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The Ultimate Resource Guide for Using Infrared in the Research and Development Industry
BOSTON FLIR Systems, Inc. 9 Townsend West Nashua, NH 03063 USA PH: +1 866.477.3687 PH: +1 603.324.7600 www.flir.com NASDAQ: FLIR
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Equipment described herein may require US Government authorization for export purposes. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited. Imagery for illustration purposes only. Specifications are subject to change without notice. 2012 FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. (Rev. 12 /12)
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Contents
IR Thermography How It Works IR Detectors For Thermographic Imaging Getting The Most From Your IR Camera Filters Extend IR Camera Usefulness Ultra High-Speed Thermography Cameras & Lenses 4 7 11 18 23 26
The thoughts, ideas, opinions, and recommendations expressed in this book are intended for informational purposes only. FLIR accepts no liability for actions taken by readers in their individual businesses or circumstances. Published by FLIR Systems Incorporated This booklet may not be reproduced in any form without the permission in writing from FLIR Systems, Inc. www.FLIR.com 1 866.477.3687 2012 FLIR Systems Inc. All rights reserved.
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Chapter 1
IR Spectrum Considerations
Typically, IR cameras are designed and calibrated for a specific range of the IR spectrum. This means that the optics and detector materials must be selected for the desired range. Figure 2 illustrates the spectral response regions for various detector materials. Because IR has the same properties as visible light regarding reflection, refraction, and transmission, the optics for thermal cameras are designed in a fashion similar to those of a visual wavelength camera. However, the types of glass used in optics for visible light cameras cannot be used for optics in an infrared camera, as they do not transmit IR wavelengths well enough. Conversely, materials that are transparent to IR are often opaque to visible light. IR camera lenses typically use silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) materials. Normally Si is used for MWIR (medium wavelength IR) camera systems, whereas Ge is used in LW (long wavelength) cameras. Si and Ge have good mechanical properties, i.e., they do not break easily, they are non-hygroscopic, and they can be formed into lenses with modern turning methods. As in visible light cameras, IR camera lenses have antireflective coatings. With proper design, IR camera lenses can transmit close to 100% of incident radiation.
IR In
NIR MWIR LWIR
User Control Video Output Digital Output Synchronization In/Out System Status
User Interface
IR camera construction is similar to a digital video camera. The main components are a lens that focuses IR onto a detector, plus electronics and software for processing and displaying the signals and images. Instead of a charge coupled device that video and digital still cameras use, the IR camera detector is a focal plane array (FPA) of micrometer size pixels made of various materials sensitive to IR wavelengths. FPA resolution can range from about 160 120 pixels up to 1024 1024 pixels. Certain IR cameras have built-in software that allows the user to focus on specific areas of the FPA and calculate the temperature. Other systems utilized a computer or data system with specialized software that provides temperature analysis. Both methods can supply temperature analysis with better than 1C precision. FPA detector technologies are broken down into two categories: thermal detectors and quantum detectors. A common type of thermal detector is an uncooled microbolometer made of a metal or semiconductor material. These typically have lower cost and a broader IR spectral response than quantum detectors. Still, microbolometers react to incident radiant energy and are much slower and less sensitive than quantum detectors. Quantum detectors are made from materials such as InSb, InGaAs, PtSi, HgCdTe (MCT), and layered GaAs/AlGaAs for QWIP (Quantum Well Infrared Photon) detectors. The operation of a quantum detector is based on the change of state of electrons in a crystal structure reacting to incident photons. These detectors are generally faster and more sensitive than thermal detectors. However, they require cooling, sometimes down to cryogenic temperatures using liquid nitrogen or a small Stirling cycle refrigerator unit.
