is the act by which people communicate with each other. 1.2. Can you name ten types of speech acts? Book page. 4 Making statements, asking questions, giving directives with the aim of getting the hearer to carry out some action, making an offer, making a promise, thanking, expressing an exclamation. 1.3. What is a situation or state of affairs? Book page. 4 Any happening or state in real life, or in an imaginary world of the mind. It doesnt refer directly to an extra-linguistic reality, but to the speakers conceptualization of it. 1.4. What functions or semantic roles can be distinguished in a communicative act? Book page. 5 1. PROCESSES: 2. PARTICIPANTS: 3. ATTRIBUTES: 4. CIRCUMNSTANCES: Actions, events, states. Entities of all kinds, even abstracts. Qualities and characteristics. Contingent facts or subsidiary situations.

1.5. What difference is there between interpersonal, representational and textual meaning? Book page. 5 INTERPERSONAL MEANING: The meaning encoded in questions, statements, offers, etc. as a communicative act. REPRESENTATIONAL MEANING: The meaning encoded in the elements of semantic structure (participant, processes, attributes, etc.) TEXTUAL MEANING: The meaning in an organized strand of text ordered in a certain way. 1.6. What is the difference between transitivity structures, mood structures and thematic structures? Book page. 5 TRANSITIVITY STRUCTURES: Encode the representational meaning. In the sentence Ill come into your shop tomorrow, I is the participant, ll come the process, into your shop a circumstance, and tomorrow another circumstance. MOOD STRUCTURES: A speaker interacts with others to exchange information or to influence behaviour. This is typically carried by the indicative mood or clause type (interpersonal meaning). THEMATIC STRUCTURES: The speaker organizes the content of the clause to establish a point of departure desired for the message. This is called the Theme; and in English corresponds to the first element of the clause. The rest is the Rheme (textual meaning).

MODULES 2: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS. 2.1. What is a unit? What is a rank? What is an element? Book page. 11. UNIT: Its a sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and which has a recognised pattern that is repeated regularly. RANK: Its a group level. Each unit consists of one or more units of the rank below it. ELEMENTS of structure of each unit are realised by units of the rank. 2.2. Name four main types of structural units. Book page. 11. Clause, group, word and morpheme. 2.3. Differences between finite and non-finite clause, independent and dependent clause, a supplementive unit, a verbless clause, and an abbreviated clause? Book page. 12-15. FINITE AND NON FINITE: Depends on the verb. Finite verbs are marked for either tense or modality. Their function is to relate the verb to the speech event. Tensed forms distinguish the present from the past. Person and number are marked on the third person of the singular. Tense can be marked too by the finite operators and modality by the modal verbs. If the speaker wishes to express tense or modality, a finite form of the verb is chosen, and we have a finite clause. If verb does not express tense or modality (infinitive, participle) it is a non finite clause. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT: An independent clause is complete in itself. All are finite, and have variations in structure that make for the different types (declarative, interrogative, etc.) Dependent clauses, even when finite, do not have that possibility. SUPPLEMENTIVE UNIT: They are not integrated in the main clause, but add supplementary information. They are subordinate but not embedded. They are set off from the main clause by commas or a dash and have their own intonation. VERBLESS CLAUSE: A clause which lacks a verb (and often a subject too). The omitted verb is usually be. 2.4. What is a finite dependent clause? Major classes. Book page 14. Dependent clause is a clause that forms part of a larger structure and has a finite verb. Major classes are: 1. Circumstantial. 2. Relative 3. That Clause 4. Wh- nominal relative clause.

5. Wh- interrogative clause. 6. Dependent exclamative clause. 7. Comparative clause.


(From 4 to 7 are nominal clauses) 2.5. Main classes of groups and words. Book page 16. GROUPS WORDS

Nominal group (NG) Prepositions Verbal group (VG) Adjectival group (AdjG) Adverbial group (AdvG) Conjunction

Nouns Verb Adjective Adverb Article Pronoun.

2.6. What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph? Book page 16. Morpheme is an abstract category that has either a lexical or a grammatical meaning. These abstract categories are realized by morphs, the actual segments of written and spoken language. 2.7. Clause elements within common clause structures. Book page 17. Subject (S) SPCs Predicator (P) Direct Object (Od) SPOd Indirect Object (Oi) SPOiOd Prepositional Object (Oj) SPOp Subject Complement (Cs) SPCs Object Complement (Co) SPOdCo Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc) SPCloc Circumstantial Adjunct (A) SPOdA Stance Adjunct (A) ASPOd Connective Adjunct (A) ASPCs Jupiter is the largest planet. The election campaign has ended. Ted has bought a new motorbike. They sent their friends postcards. You must allow for price increases. He is powerless to make any changes We consider the situation alarming. We flew to Moscow The news reached us on Tuesday Unfortunately, we could not do it. However, other friends were present. SP

2.8. The main syntactic elements of groups. Book page 18. NOMINAL GROUP. There are three primary elements of functions: head (h) preceded by a pre-modifier (m) and followed by a post-modifier or qualifier. Both describe or classify the head, and we can have also determiners (d) which specify it. VERBAL GROUP. The lexical verb is the main element (v), preceded sometimes by auxiliaries (x). PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Two obligatory: prepositional head (h) and complement (C) and an optional modifier. 2.9. What is the relationship between componence and realization? Book page 19.

A structure is considered composed of elements which form a configuration of functions (such Agent-Process-Affected or Subject-Predicator-Direct Object). Each of these functions is realised by a unit. There is not one to one correspondence between the class of unit and function, many classes of unit can fulfill different functions, for example, a nominal group (NG) can be Subject, Adjunct, Direct Object, etc.

MODULE 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION. 3.1. What is a finite operator used for? Book page. 21. A finite operator is used for negative and interrogative clauses. 3.2. How many types are there? Book page. 21. Three types:

1. Primary: am, is, am not, wasnt, havent, etc. 2. Modal: can, could, should, may not, shant, etc. 3. Do operator: do, did, dont, didnt, etc.
3.3. What ways are there of negating a clause? Book page. 22-23. Negation is usually made with the particle not. Another form is a non-finite verb in a dependent clause (Not wishing to disturb them), and another, using a non-verbal nuclear negative word as nobody, nothing, no or never. 3.4. Assertive vs. non-assertive words. Book page 24. The any words are not in themselves negative, and are what we call non-assertive words, as opposed to some and its compounds, which are assertive. Assertive have factual meaning, can typically occur in positive declarative clauses (some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere, sometimes, already, still, a lot) Non-assertive are associated with non factual meaning (non-fulfillment or potentiality) a feature of negative, interrogative, conditional and comparative clauses (any, anybody, anywhere, any longer, anyone, anything, anymore, ever, yet, much) 3.5. Local and transferred negation. Book page 25. In local negation groups, words and non finite clauses can be negated by not without negating the entire clause (She was admitted not long ago). Transferred negation displaces the negative element to negate the verb in the main clause (I dont think she was a Londoner instead of I think she wasnt a Londoner). 3.6. What are coordination, subordination and embedding? Book page. 26. COORDINATION: Linking together elements of the same rank (She got dressed quickly, had breakfast and went out to work). SUBORDINATION: Complex (not compound) clauses, formed by a main sentence and dependent ones. Some of the clauses always depend from another, and are not complete by themselves (Ill let you borrow the CDs as soon as Ive finished). EMBEDDING: A subordinate clause is embedded when it plays a role in the sentence (I dont know why he left so abruptly).

UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE. MODULE 4: SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE. 4.1. What is the basic structure of a single independent clause? Book page 35. Subject + Predicate (with or without adjuncts). 4.2. The predicate: objects, complements and adjuncts. Concept and main types. Book page. 34-35. The two main categories which occur in post verbal positions are Object (O) and Complement (C). Without them, the clauses can be incomplete both semantically and syntactically. Objects: Encode the key participants of the event other than the subject. Two main types, Direct Object (Od) and Indirect Object (Oi) in that order. Complements: Encode elements that are not participants but are required both syntactically and semantically. The two main types are Complement of the Subject (Cs) and Complement of the Subject (Cs) Adjuncts: There are three main classes, none of them impossible to omit. Circumstantial Adjuncts: Provide setting for the situation as place, time and manner among others. Stance Adjuncts: Express the speakers attitude. Connective Adjuncts. Link two clauses, signalling its relation. 4.3. What elements determine the number and type of objects and complements in a clause? Book page 37. The criteria for the classification of functions are four: Determination by the verb, position, ability to become a subject and realisation of these functions. So, the number and type of objects and complements that can occur in a clause are determined by the verb. Transitive verbs usually require one or more objects. They occur in types SPO, SPOiOd, SPOC. Intransitive verbs occur in type SP, dont admit an Object. 4.4. What is a locative/goal? Book page 37. A locative element is required by a few transitive verbs (such as put and place) to make the sentence semantically complete. It can also be predicted by intransitive verbs of motion and direction (come, go, fly) to mark an end point or goal (Rome, south, etc.) although prediction is less strong than requirement. Both are subsumed under the abbreviation Cloc. 4.5. What are the four criteria for the classification of clause functions? Book page 37-38. Determination by the verb, position, ability to become a subject and realisation of a function. 4.6. What is the correspondence between classes of unit and syntactic function? Book page 40. There is no one to one correspondence, except for the predicate, always realized by a verbal group. The Object is only prototypically realized by a NG, as well as the subject and Object Complement etc but this does not mean they cannot be realized by another unit.

MODULE 5: SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR. 5.1. What are the key syntactic, semantic and cognitive features of the subject? What are the main participant roles that can be associated to it? Book page. 42-43. SyNTACTC FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT: The subject is the element picked-up in a question tag. It is placed before the finite verb and after the finite operator. When a pronoun is used, is always in the pronominal form (I, he, she, we and they) and agrees in number and person with the verb. It is prototypically realised by an NG, but it can be realised by a variety of groups and clauses. COGNITIVE FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT: The subject is the element with the highest claim to function as a Topic (what the clausal message is about). SEMANTICALLY: Almost all participant roles can be associated with it. It can be an Agent, Affected in a passive clause, Experiencer in a mental process, recipient in a passive, etc 5.2. List all the syntactic features of the subject. Book page. 43. It must be present in declarative and interrogative clauses, not required in the imperative. It is the element picked up in question tags. It is placed after the finite operator. Subject pronominal forms are I, he, she, we and they. It agrees in number and person with the verb. 5.3. Which classes of groups and clauses can realize a subject? Book page 44-47.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Nominal Groups: That man is crazy. Dummy it: Its hot. Unstressed there: Theres plenty of time. Prepositional phrase and Adverbial Group as subject: Now its the time. Adjectival head: The poor are the recipients of donations. Embedded clauses: That- clauses: That he failed the test surprised everybody. Wh- clauses: What he said shocked me. 7. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject: It was silly to say that.

5.4. What is a predicator? Book page 48-49. Its a clause element present in all major types of clauses including imperative, and determiner of the remaining structure of the clause. 5.5. What types of verbs can realise this function? Book page 48-49. Both finite and non finite, lexical and primary verbs. 5.6. What types of processes are encoded by the predicator? Book page 48-49.

Material processes of doing (make, catch). Mental processes of experiencing o Verbs of perception like see. o Verbs of cognition like know. o Verbs of affectivity like like. o Verbs of desideration like hope. Relational processes of being.

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MODULE 6: DIRECT, INDIRECT, AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT. 6.1. Key syntactic and semantic features of the direct object. Book page 50.


doing).

It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs (hit, buy, send). It is placed immediately after the predicator. Typically realized by a NG. It can be promoted to become a subject (passive). It can be questioned with wh- . Semantically, a prototypical Od occurs in a high transitive situation (process of 6.2. Key syntactic and semantic features of the indirect object. Book page 55.

It occurs only with verbs which can take two objects such as give or send. Its position is between the verb and the Od. Typically realized by a NG, occasionally by a wh- nominal clause. It is associated with two semantic roles: Recipient and Beneficiary.

6.3. What difference is there between an indirect object and a prepositional object? Book page 56. A prepositional (oblique) object is a subsidiary type of object mediated by a preposition. It encodes a participant in the clause structure. The preposition is associated with a verb, called prepositional verb. Without the preposition the clause will be either ungrammatical with different meaning. 6.4. Three main types of prepositional verbs. Book page 57. TYPE A: (Look after) Lexical unit in which the verb and the preposition together have a different meaning from the separate words. TYPE B: (Rely on). Less idiomatic, verbs in this group are not used without their specific preposition. TYPE C: (Laugh at, count on, hear of) Verb + preposition represent a special use with a distinctive meaning of the verb which otherwise can function without the preposition. 6.5. When is a preposition stranded? What happens in passive structures? Book page 57 When a preposition stays close to its verb we say it is stranded (displaced from its natural position). In some combinations, the NG complement of a PP (prepositional phrase) can become a subject in a passive clause. The preposition is then obligatory stranded (My cat was looked after). 6.6. What is the difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs? Book page 61. In a phrasal prepositional verb, the pronoun follows the preposition but precede the particle (He broke it up). The particle is stressed specially in the final position; whereas a preposition is normally unstressed (the stress falls on the verb). Phrasal verbs do no normally admit an adverb between the verb and the particle. In phrasal verbs the particle is analyzed as part of the verb. In free combination is analyzed as a complement (rain came down directional). 6.7. What are phrasal-prepositional verbs? Book page 62.