LWIR 14.0m
Figure 2. Examples of detector materials and their spectral responses relative to IR midwave (MW) and longwave (LW) bands
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The coefficients a , r, and t describe the objects incident energy absorbtion (a), reflection (r), and transmission (t). Each coefficient can have a value from zero to one, depending on how well an object absorbs, reflects, or transmits incident radiation. For example, if r = 0, t = 0, and a = 1, then there is no reflected or transmitted radiation, and 100% of incident radiation is absorbed. This is called a perfect blackbody. In the real world there are no objects that are perfect absorbers, reflectors, or transmitters, although some may come very close to one of these properties. Nonetheless, the concept of a perfect blackbody is very important in the science of thermography, because it is the foundation for relating IR radiation to an objects temperature. Fundamentally, a perfect blackbody is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiant energy. This concept is stated mathematical as Kirchhoffs Law. The radiative properties of a body are denoted by the symbol e , the emittance or emissivity of the body. Kirchhoffs law states that a = e , and since both values vary with the radiation wavelength, the formula can take the form a (l) = e (l), where l denotes the wavelength. The total radiation law can thus take the mathematical form 1 = e + r + t, which for an opaque body (t = 0) can be simplified to 1 = e + r or r = 1 e (i.e., reflection = 1 emissivity). Since a perfect blackbody is a perfect absorber, r = 0 and e = 1. The radiative properties of a perfect blackbody can also be described mathematically by Plancks Law. Since this has a complex mathematical formula, and is a function of temperature and radiation wavelength, a blackbodys radiative properties are usually shown as a series of curves (Figure 3).
4.50
T-1000C
These curves show the radiation per wavelength unit and area unit, called the spectral radiant emittance of the blackbody. The higher the temperature, the more intense the emitted radiation. However, each emittance curve has a distinct maximum value at a certain wavelength. This maximum can be calculated from Wiens displacement law,
l max = 2898/T,
where T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody, measured in Kelvin (K), and l max is the wavelength at the maximum intensity. Using blackbody emittance curves, one can find that an object at 30C has a maximum near 10m, whereas an object at 1000C has a radiant intensity with a maximum of near 2.3m. The latter has a maximum spectral radiant emittance about 1,400 times higher than a blackbody at 30C, with a considerable portion of the radiation in the visible spectrum. From Plancks law, the total radiated energy from a blackbody can be calculated. This is expressed by a formula known as the StefanBolzmann law, W = T4 (W/m2), where is the Stefan-Bolzmanns constant (5.67 10 8 W/m2K4). As an example, a human being with a normal temperature (about 300 K) will radiate about 500W/m2 of effective body surface. As a rule of thumb, the effective body surface is 1m2, and radiates about 0.5kWa substantial heat loss. The equations described in this section provide important relationships between emitted radiation and temperature of a perfect blackbody. Since most objects of interest to thermographers are not perfect blackbodies, there needs to be some way for an IR camera to graph the temperature of a normal object.
Emissivity
The radiative properties of objects are usually described in relation to a perfect blackbody (the perfect emitter). If the emitted energy from a blackbody is denoted as Wbb, and that of a normal object at the same temperature as Wobj, then the ratio between these two values describes the emissivity (e) of the object,
T-700C T-600C T-500C
4.00
3.50
3.00
T-900C
2.50
2.00
T-800C
e = Wobj / Wbb.
T-400C T-300C
1.50
1.00
0.50
T-200C
0.00
Thus, emissivity is a number between 0 and 1. The better the radiative properties of the object, the higher its emissivity. An object that has the same emissivity e for all wavelengths is called a greybody. Consequently, for a greybody, Stefan-Bolzmanns law takes the form
13 14 15
Visible light
10
11
12
W = eT4 (W/m2), which states that the total emissive power of a greybody is the same as that of a blackbody of the same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of e for the object. Still, most bodies are neither blackbodies nor greybodies. The emissivity varies with wavelength. As thermography operates only inside limited spectral ranges, in practice it is often possible to
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Chapter 1
treat objects as greybodies. In any case, an object having emittance that varies strongly with wavelength is called a selective radiator. For example, glass is a very selective radiator, behaving almost like a blackbody for certain wavelengths, whereas it is rather the opposite for other wavelengths.
Temperature Measurements
The radiation that impinges on the IR camera lens comes from three different sources. The camera receives radiation from the target object, plus radiation from its surroundings that has been reflected onto the objects surface. Both of these radiation components become attenuated when they pass through the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere absorbs part of the radiation, it will also radiate some itself (Kirchhoffs law). Given this situation, we can derive a formula for the calculation of the objects temperature from a calibrated cameras output. 1. Emission from the object = e t Wobj, where e is the emissivity of the object and t is the transmittance of the atmosphere. 2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 e) t Wamb , where (1 e) is the reflectance of the object. (It is assumed that the temperature Tamb is the same for all emitting surfaces within the half sphere seen from a point on the objects surface.) 3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 t) Watm , where (1 t) is the emissivity of the atmosphere. The total radiation power received by the camera can now be written: W tot = e t Wobj + (1 e) t Wamb + (1 t) Watm , where e is the object emissivity, t is the transmission through the atmosphere, Tamb is the (effective) temperature of the objects surroundings, or the reflected ambient (background) temperature, and Tatm is the temperature of the atmosphere. To arrive at the correct target object temperature, IR camera software requires inputs for the emissivity of the object, atmospheric attenuation and temperature, and temperature of the ambient surroundings. Depending on circumstances, these factors may be measured, assumed, or found from look-up tables.