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A phrasal-prepositional verb consists of a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particle and preposition, in that order. They are characteristic of informal English.

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MODULE 7: SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. 7.1. What are the key differences between Subject Complement and Object Complement? Book page. 64-68. The Subject Complement completes the predicate after a copular verb by specifying an Attribute of the subject or its identity. No passivisation is possible. The Subject Complement is the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb that cannot be made subject in a passive clause. It does not represent a new participant as Object does, but completes the predicate by adding information about the subject. The Object complement complements the predicate with an AdjG or an NG following a direct object. It can neither become subject in a passive clause. 7.2. What groups and classes prototypically realise each constituent? Book page. 6468. Subject Complements: Realized by AdjG and NG (definite and indefinite) and clauses. Object Complements: Realized by AdjG and NG (definite and indefinite) and clauses.

MODULE 8: ADJUNCTS. 8.1. What is an adjunct? Book page. 69. Adjuncts are optional elements. They are flexible in number and position. Semantically they represent circumstances, specifications and comments. 8.2. What three main types are according to their function? What are the main differences between them? Book page. 70. Circumstantial Adjuncts: Provide experiential details and answer wh- questions. Stance Adjuncts: Express speaker evaluation or comment. Connective Adjuncts: They are connectors of structures, signaling how the speaker intends the semantic connections. Sometimes analyzed as a discourse marker. 8.3. When does a circumstantial function as a central clause element? Book page 71. When predicted by the verb. Without it the clause would be incomplete syntactically and semantically. They have then the status of a Complement, and can be:

Of location in place or time: is, stay, live. Extent in time or places: take, last. Direction and Goal: go, come, fly. Source: tiptoed out, flew from. Manner: behave, treated.

8.4. What is a discourse marker? Book page 75 Marks the new speakers turn in the conversation, the management of informational and the speakers attitude to the message. (Well, now, so)

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UNIT 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MESSAGE. MODULE 9: INTRANSITIVE AND COPULAR PATTERNS. 9.1. What does the term complementation of the verb refer to? Which elements are determined by the verb? Book page. 83. Complementation of the verb are the syntactic patterns made up by configurations of the clause elements. Each pattern contains a subject and a predicator. The number and type of other elements in each pattern is determined by the verb. 9.2. Name the three types of complementation and any subtypes there are. Book page 83. Intransitive. Copular. Transitive. o o o Monotransitive (S-P-O) Ditransitive (S-P-O-O) Complex transitive (S-P-O-C)

9.3. What is semantic valency? Book page 83. It is the potential number of participants, including the subject (the number of places the verb can control). For example the verb eat is a two-place verb, because in any event of eating there must be an eater and a thing eaten. Syntactic valency often corresponds to semantic valency but not always. For example, weather verbs have a semantic valency of zero, but we use a dummy it and give them a syntactic valency of one. 9.4. What are the different types of intransitive verbs? Book page. 85

Verbs of behaviour: (Typically involuntary or semi-voluntary): Smile, blink, blush, die, faint. Verbs of weather: Rain, snow. Verbs of occurrence: Appear, go, arrive, fade, happen. Idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs: Crop up.

All these are pure intransitives, and some of them function as other structures. Some intransitives require a complement:

Position: Require a Locative Complement (live, lie). Movement: Require a Goal Complement (go, walk).

9.5. What is a locative complement? Book page 86. Locative Complement Cloc is the term used to encompass both Locative and Goal meanings of the complement. These are required by intransitive verbs of location (be, stand, live, lie, remain) or movement + manner of movement types (walk, run, stroll, crawl, fly). 9.6. What does the locution pragmatic inference of circumstantial meaning refer to? Book page 86.

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There are some verbs of position (wait, stay) of movement (go, leave, come back) that can either function as pure intransitives or be followed by a Locative/Goal Complement. The choice depends on the support given from the context, if the location or destination is not inferrable, a Cloc would be necessary. 9.7. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Book page 87. A Complement is required for the verb to complete its meaning. An Adjunct is commonly added, but not a requirement because the verb has sufficient weight in itself. 9.8. What is a copular verb? Types of copulas? Book page 88. Copular verbs link the subject with the complement which characterises or identifies the subject referent. The most prototypical verb is be.

Verbs of being: Are stative and introduce an existing attribute (be, remain, keep). Verbs of becoming: Are dynamic and introduce a resulting attribute (became, grow). Other linking verbs: Are normally used without a complement (fall, come, run), but can function as copulas with specific adjectives as Complement of the subject.

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MODULE 10: TRANSITIVE PATTERNS. 10.1. Difference between a monotransitive a ditransitive and a complex transitive pattern. Are there transitive and intransitive verbs? Book page 90-91. Monotransitive pattern contains a two-place verb (stay, carry) and have one object either Od or Op. Ditransitive pattern contains a three-place verb (give, blame) which semantically expresses situations with three participants encoded syntactically in the subject and two objects. Complex-transitive pattern has one Object and one Complement (appoint, name, find), therefore a 3 place verb. There are verbs used both transitively and intransitively:

Verbs with an implied object (smoke, drive). Causatives with an intransitive counterpart constituting an ergative pair (he clicked the camera the camera clicked). Verbs with a reflexive meaning (shave, dress) Verbs with reciprocal meaning (Tom and Rob met).

10.2. What is a three-place verb? What types are there? Book page 92. A three-place verb has a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods or information from one person to another. There are two main types:

Od followed by Oi. I gave her a present. Od followed by Op. It reminds me of you.

o o

Explain + NG + Op. He explained the problem. Wish + NG + NG. We wish you luck.

10.3. What difference is there between a Direct Object and a Prepositional Object? Book page 95. The Op is further away from the verb and less object-like. Like other Objects, encodes a participant that can be wh- questioned (either before the preposition or stranded). Who does he remind you of, Only the Od can become subject in a passive sentence. 10.4. What is the cognitive notion of frame? What relation is there with the notion of perspective and attention? Book page 96. The notion of frame allows us to conceptualise a situation from different perspectives, drawing on the cognitive ability to direct ones attention. For example, the sentence Tom bought some old CDs from Phil for twenty , is focused on the buyer. We can focus on the seller in Phil sold old CDs to Tom, on the goods in The old CDs cost Tom twenty , or on the cost, Tom spent twenty on some old CDs. 10.5. What difference is there between current and resulting attributes? Book page 97. An attribute is current when it is contemporaneous with the verb, and resulting when it is a result of the action denoted by it.

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MODULE 11: COMPLEMENTATION BY FINITE CLAUSES. 11.1. What element determines clausal complements? Book page 100. All clausal complements are determined by the verb. 11.2. What types of finite clauses are there? What are the main differences between them? Book page 100. That- clauses and wh- clauses are finite, having a subject, tense and modality. Toinfinitive clauses and -ing clauses are non-finite, and lack those distinctions. That- clauses are the largest group and are controlled by transitive verbs. They are classed according to communicative function and meaning. 11.3. When is the complementary that omitted? Book page 103. Omission of that is favoured by: When think or say is the main verb. When the subject refers to the same entity in the main clause and in the thatclause. When there is a pronoun as head of the that- clause. In informal spoken registers. 11.4. What is recursive embedding? Book page 105. A series of embedded clauses each within the previous one. I reminded him hed said hed find out about it. 11.5. What is a nominal relative clause? Book page 106. A nominal relative clause has a verb (advise, give, show, teach, tell) which represent factual information and can be distinguished by replacing the wh-word by a more general word such us the thing (He told me what I already knew the thing which I already knew). Most elements of clause structure can be realised by a subordinate clause functioning as a Subject, Object, or Complement. Such clauses are said to be embedded. The whole clause is the superordinate clause, while the main part is the matrix clause. MODULE 12: COMPLEMENTATION BY NON-FINITE CLAUSES. 12.1. What are catenative verbs? Book page 108. Catenative verbs are verbs that control a non-finite complement and can link recursively with other catenatives (We decided to rent a house near the sea). 12.2. What meanings are expressed by the different types of non-finite clauses? Book page 109.

V + to infinitive: evoke a potential situation. I want to go. V + NG + to- infinitive clause with subject. He wants us to go. V + NG + to infinitive. We asked him to stop. 12.3. What is a verb of retrospection? What type of clause does it control? Book page 112. A verb of retrospection marks a difference in relation to the main verb (ing: action mental process/ to: mental process - action). It is always followed by a verb of communication (I remembered to turn off the gas). 12.4. Name five major verb complementation patterns with examples.

1.

No complement + intransitive verbs. That dog bites.

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2. 3. 4. 5.

One One Two Two

complement + copular. This road is the M 40 complement + monotransitive verb. That dog bit me. complements + ditransitive verb. I gave Rob a copy. complements + complex transitive verb. I found it useful.

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UNIT 4: CONCEPTUALISING PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE. MODULE 13. CONCEPTUALISING EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED AS SITUATION TYPES. 13.1. Why is the clause the most significant grammatical unit? Book page 123. The clause is the grammatical means of encoding patterns of experience. Language enables us to conceptualise and describe our experience (actions, events, people and things to the external world of thoughts, feelings and perceptions). So, the clause enables us to organise our experience semantically and syntactically. 13.2. What is a process and how many types can be distinguished? Book page 123125. The process is the technical term for the action (hit, run), state (have) or change of state (freeze) involved.

Dynamic processes: Something happens, and they can be tested by the question What happened? Stative processes: Situations are durative over time, as existing rather than happening. Material processes: This are processes of doing (kick, run) or happening (fall, melt). Mental processes: Processes of experiencing or sensing (hear, feel, want, regret). Relational processes: Processes of being and becoming (seem, become, turn).

13.3. Major types of processes: dynamic and stative / material, mental and relational. (See above). 13.4. What types of roles are involved in a situation? Book page 124. A participant can be the one who carries out the action or the one who is affected by it. There are usually just one or two, at the most three. The primary role is the Agent/Subject, and after that we have the Attributes (to identify or characterise). The circumstantial role includes the known circumstances of time, place, manner and condition. 13.5. Actualised vs. unactualised participants. Book page 126. In Ted kicked the ball, both the inherent (natural of the processes) participants are actualized or present, Ted and the ball. If instead we said Ted kicked hard, only one participant, Ted is actualised, the second one is unactualised but understood.

MODULE 14: MATERIAL PROCESSES OF DOING AND HAPPENING. 14.1. The roles of agent, affected, involuntary and involuntary processes: which syntactic functions do they conflate with? Book page 128. Material processes express actions or activities which are typically carried out by the doer or agent, (typically human).

Agentive Subject of a voluntary process of doing. A voluntary one-participant process carried out by an Agent as a Subject operating in itself They all left. Affected participant in a voluntary process of doing. The action does not extend to the other participant, who is only affected Ted hit Bill. Affected Subject in a passive clause. Bill was hit by Ted.

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MODULE 15: CAUSATIVE PROCESSES. 15.1. What is an ergative pair? What conditions must it fulfill? Book page 134. When the affected object of a transitive clause is the same as the affected subject of an intransitive we have an ergative pair (I have burned the toast The toast has burned). It expresses a change of state with the second participant always involved. 15.2. What is an analytical causative with a resulting attribute? What syntactic realization does it have? Book page 134. It is a causative based on combination of verbs like make and turn. In this situation, an Agent brings about a change of state in the Affected participant. The resulting state is expressed in the Attribute (complement of the object). 15.3. What does a pseudo-intransitive express? Book page 135. It happens when a type of Affected Subject combines with certain processes (break, translate, tan) which are intrinsically transitive but in this construction behave as intransitive with an Affected subject. They differ from other intransitives: They express a general property or propensity. They tend to occur in the present tense. The verb is accompanied by a negation or an adverb such as easily, well or any. A course is implied but an Agent cant be added. There is no correspondent transitive construction.

Glass breaks easily. Colloquial language translates badly. This box doesnt shut properly.

MODULE 16. PROCESSES OF TRANSFER. 16.1. Which are the participants in a process of transfer? Book page 137. There are three participants in a process of transfer: Agent, Affected, and Recipient or Beneficiary. 16.2. What is the difference between a Recipient and a Beneficiary? Book page 138. Recipient is the one who usually receives the goods, permission or information. Beneficiary is the optional, non inherent participant for whom the service is done. Also, Recipient is central, Beneficiary optional. 16.3. Summary of process types. Book page 138. Participant Type Example The Prime Minister resigned. Ed kicked the ball. The volcano erupted. The dog died. Ed broke the glass. Glass breaks easily.

Agent doing (intrans) Agent + Affected doing (trans) Force doing (intrans) Affected happening Agent init + Affected/Med causative-transit Affected/Medium anti-causative

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Affected (+ opt Agent) passive The glass was broken (by Ed). Affected get- passive The glass got broken. Ag + Affected + Attribute analytical causative They made the road wider. Ag + Recipient + Affected transfer Ed gave the cat a bit of tuna.