Atmospheric Influence
Between the object and the thermal camera is the atmosphere, which tends to attenuate radiation due to absorption by gases and scattering by particles. The amount of attenuation depends heavily on radiation wavelength. Although the atmosphere usually transmits visible light very well, fog, clouds, rain, and snow can prevent us from seeing distant objects. The same principle applies to infrared radiation. For thermographic measurement we must use the so-called atmospheric windows. As can be seen from Figure 4, they can be found between 2 and 5m, the mid-wave windows, and 7.513.5m, the long-wave window. Atmospheric attenuation prevents an objects total radiation from reaching the camera. If no correction for attenuation is applied, the measured apparent temperature will be lower and lower with increased distance. IR camera software corrects for atmospheric attenuation. Typically, LW cameras in the 7.513.5m range work well anywhere that atmospheric attenuation is involved, because the atmosphere tends to act as a high-pass filter above 7.5m (Figure 4). The MW band of 35m tends to be employed with highly sensitive detectors for high-end R&D and military applications. When acquiring a signal through the atmosphere with MW cameras, selected transmission bands must be used where less attenuation takes place.
Figure 4. Atmospheric attenuation (white areas) with a chart of the gases and water vapor causing most of it. The areas under the curve represent the highest IR transmission.
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Chapter 2
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EA ID PH L EA ID
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1010
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26K :Hg Ge
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10 9
10 9
QWIP
10 8
1.0
6 7 8 9 10
15
20 25 30
40
10 8
1.0
6 7 8 9 10
15
20 25 30
40
Wavelength (m)
Wavelength (m)
For more demanding applications, quantum detectors are used, which operate on the basis of an intrinsic photoelectric effect. These materials respond to IR by absorbing photons that elevate the materials electrons to a higher energy state, causing a change in conductivity, voltage, or current. By cooling these detectors to cryogenic temperatures, they can be very sensitive to the IR that is focused on them. They also react very quickly to changes in IR levels (i.e., temperatures), having a constant response time on the order of 1s. Therefore, a camera with this type of detector is very useful in recording transient thermal events. Still, quantum detectors have response curves with detectivity that varies strongly with wavelength (Figure 2). Table 1 lists some of the most commonly used detectors in todays IR cameras.
IR In
NIR MWIR LWIR
User Control Video Output Digital Output Synchronization In/Out System Status
User Interface
Detector Material
Type/
Operation Broadband detector SW photon detector LW photon detector MW photon detector MW photon detector LW photon detector
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Chapter 2
Cooling Methods
The first detectors used in infrared radiometric instruments were cooled with liquid nitrogen. The detector was attached to the Dewar flask that held the liquid nitrogen, thus keeping the detector at a very stable and low temperature (196C). Later, other cooling methods were developed. The first solidstate solution to the cooling problem was presented by AGEMA in 1986, when it introduced a Peltier effect cooler for a commercial IR camera. In a Peltier cooler, DC current is forced through a thermoelectric material, removing heat from one junction and creating a cold side and a hot side. The hot side is connected to a heat sink, whereas the cold side cools the component attached to it. See Figures 4 and 5. For very demanding applications, where the highest possible sensitivity was needed, an electrical solution to cryogenic cooling was developed. This resulted in the Stirling cooler. Only in the last 15 to 20 years were manufacturers able to extend the life of Stirling coolers to 8,000 hours or more, which is sufficient for use in thermal cameras. The Stirling process removes heat from the cold finger (Figure 6) and dissipates it at the warm side. The efficiency of this type of cooler is relatively low, but good enough for cooling an IR camera detector. Regardless of the cooling method, the detector focal plane is attached to the cold side of the cooler in a way that allows efficient conductive heat exchange. Because focal plane arrays are small, the attachment area and the cooler itself can be relatively small.