MODULE 17. CONCEPTUALISING WHAT WE THINK, PERCEIVE AND FEEL. 17.1. What participants are there in a mental process of perception, cognition, affection and desideration? Book page 139. There is always a conscious participant, the Experiencer (who knows likes, etc.) and usually a second, the Phenomenon (what is liked, wanted, etc.) 17.2. Four major types of mental processes. Book page 139.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cognition. Know, understand, believe, forget, etc. Perception. See, notice, feel, taste. Affectivity. Like, love, admire, miss. Desideration. Hope, desire, wish. MODULE 18. RELATIONAL PROCESSES OF BEING AND BECOMING. 18.1. What is a relational process and what patterns of being are there? Book page 145. A relational process expresses the concept of being in a broad sense (Mount Blanc is...). There are two main patterns: the attributive (Mont Blanc is high) and the identifying (Mont Blanc is a mountain range). 18.2. Key features of the attributive pattern and the identifying pattern. Book page 145 Attributive characterises the entity as one of a class by a quality, a location or a type of possession (A mountain can be high, in the Alps, yours). Identifying it is reversible, identifies one entity in terms of another (Fred is the doorman The doorman is Fred.) 18.3. What difference is there between a current attribute and a resulting attribute? And between a circumstantial relational process and a possessive relational one? Book page 145. Attribute existing as the same time as the process is current (keep, remain, seem). Attribute existing as a result of the process is resulting (become, get, turn). Relational processes are the ones in which the circumstantial element is essential, not peripheral and the circumstance is encoded in the verb (The museum is around the corner). Possessive relational processes: Two participants, possessor and possessed and the notion of possession expressed by the Attribute (That is mine) or the Process (I have a new PC) MODULE 19. PROCESSES OF SAYING, BEHAVING AND EXISTING.

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19.1. What are verbal, behavioural and existential processes and their main structures? Book page 151. Verbal processes: They are processes of saying or communicating They have one participant typically human (the sayer) and a second essential Participant which is what is said. A recipient is required with tell and others. Behavioural processes: Borderline between mental processes and material processes (cough, sneeze, yawn, blink). Typically involuntary, but can be deliberate. There is usually one participant. Existential processes: They are processes of existing or happening (There is cereal for breakfast). The basic structure is unstressed there+be+NG. There is not considered a participant since it does not have semantic content. 19.2. What difference is there between a saying and a communicating verbal process? Book page 152. The saying can be anything which is put as a communicative signal, and communicating is what is said, and can be as a reported statement. MODULE 20. EXPRESSING ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES. 20.1. Major types of circumstantial elements. Book page 155.

1. Manner. Do it gently. 2. Instrument. Figo headed the ball into the goal. 3. Contingency. He is studying for a degree. 4. Accompaniment. Tom came as well as Paul. 5. Modality. It will probably be well received. 6. Degree. I completely forgot to bring my passport. 7. Role. Im speaking to you as a friend. 8. Matter. Is there any news of the missing seamen? 9. Evidence. As the saying goes no news is good news.
20.2. What is contingency? Book page 156. It covers meanings as cause (They are dying of hunger), purpose (The team is training to win), reason (He stopped because he was tired), concession (In spite of the delay we reached the concert hall in time), condition (Send a telegram if necessary), and behalf (Ill speak to the director on you behalf). 20.3. What difference is there between circumstance and range? Book page 158 Range is a participant (the nominal concept implied in the process, sing a song, play a game, run a race). The most common are the deverbal nominals complementing lexically light verbs (have a drink, give a push, take a drink)

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UNIT 5: INTERACTION BETWEEN SPEAKER AND HEARER: LINKING SPEECH ACTS AND GRAMMAR MODULE 22SPEECH ACTS AND CLAUSE TYPES 22.1. What is a speech act? Types of speech acts. Book page 177. Speech acts are the acts we perform through words. These are statements, questions, exclamations and directives. 22.2. Basic correspondences between clause types and speech acts. Book page 177. STATEMENT: EXCLAMATION: Declarative Exclamative. QUESTION: DIRECTIVE: Interrogative. Imperative.

22.3. What difference is there between direct speech acts and indirect speech acts? Book page 177. When a clause type is used to carry out the speech act is typically associated, it is a direct speech act, and it is said to have illocutionary force. When a clause type has any other but its typical function, we consider it an indirect speech act. 22.4. What is illocutionary force? Book page 178. The force is the speakers intended meaning. If the illocutionary force of a statement coincides with its typical function, it is a direct speech act (If a question wants an answer it is a direct speech act, however if it is a polite form of asking for something it is an indirect speech act).

MODULE 23 THE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES 23.1. What is the order of the subject and the finite in the five basic clause types? Book page 181. DECLARATIVE: Subject + Finite. Jane sings. INTERROGATIVE (yes/no): Finite + Subject. Does Jane sing? INTERROGATIVE (wh-): Wh- + Finite + Subject What does Jane sing? EXCLAMATIVE: Wh- + Subject + Finite How well Jane sings! IMPERATIVE: No Subject, base form verb. Sing! 23.2. Differences between abbreviated clauses, question tags and echo questions. Book page 180. Abbreviated: are independent ellipted clauses based on subj-operator and operatorsubject patterns. Question tags: are also abbreviated but not independent and include expressions such us right, OK. Echo questions: repeats all or part of the speakers previous utterance. 23.3. What is an alternative interrogative? Book page 185. It is an interrogative that chooses between two alternatives. 23.4. What is a double interrogative? Book page 186.

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A wh- interrogative embedded as a constituent of a polar interrogative (Do you know what time is it?) 23.5. What are the functions of question tags? Book page 187. Question tags are dependent clauses that require response (abbreviated yes or no interrogative). They are an important interrogative device in spoken English.

MODULE 24 THE EXCLAMATIVE AND IMPERATIVE CLAUSE TYPES 24.1. Structure of an exclamative clause. Book page 190. The exclamative starts with a wh- word or the degree adverb how, followed by the Subject + Finite ordering characteristic of the declarative. 24.2. What is the relation between imperatives and vocatives? Book page 191-192. The imperative consists of the base form of the verb with no Subject. Its unmarked function is to issue a directive. Vocatives can be understood as the missing or understood Subject of the imperative. 24.3. Structural features of the imperative, with attention to its verb. Book page 191-194. The verb in the imperative is the base form, so it is indistinguishable from declarative forms (except the third person singular, where it takes no s. In imperative, the verbs requires no Subject, uses the basic or base form (no mode or tense), and uses lets to form the first person plural. 24.4. Emphatic imperatives. Book page 194. They are used to emphasise second person imperatives (Do keep still!). 24.5. The relation between verbless clauses and freestanding subordinate clauses. Book page 195. Verbless clauses are clauses which lack one or more structural elements (Subject, Finite verb, etc.) They are characteristic of an ongoing conversation. Freestanding subordinate clauses are characteristic of the ongoing conversation too. They are not attached to a previous clause, and are used to reinforce or give the cause (common types are relative clauses introduced by which or because). 24.6. What is the subjunctive? Is there subjunctive in English? Book page 196. Subjunctive is a verb form that plays a very marginal role in British English (more common in American). It can express wish, and as a mood is very rarely used, and substituted for other kinds of constructions nowadays. MODULE 25 INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS 25.1. The difference between clause types and speech act functions. Book page 197. There is no direct correspondence between clause types (declarative, exclamative, imperative), speech acts (issue an order), and functions, because the function depends on the meaning. 25.2. The transferred negation of explicit performatives. Book page 199.