Cold side Copper Thermoelectrical material
Warm side + DC
Figure 4. Single stage Peltier cooler
Mounting plate
IR detector
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Figure 6. Integrated Stirling cooler, working with helium gas, cooling down to 196C or sometimes even lower temperatures
Figure 8. QWIP FPA mounted on a ceramics substrate and bonded to external electronics
Radiation
+20C
+20C
Figure 9. To normalize different FPA detector gains and offsets, the first correction step is offset compensation. This brings each detector response within the dynamic range of the cameras A/D converter electronics.
Signal
Signal
Second correction
+20C
+20C
Signal
Signal
After NUC
Radiation
+20C
+20C
Figure 11. After gain factors are brought to the same value, nonuniformity correction (NUC) is applied so that all detectors have essentially the same electronic characteristics.
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Chapter 2
Application Criteria
As indicated earlier, different types of detectors have different thermal and spectral sensitivities. In addition, they have different cost structures due to various degrees of manufacturability. Where they otherwise fit the application, photon detectors such as InSb and QWIP types offer a number of advantages: High thermal sensitivity High uniformity of the detectors, i.e., very low fixed pattern noise There is a degree of selectability in their spectral sensitivity High yield in the production process Relatively low cost They are resistant to high temperatures and high radiation They produce very good image quality Camera electronics can handle wide variations in absolute detector sensitivities. For example, high sensitivity that might saturate a detector at high thermal intensities can be handled by aperture control and neutral density filters. Both of these solutions can reduce the radiant energy impinging on the FPA. Price aside, spectral sensitivity is often an overriding concern in selecting a detector and camera for a specific application. Once a detector is selected, lens material and filters can be selected to somewhat alter the overall response characteristics of an IR camera system. Figure 13 shows the system response for a number of different detectors.
Figure 12. IR image from a 1024 1024 InSb detector camera
Relative sensitivity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Wavelength [m] 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 InGaAs InSb VisGaAs MCT-SW Microbolometer QWIP
MCT-LW
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Chapter 3
Given the radiance and area of an object, radiant intensity can be calculated. Knowing total radiant intensity of a target gives a radiometric analyst the ability to model the irradiance generated by the target over various geometric and atmospheric conditions. The relationship between spectral bands of interest can be much easier to determine if you are working within radiometric units. The comparison between different objects in radiometric terms tends to have less uncertainty because emissivity is not a concern. (One still needs to consider atmospheric and spectral bandpass effects.) One can typically convert a radiometric signature from radiance to effective blackbody temperature given a few assumptions or ancillary measurement data. It tends to be more difficult to go from temperature to radiance.
1. The target object has a certain energy signature that is collected by the IR camera through its lens. 2. This involves the collection of photons in the case of a photon detector, or collection of heat energy with a thermal detector, such as a microbolometer. 3. The collected energy causes the detector to produce a signal voltage that results in a digital count through the systems A/D converter. (For example, a FLIR ThermoVision SC6000 IR camera has a 14-bit dynamic range in its A/D converter, which creates count values ranging from 016,383. The more IR energy incident on the cameras detector (within its spectral band), the higher the digital count.) 4. When the camera is properly calibrated, digital counts are transformed into radiance values. 5. Finally, the calibrated cameras electronics convert radiance values to temperature using the known or measured emissivity of the target object. Expanding on Steps 4 and 5, an effective blackbody temperature measurement can be derived from a radiance measurement by applying a radiometric calibration, temperature vs. radiance model, and emissivity of the target object or scene. Every IR camera designed for serious measurements is calibrated at the factory. In the calibration lab, the camera takes a number of blackbody measurements at known temperatures, radiance levels, emissivities, and distances. This creates a table of values based on the A/D counts from the temperature/radiance measurements. Once the counts for each blackbody temperature measurement are entered into the calibration software, the data are then passed through an in-band radiance curve fit algorithm to produce the appropriate in-band radiance vs. count values given the camera systems normalized spectral response function. This produces a radiometric calibration of in-band radiance [W/(sr-cm2)] versus
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Chapter 3
the digital counts obtained while viewing a blackbody over a range of temperatures. The result is a series of calibration curves. An example of how calibration points are captured is shown in Figure 1. The calibration curves are stored in the camera systems memory as a series of numeric curve-fit tables that relate radiance values to blackbody temperatures. When the system makes a measurement, it takes the digital value of the signal at a given moment, goes into the appropriate calibration table, and calculates temperature. Due consideration is given to other factors like atmospheric attenuation, reflected ambient temperature, and the cameras ambient temperature drift before the final result is presented. Ambient Drift Compensation (ADC). Another important consideration in the calibration process is the radiation caused by the heating and cooling of the camera itself. Any swings in camera internal temperature caused by changes in environment or the heating and cooling of camera electronics will affect the radiation intensity at
the detector. The radiation that results directly from the camera is called parasitic radiation and can cause inaccuracies in camera measurement output, especially with thermographically calibrated cameras. Certain IR cameras (like the FLIR ThermoVision product line), have internal sensors that monitor changes in camera temperature. As part of the calibration process, these cameras are placed in an environmental chamber and focused at a black body reference. The temperature of the chamber and black body are then varied and data is collected from the internal sensors. Correction factors are then created and stored in the camera. In real-time operation, the camera sensors continually monitor internal temperature and send feedback to the camera processor. The camera output is then corrected for any parasitic radiation influences. This functionality is commonly referred to as ambient drift compensation.
Radiance (W/(sr-cm2))
2.1313e04 1.9946e04 1.8579e04 1.7212e04 1.5845e04 1.4478e04 1.3111e04 1.1744e04 1.0377e04 9.0096e05 7.6425e05 7.5899e+03 7.8025e+03 8.0151e+03 8.2738e+03 8.4503e+03 8.6629e+03 8.8856e+03 9.0981e+03 9.3107e+03 9.5334e+03 9.7460e+03 9.9585e+03 1.0181e+04 1.0393e+04 1.0606e+04 1.0829e+04 1.1041e+04 1.1264e+04 1.1476e+04 1.1689e+04 1.1912e+04 1.2124e+04 1.2337e+04 1.2559e+04 1.2772e+04 1.2985e+04 1.3207e+04 1.3420e+04 1.3632e+04 1.3855e+04 1.4068e+04 1.4280e+04 1.4503e+04 1.4716e+04 1.4938e+04 6.2755e05
Curve Fit
Measurements
Measurement (Counts)
Figure 1. Example of camera measurements and corresponding in-band radiance values for given black body temperatures with resulting radiance vs. measurement curve.
pg 12
Ultimately, the camera must calculate at an objects temperature based on its emission, reflected emission from ambient sources, and emission from the atmosphere using the Total Radiation Law. The total radiation power received by the camera can be expressed as: W tot = e t Wobj + (1 e) t Wamb + (1 t) Watm, where e is the object emissivity, t is the transmission through the atmosphere, Tamb is the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient (background) temperature, and Tatm is the temperature of the atmosphere. The best results are obtained when a user is diligent in entering known values for all the pertinent variables into the camera software. Emissivity tables are available for a wide variety of common substances. However, when in doubt, measurements should be made to obtain the correct values. Calibration and analysis software tools available to users are not always contained onboard the camera. While high-end cameras have many built-in software functions, others rely on external software that runs on a PC. Even high-end cameras are connected to PCs to expand their internal calibration, correction, and analysis capabilities. For example, FLIRs ThermaCAM RTools software can serve a wide variety of functions from real-time image acquisition to post-acquisition analysis. Whether the software is on the camera or an external PC, the most useful packages allow a user to easily modify calibration variables. For instance, FLIRs ThermaCAM RTools provides the ability to enter and modify emissivity, atmospheric conditions, distances, and other ancillary data needed to calculate and represent the exact temperature of the object, both live and through saved data. This software provides a post-measurement capability to further modify atmospheric conditions, spectral responsivity, atmospheric transmission changes, internal and external filters, and other important criteria as needed. The discussions that follow below are intended to represent both onboard and external camera firmware and software functions. Where these functions reside depends on the camera.
cursor may be able to select circle, square, and irregularly shaped polygon areas, or create a line for a temperature profile. Once an area is selected, it can be frozen so that the camera can take a snapshot of that area. Alternatively, the camera image can remain live for observation of changes in temperature. The spotmeter finds the temperature at a particular point. Depending on the camera, this function may allow ten or more
Figure 2. IR image of a printed circuit board indicating three spot temperature readings. Image colors correspond to the temperature scale on the right.