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With some performative verbs (advise, think) we have transferred negation, with the not transferred from the logical place to the main clause (I dont think she was a Londoner). 25.3. Different ways to form an exclamation. Book page 200.

Using Using Using Using Using

an interrogative. a declarative. an imperative. a verbless clause. a nominal group.

Isnt it a lovely day? You must be joking. Fancy meeting you here! What an idiot! The trouble Ive had with him!

MODULE 26 QUESTIONS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS 26.1. The use of assertive/non assertive elements in biased questions. Book page 202-203 If the speaker has a neutral assumption, non assertive forms will be added (Do you know anyone in London?) With a positive assumption assertive forms will be added (Do you know someone in London?) 26.2. What are queclaratives? Book page 203. Declaratives used to seek confirmation in a tactful way, or leading questions such as You are seeing her? You dont mind if I stay? are queclaratives.

MODULE 27 DIRECTIVES: GETTING PEOPLE TO CARRY OUT ACTIONS 27.1. What ways are there to produce directives? Book page 205-212.

With With With With

imperatives Lets. a modal interrogative (could, would) a declarative.

27.2. How does a speaker convey politeness to a directive? Book page 207. The more optional the act appears, the more polite. We can use a modal tag after an imperative, such as cloud you? or Will you?. 27.3. The relation between indirectness, impoliteness and confrontation. Book page 209. Indirectness is used everyday in spoken English as implicit meaning is. Sometimes, impoliteness can represent a form of solidarity. Confrontations can be full of indirectness and implicit meanings.

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UNIT 6: ORGANISING THE MESSAGE. THEMATIC AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE MODULE 28: THEME. THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE MESSAGE 28.1. What are the three main dimensions of textual meaning? Book page 222. Theme Rheme structure and its relation to Topic. Order of constituents in the clause. Distribution of focus and information.

28.2. What is the thematic structure of a clause? What are theme and Rheme? Book page 223. Theme and Rheme are two components that make up the organisational construct of the clause. Theme (first) is the clause constituent selected to be the point of departure of the clause as message (initial position). Rheme says something in relation to it. Typically, important new information is presented in the Rheme. 28.3. What is marked/unmarked theme? Where are they in declarative and nondeclarative clauses? Book page 224-225. The natural order in the clause has Subject as Theme and this normal order is the UNMARKED Theme. Any other will mean the Theme is marked.

o o o o

In declarative clauses the order is Subject + Predicate, so Theme will be Subject. In yes/no interrogatives unmarked Theme is the Finite operator. In wh- interrogatives unmarked Theme is the wh- word. In second person imperatives, Theme is the verb.

28.4. What is topic (and both global topic and local topic)? Book page 225. TOPIC is the discourse category which corresponds to what the text is about. GLOBAL TOPIC is the topic which coherently organizes a whole piece of language. LOCAL TOPICS are the topics of utterances and sentences. 28.5. Give examples of common and less common Thematisations in declarative clauses. Book page 230.

Thematisation of circumstantial adjunct. Its the most common. In London last year, we did a lot of sight seeing. Thematisation of objects and complements. Irish you ordered, and Irish youve got. Thematisation of negative adverbs. Never before has the IRA acknowledged it. Thematisation of negative object. Nobody could remember a thing. Thematisation of adverb + verb of motion. Then came the Norman Conquest. Thematisation of detached predicatives. A Saxon princess, she was born near London.

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MODULE 29: THE DISTRIBUTION AND FOCUS OF INFORMATION 29.1. What is an information unit, how are they realised and represented in speech? Book page 238. Messages are divided into chunks called information units, represented prosodically into tone units. 29.2. What is focus of information? Book page 239. Each intonation unit has a series of stressed and unstressed syllables, and always one tonic signalled by tonic prominence to mark the focus of information, which is the point of the unit informationally in focus. 29.3. Given and new information, what do they convey? Book page 240. The given information is the information that the speaker presents as recoverable by the hearer. The new element is concerned with information not recoverable (new). 29.4. The difference between marked (end-) focus vs. unmarked (end-) focus. Book page 241. The unmarked distribution starts with the Given and proceeds towards the New. This is called the principle of end-focus. The neutral position for information focus is then towards the end, this means unmarked (end-) focus, when it falls in the last non-anaphoric lexical item or name in the clause. This usually means that almost the whole clause or just one part may be new. Marked focus occurs when the tonic is placed on any other syllable, used for the purpose of contrasting. 29.5. What difference is there between textual and situational ellipsis? When do they occur? Book page 243. Textual ellipsis (leaving out recoverable elements) occurs when an item can be recovered from the linguistic co-text, and it occurs when two consecutive clauses have elements in common. Situational ellipsis is when the information can be recoverable from the social context, and it occurs when conversation in writing imitates speech (See you soon Ill ellipted).

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MODULE 30: THE INTERPLAY OF THEME-RHEME AND GIVEN-NEW 30.1. What is the interplay between the Theme-Rheme thematic structure and the Given-New information structure? The three basic types of thematic progression. Book page 246. The unmarked relation between them is for Given to coincide with the Theme and New information to be part of the Rheme.

Simple linear progression. Something introduced as new in the Rheme of the first clause is the Theme of the second. Continuous progression. The same Theme is maintained across a series of coordinated clauses each with its own Rheme and new information. Derived progression. A different number of Theme-Rheme structures, all related to a hyper-theme or global topic.

A fourth type will be the split Rheme, a combination of the first two. 30.2. What does Thematisation and clefting consist of? What is the difference between them? Book page 246. Thematisation or Thematic fronting is the bringing of an element to the initial position in order to focus on it. In clefting we reorganize the content of a clause in two parts to focus in one element, the New, which always follows the verb be. There are two kinds, it cleft and wh-cleft (Its money what they need What they need is money.) 30.3. End-focus, end-weight and informativeness, and the connection between them. Book page 254. A clause not marked is end-focused, so we use the principle of end-weight, putting shortest first longest last. So the information which is new and needs to be more detailed is placed at the end of the sentence. 30.4. Extraposition and postponement of clauses. What do they involve and convey? Book page 260. Some types of long subject clauses are avoided in English because they violate the endweight principle and sound awkward. Finite that-clauses, wh-nominal clauses and to-infinitive clauses can be shifted to the end of the sentence and replaced by anticipatory it in subject position. This is extrapositon and it is often used to express an opinion (It is a nuisance that banks are closed on Saturdays). To avoid the awkwardness of having long, heavy units to the left of the main verb (The time will come when no-one will write by hand anymore) we put it to its right, and this is postponement normally used to re-place the focus.