movable spots, one or more of which may automatically find the hottest point in the image. The area function isolates a selected area of an object or scene and finds the maximum, minimum, and average temperatures inside that area. The isotherm function makes it possible to portray the temperature distribution of a hot area. Multiple isotherms may be allowed. The line profile is a way to visualize the temperature along some part of the object, which may also be shown as a graph (Figure 3). The temperature measurement range typically is selectable by the user. This is a valuable feature when a scene has a temperature range narrower than a cameras full-scale range. Setting a narrower range allows better resolution of the images and higher accuracy in the measured temperatures. Therefore, images will better illustrate smaller temperature differences. On the other hand, a broader scale and/or higher maximum temperature range
Figure 3. Graph of temperature along a selected area of a target object using a cameras profile function
pg 13
Chapter 3
Figure 4. Gray scale images of car engine; left view has white as the hottest temperature; right view shows black as the hottest
may be needed to prevent saturation of the portion of the image at the highest temperature. As an adjunct to the temperature range selection, most cameras allow a user to set up a color scale or gray scale to optimize the camera image. Figure 4 illustrates two gray scale possibilities. In Figure 2 a so-called iron scale was used for a color rendering. In a manner similar to the gray scale used in Figure 4, the hottest temperatures can be rendered as either lighter colors or darker colors. Another possibility is rendering images with what is known as a rainbow scale (Figure 5). In some color images, gray is used to indicate areas where the camera detector has become saturated (i.e., temperatures well above the top of the scale). While choice of color scale is often a matter of personal preference, there may be times when one type of scale is better than another for illustrating the range of temperatures in a scene. In the case of isotherm measurements, areas with the same thermal radiance are highlighted. If we use a color scale with ten colors, we will in fact get ten isotherms in the image. Such a scale sometimes makes it easier to see the temperature distribution over an object. In Figure 6, the temperature scale is selected so that each color is an isotherm with a width of 2C. Still, it is important to realize that an isothermal temperature scale rendering will not be accurate unless all of the highlighted area has the same emissivity, and the ambient temperatures are the same for all objects within the area. This points out common problems for IR camera users. Often, emissivity varies across an object or scene, along with variations in ambient temperatures, accompanied by atmospheric conditions that dont match a cameras default values. This is why IR cameras include measurement correction and calibration functions.
Figure 5. Rainbow scale showing lower temperatures towards the blue end of the spectrum
Figure 6. Isotherm color scale with each color having an isotherm width of 2C
pg 14
Emissivity Corrections
In most applications, the emissivity of an object is based on values found in a table. Although camera software may include an emissivity table, users usually have the capability of inputting emissivity values for an object ranging from 0.1 to 1.0. Many cameras also provide automatic corrections based on user input for reflected ambient temperature, viewing distance, relative humidity, atmospheric transmission, and external optics. As described earlier, the IR camera calculates a temperature based on radiance measurements and the objects emissivity. However, when the emissivity value is unknown or uncertain, the reverse process can be applied. Knowing the object temperature, emissivity can be calculated. This is usually done when exact emissivity values are needed. There are two common methods of doing this. The first method establishes a known temperature by using an equalization box. This is essentially a tightly controlled temperature chamber with circulating hot air. The length of time in the box must be sufficient to allow the whole object to be at a uniform temperature. In addition, it is absolutely necessary that the object stabilize at a temperature different from the surroundings where the actual measurements will take place. Usually, the object is heated to a temperature at least 10C above the surroundings to ensure that the thermodynamics of the measurements are valid. Once the object has reached the set temperature, the lid is drawn off and a thermogram is captured of the object. The camera and/ or software for processing thermograms can be used to get the emissivity value. Another (adjacent spot) method is much simpler, but still gives reasonably exact values of the emissivity. It uses an area of known emissivity. The idea is to determine the temperature of the object with the camera in the usual way. The object is adjusted so that the area with unknown emissivity is very close to an area of known emissivity. The distance separating these areas must be so small that it can be safely assumed they have the same temperature. From this temperature measurement the unknown emissivity can be calculated. The problem is illustrated in Figure 7, which is an image of a printed circuit board (PCB) heated to a uniform temperature of 68.7C. However, areas of different emissivities may actually have different temperatures, as indicated in the caption of Figure 7a. Using the technique just described, emissivity correction proceeds by finding a reference spot where a temperature of 68.7C is indicated and calculating the emissivity at that location. By knowing the emissivity of the reference spot, the emissivity of the target spots can be calculated. The corrected temperatures are shown in Figure 7b. As illustrated in these figures, this technique can be used with a cameras area selection function (AR in the figures) and using the average temperature for that area. The reason for using the average temperature in the reference area is that there is usually a spread of temperatures within the area, especially for materials with low
Figure 7a. PCB heated to a uniform 68.7C, but digital readouts are incorrect.
Figure 7b. PCB with emissivity correction using the adjacent spot technique. Digital readouts now indicate the correct temperatures at all locations.
emissivity. In that case, using a spotmeter or an area maximum value would give a less stable result. The isotherm function is not recommended either, as it is not possible to get the averaging effect with it. It may also be possible to use a contact sensor to find the temperature of an area of unknown emissivity, but such measurements pose other problems that may not be easy to overcome. Furthermore, it is never possible to measure the emissivity of an object whose temperature is the same as the reflected ambient temperature from its surroundings. Generally, a user can also input other variables that are needed to correct for ambient conditions. These include factors for ambient temperatures and atmospheric attenuation around the target object.
pg 15
Chapter 3
In the right view of Figure 10, the pixel covers more than the target object area and will pick up radiation from extraneous objects. If the object is hotter than the objects beside or behind it, the temperature reading will be too low, and vice versa. Therefore it is important to estimate the size of the target object compared to the IFOV in each measurement situation. Spot Size Ratio (SSR). At the start of a measurement session, the distance between the camera and the target object should be considered explicitly. For cameras that do not have a calibrated spot size, the spot size ratio method can be used to optimize measurement results. SSR is a number that tells how far the camera can be from a target object of a given size in order to get a good temperature measurement. A typical figure might be 1,000:1 (also written 1,000/1, or simply abbreviated as 1,000). This can be interpreted as follows: at 1000 mm distance from a target, the camera will measure a temperature averaged over a 1mm square. Note that SSR is not just for targets far away. It can be just as important for close-up work. However, the cameras minimum focal distance must also be considered. For shorter target distances, some manufacturers offer close-up lenses. For any application and camera/lens combination, the following equation applies: D S R __ S ____ , where S 1 D is the distance from the camera to the target, S is smallest target dimension of interest, and SSR is the spot size ratio. The units of D and S must be the same.
Figure 9. A cameras geometric (spatial) resolution (IFOV) is determined by its lens and FPA configuration.
When selecting a camera, keep in mind that IFOV is a good figure of merit to use. The smaller the IFOV, the better the camera for a given total field of view.
pg 16
Conclusions
Recent advances in IR cameras have made them much easier to use. Camera firmware has made setup and operation as simple as using a conventional video camera. Onboard and PC-based software provides powerful measurement and analysis tools. Nevertheless, for accurate results, the user should have an understanding of IR camera optical principals and calibration methods. At the very least, the emissivity of a target object should be entered into the cameras database, if not already available as a table entry.
pg 17
Chapter 4
degree of transparency varies with wavelength. There may be IR wavelengths where they are essentially opaque due to absorption. Since, according to Kirchhoffs Law, a good absorber is also a good emitter, this opens the possibility of measuring the radiance and temperature of a selective radiator at some wavelength.
Spectral Adaptation
Inserting a spectral filter into the cameras optical path is called spectral adaptation. The first step of this process is to analyze the spectral properties of the semitransparent material you are trying to measure. For common materials the data may be available in published data. Otherwise, this requires analysis with a spectrophotometer. (The camera manufacturer or a consulting firm may supply this service.) In either case, the objective is to find the spectral location of a band of complete absorption that falls within the IR cameras response curve. Microbolometer detectors have rather broad response curves so they are not likely to present a problem in this respect. However, adding a filter decreases overall sensitivity due to narrowing of the cameras spectral range. Sensitivity is reduced approximately by the ratio of the area under the filters spectral curve to the area under the cameras spectral curve. This could be a problem for microbolometer systems, since they have relatively low sensitivity to start with and a broad spectral curve. Using a camera with, for example, a QWIP detector will provide greater sensitivity with a narrower spectral curve. Still, this narrow range may limit the application of such cameras for spectral adaptation. Ultimately, an optical (IR) filter must be selected that blocks all wavelengths except the band where the object absorbs. This ensures that the object has high emissivity within that band.