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INDEX
Basic Points Summary.....................................................................................................................................................1 UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS..........................................................................................................................................3 MODULE 1: LANGUAGE AND MEANING................................................................................................................3 1.1. What is a speech act? Book page. 3...................................................................................................................3 1.2. Can you name ten types of speech acts? Book page. 4......................................................................................3 1.3. What is a situation or state of affairs? Book page. 4.........................................................................................3 1.4. What functions or semantic roles can be distinguished in a communicative act? Book page. 5.......................3 1.5. What difference is there between interpersonal, representational and textual meaning? Book page. 5............3 1.6. What is the difference between transitivity structures, mood structures and thematic structures? Book page. 5................................................................................................................................................................................3 MODULES 2: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS......................................................................4 2.1. What is a unit? What is a rank? What is an element? Book page. 11................................................................4 2.2. Name four main types of structural units. Book page. 11.................................................................................4 2.3. Differences between finite and non-finite clause, independent and dependent clause, a supplementive unit, a verbless clause, and an abbreviated clause? Book page. 12-15................................................................................4 2.4. What is a finite dependent clause? Major classes. Book page 14. ....................................................................4 2.5. Main classes of groups and words. Book page 16.............................................................................................4 2.6. What is the difference between a morpheme and a morph? Book page 16.......................................................5 2.7. Clause elements within common clause structures. Book page 17...................................................................5 2.8. The main syntactic elements of groups. Book page 18.....................................................................................5 2.9. What is the relationship between componence and realization? Book page 19................................................5 MODULE 3: NEGATION AND EXPANSION..............................................................................................................7 3.1. What is a finite operator used for? Book page. 21.............................................................................................7 3.2. How many types are there? Book page. 21.......................................................................................................7 3.3. What ways are there of negating a clause? Book page. 22-23..........................................................................7 3.4. Assertive vs. non-assertive words. Book page 24.............................................................................................7 3.5. Local and transferred negation. Book page 25..................................................................................................7 3.6. What are coordination, subordination and embedding? Book page. 26. ..........................................................7 UNIT 2: THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE.........................................................................................................8 MODULE 4: SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE. .....................................................8 4.1. What is the basic structure of a single independent clause? Book page 35. .....................................................8 4.2. The predicate: objects, complements and adjuncts. Concept and main types. Book page. 34-35.....................8 4.3. What elements determine the number and type of objects and complements in a clause? Book page 37. ......8 4.4. What is a locative/goal? Book page 37..............................................................................................................8 4.5. What are the four criteria for the classification of clause functions? Book page 37-38....................................8 4.6. What is the correspondence between classes of unit and syntactic function? Book page 40. ..........................8 MODULE 5: SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR............................................................................................................10 5.1. What are the key syntactic, semantic and cognitive features of the subject? What are the main participant roles that can be associated to it? Book page. 42-43. ............................................................................................10 5.2. List all the syntactic features of the subject. Book page. 43............................................................................10 5.3. Which classes of groups and clauses can realize a subject? Book page 44-47. ..........................................10 5.4. What is a predicator? Book page 48-49...........................................................................................................10 5.5. What types of verbs can realise this function? Book page 48-49....................................................................10 5.6. What types of processes are encoded by the predicator? Book page 48-49....................................................10 MODULE 6: DIRECT, INDIRECT, AND PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT.....................................................................11 6.1. Key syntactic and semantic features of the direct object. Book page 50.........................................................11 6.2. Key syntactic and semantic features of the indirect object. Book page 55.....................................................11 6.3. What difference is there between an indirect object and a prepositional object? Book page 56.....................11 6.4. Three main types of prepositional verbs. Book page 57..................................................................................11 6.5. When is a preposition stranded? What happens in passive structures? Book page 57 ...................................11

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6.6. What is the difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs? Book page 61. .........................................11 6.7. What are phrasal-prepositional verbs? Book page 62.....................................................................................11 MODULE 7: SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS........................................................................................13 7.1. What are the key differences between Subject Complement and Object Complement? Book page. 64-68.. .13 7.2. What groups and classes prototypically realise each constituent? Book page. 64-68.....................................13 MODULE 8: ADJUNCTS...........................................................................................................................................13 8.1. What is an adjunct? Book page. 69..................................................................................................................13 8.2. What three main types are according to their function? What are the main differences between them? Book page. 70...................................................................................................................................................................13 8.3. When does a circumstantial function as a central clause element? Book page 71..........................................13 8.4. What is a discourse marker? Book page 75.....................................................................................................13 UNIT 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MESSAGE.............................................................................................14 MODULE 9: INTRANSITIVE AND COPULAR PATTERNS. ...................................................................................14 9.1. What does the term complementation of the verb refer to? Which elements are determined by the verb? Book page. 83. .......................................................................................................................................................14 9.2. Name the three types of complementation and any subtypes there are. Book page 83. .................................14 9.3. What is semantic valency? Book page 83. .....................................................................................................14 9.4. What are the different types of intransitive verbs? Book page. 85..................................................................14 9.5. What is a locative complement? Book page 86...............................................................................................14 9.6. What does the locution pragmatic inference of circumstantial meaning refer to? Book page 86................14 9.7. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Book page 87...............................................15 9.8. What is a copular verb? Types of copulas? Book page 88..............................................................................15 MODULE 10: TRANSITIVE PATTERNS. .................................................................................................................16 10.1. Difference between a monotransitive a ditransitive and a complex transitive pattern. Are there transitive and intransitive verbs? Book page 90-91................................................................................................................16 10.2. What is a three-place verb? What types are there? Book page 92.................................................................16 10.3. What difference is there between a Direct Object and a Prepositional Object? Book page 95.....................16 10.4. What is the cognitive notion of frame? What relation is there with the notion of perspective and attention? Book page 96......................................................................................................................................16 10.5. What difference is there between current and resulting attributes? Book page 97........................................16 MODULE 11: COMPLEMENTATION BY FINITE CLAUSES..................................................................................17 11.1. What element determines clausal complements? Book page 100. ...............................................................17 11.2. What types of finite clauses are there? What are the main differences between them? Book page 100.......17 11.3. When is the complementary that omitted? Book page 103........................................................................17 11.4. What is recursive embedding? Book page 105..............................................................................................17 11.5. What is a nominal relative clause? Book page 106. .....................................................................................17 MODULE 12: COMPLEMENTATION BY NON-FINITE CLAUSES. ......................................................................17 12.1. What are catenative verbs? Book page 108...................................................................................................17 12.2. What meanings are expressed by the different types of non-finite clauses? Book page 109........................17 12.3. What is a verb of retrospection? What type of clause does it control? Book page 112................................17 12.4. Name five major verb complementation patterns with examples. ................................................................17 UNIT 4: CONCEPTUALISING PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE...........................................................................19 MODULE 13. CONCEPTUALISING EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED AS SITUATION TYPES. ...............................19 13.1. Why is the clause the most significant grammatical unit? Book page 123. .................................................19 13.2. What is a process and how many types can be distinguished? Book page 123-125.....................................19 13.3. Major types of processes: dynamic and stative / material, mental and relational. (See above)....................19 13.4. What types of roles are involved in a situation? Book page 124...................................................................19 13.5. Actualised vs. unactualised participants. Book page 126..............................................................................19 MODULE 14: MATERIAL PROCESSES OF DOING AND HAPPENING...............................................................19 14.1. The roles of agent, affected, involuntary and involuntary processes: which syntactic functions do they conflate with? Book page 128. ..............................................................................................................................19 MODULE 15: CAUSATIVE PROCESSES..................................................................................................................20 15.1. What is an ergative pair? What conditions must it fulfill? Book page 134...................................................20

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15.2. What is an analytical causative with a resulting attribute? What syntactic realization does it have? Book page 134..................................................................................................................................................................20 15.3. What does a pseudo-intransitive express? Book page 135............................................................................20 MODULE 16. PROCESSES OF TRANSFER.............................................................................................................20 16.1. Which are the participants in a process of transfer? Book page 137. ...........................................................20 16.2. What is the difference between a Recipient and a Beneficiary? Book page 138..........................................20 16.3. Summary of process types. Book page 138...................................................................................................20 MODULE 17. CONCEPTUALISING WHAT WE THINK, PERCEIVE AND FEEL..................................................21 17.1. What participants are there in a mental process of perception, cognition, affection and desideration? Book page 139..................................................................................................................................................................21 17.2. Four major types of mental processes. Book page 139.................................................................................21 MODULE 18. RELATIONAL PROCESSES OF BEING AND BECOMING. ............................................................21 18.1. What is a relational process and what patterns of being are there? Book page 145......................................21 18.2. Key features of the attributive pattern and the identifying pattern. Book page 145......................................21 18.3. What difference is there between a current attribute and a resulting attribute? And between a circumstantial relational process and a possessive relational one? Book page 145.......................................................................21 MODULE 19. PROCESSES OF SAYING, BEHAVING AND EXISTING..................................................................21 19.1. What are verbal, behavioural and existential processes and their main structures? Book page 151.............22 19.2. What difference is there between a saying and a communicating verbal process? Book page 152..............22 MODULE 20. EXPRESSING ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES. ............................................................................22 20.1. Major types of circumstantial elements. Book page 155...............................................................................22 20.2. What is contingency? Book page 156...........................................................................................................22 20.3. What difference is there between circumstance and range? Book page 158.................................................22 UNIT 5: INTERACTION BETWEEN SPEAKER AND HEARER: LINKING SPEECH ACTS AND GRAMMAR....................................................................................................................................................................23 MODULE 22SPEECH ACTS AND CLAUSE TYPES.............................................................................................23 22.1. What is a speech act? Types of speech acts. Book page 177.........................................................................23 22.2. Basic correspondences between clause types and speech acts. Book page 177............................................23 22.3. What difference is there between direct speech acts and indirect speech acts? Book page 177...................23 22.4. What is illocutionary force? Book page 178.................................................................................................23 MODULE 23 THE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES..............................................................23 23.1. What is the order of the subject and the finite in the five basic clause types? Book page 181.....................23 23.2. Differences between abbreviated clauses, question tags and echo questions. Book page 180......................23 23.3. What is an alternative interrogative? Book page 185....................................................................................23 23.4. What is a double interrogative? Book page 186............................................................................................23 23.5. What are the functions of question tags? Book page 187..............................................................................24 MODULE 24 THE EXCLAMATIVE AND IMPERATIVE CLAUSE TYPES...........................................................24 24.1. Structure of an exclamative clause. Book page 190......................................................................................24 24.2. What is the relation between imperatives and vocatives? Book page 191-192.............................................24 24.3. Structural features of the imperative, with attention to its verb. Book page 191-194...................................24 24.4. Emphatic imperatives. Book page 194..........................................................................................................24 24.5. The relation between verbless clauses and freestanding subordinate clauses. Book page 195.....................24 24.6. What is the subjunctive? Is there subjunctive in English? Book page 196...................................................24 MODULE 25 INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS............................24 25.1. The difference between clause types and speech act functions. Book page 197...........................................24 25.2. The transferred negation of explicit performatives. Book page 199.............................................................24 25.3. Different ways to form an exclamation. Book page 200...............................................................................25 MODULE 26 QUESTIONS, CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS..................................................25 26.1. The use of assertive/nonassertive elements in biased questions. Book page 202-203..............................25 26.2. What are queclaratives? Book page 203........................................................................................................25 MODULE 27 DIRECTIVES: GETTING PEOPLE TO CARRY OUT ACTIONS....................................................25 27.1. What ways are there to produce directives? Book page 205-212.................................................................25 27.2. How does a speaker convey politeness to a directive? Book page 207.........................................................25

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27.3. The relation between indirectness, impoliteness and confrontation. Book page 209....................................25 UNIT 6: ORGANISING THE MESSAGE. THEMATIC AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE..........................................................................................................................................................................27 MODULE 28: THEME. THE POINT OF DEPARTURE OF THE MESSAGE..........................................................27 28.1. What are the three main dimensions of textual meaning? Book page 222....................................................27 28.2. What is the thematic structure of a clause? What are theme and Rheme? Book page 223...........................27 28.3. What is marked/unmarked theme? Where are they in declarative and non-declarative clauses? Book page 224-225...................................................................................................................................................................27 28.4. What is topic (and both global topic and local topic)? Book page 225.........................................................27 28.5. Give examples of common and less common Thematisations in declarative clauses. Book page 230.........27 MODULE 29: THE DISTRIBUTION AND FOCUS OF INFORMATION.................................................................28 29.1. What is an information unit, how are they realised and represented in speech? Book page 238..................28 29.2. What is focus of information? Book page 239..............................................................................................28 29.3. Given and new information, what do they convey? Book page 240.............................................................28 29.4. The difference between marked (end-) focus vs. unmarked (end-) focus. Book page 241...........................28 29.5. What difference is there between textual and situational ellipsis? When do they occur? Book page 243....28 MODULE 30: THE INTERPLAY OF THEME-RHEME AND GIVEN-NEW.............................................................29 30.1. What is the interplay between the Theme-Rheme thematic structure and the Given-New information structure? The three basic types of thematic progression. Book page 246.............................................................29 30.2. What does Thematisation and clefting consist of? What is the difference between them? Book page 246..29 30.3. End-focus, end-weight and informativeness, and the connection between them. Book page 254................29 30.4. Extraposition and postponement of clauses. What do they involve and convey? Book page 260................29 INDEX.............................................................................................................................................................................30

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