Relative sensitivity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Wavelength [m] 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 InSb MCT-SW Mikrobolometer FLIR QWIP
MCT-LW
pg 18
Besides semitransparent solids, selective adaptation can also be applied to gases. However, a very narrow filter might be required for selecting an absorption spike in a gas. Even with proper filtering, temperature measurement of gases is difficult, mainly due to unknown gas density. Selective adaptation for a gas has a better chance of success if the objective is merely gas detection, since there are less stringent requirements for quantitative accuracy. In that case sensitivity would be more important, and some gases with very high absorption might still be measurable. Spectral adaptation could also be applied the opposite way, i.e., selection of a spectral band where the transmission through a medium is as high as possible. The purpose would be to enable measurement on an object by seeing through the medium without any interference. The medium could be ordinary atmosphere, the atmosphere of combustion gases inside a furnace, or simply a window (or other solid) through which one wants to measure.
Wavelength, m
Filter Types
The simplest filters are broadband neutral density types that are used merely to reduce optical transmission and prevent detector saturation at high temperatures. While necessary sometimes, this is not spectral adaptation. In spectral adaptation, filters are used in order to suppress or transmit certain wavelengths. For discussion purposes, filters can be described as short-pass (SP), long-pass (LP), band-pass (BP), and narrow band-pass (NBP). See Figure 2. SP and LP filters are specified with a cut-on and a cut-off wavelength. BP and NBP filters are specified with a center wavelength and a half-width (half-power) wavelength, the latter being the width where spectral response has decreased to 50% of its maximum. For temperature measurements on transparent materials, the filter selected must provide a band of essentially complete absorption. Incomplete absorption can be used, at least theoretically, provided that both absorptance and reflectance are known and stable at the absorption band. Unfortunately, absorption often varies with both temperature and thickness of the material. An example of applying a NBP filter to the measurement of polyethylene film temperature is shown in Figure 3. The blue curve in the figure shows the absorption band of polyethylene film. The red curve shows the transmittance of a 3.45m NBP filter, which is designed to match polyethylene film. The green curve shows the resulting transmission through film plus the filter. This curve, running just above the zero line, indicates an excellent filter adaptation, i.e. the film appears to be opaque to the camera, and no background radiation would disturb the measurement of film temperature. Filters can also be classified according to their application temperature. Traditionally, cold filters, filters that are stabilized at or near the same temperature as the detector, are the most accurate and desired filters for thermal signatures. Warm filters, filters screwed onto the back of the optical lens outside of the detector/cooler assembly, are also commonly used but tend to
provide more radiometric calibration uncertainty due to varying IR emission with ambient temperature changes. Once a filter is selected for use with a particular camera, the camera/filter combination needs to be calibrated by the camera manufacturer. Then the performance of the system should be characterized since accuracy and sensitivity will be affected due to a reduction in energy going to the detector.
rl + e l + t l = 1, or e l = 1 t l rl ,
it is clear that in order to get an emissivity value, transmittance and reflectance at the pass band of the filter must be known. The transmittance, tl, can be taken directly from a transmission diagram like the one in Figure 3 (a value of about 0.02 in that example). Reflectance is less easy to characterize and usually is a function of material thickness. However, a transmission diagram like the one in Figure 4 provides some indication of this parameters value. Using the blue curve for the thinnest polyethylene material in Figure
pg 19
Chapter 4
Filter adaptation 1 0.9 0.8 Transmission % 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 3.45m NBP lter Polyethylene transmission Resulting transmission
Sheet and plate glass production have similar temperature measurement requirements. The most common industrial varieties are variations of soda-lime-silica glass. Although they may vary in composition and color, their spectral characteristics do not change much. Looking at the spectral transmittance of such a glass with different thicknesses (Figure 5), one can conclude that IR temperature measurement must be restricted to wavelengths above 4.3m. Depending on glass thickness, this may require either a midwavelength (MW) or long wavelength (LW) camera/detector. MW cameras cover some portion of the spectrum from 25m, and LW cameras cover some portion within 812m. In selecting a filter, the temptation might be to go for an LP type with a cut-on wavelength near the point where transmittance drops to zero. However, there are other factors to consider. For example, LP filter characteristics can interfere with the negative slope of
Wavelength, m
Figure 3. Application of an NBP filter to achieve nearly complete absorption and high emittance from polyethylene film, allowing its temperature measurement
3. 2
Wavelength, m
Wavelength, m
Figure 5. Transmission curves for a common industrial glass in five thicknesses from 0.23 to 5.9mm
4, which has the lowest absorption, the transmission between absorption bands is seen to be approximately 90%. If there were no absorption bands at all, we could conclude that the reflection would be 10%. Since there are some narrow absorption bands under the curve, we can estimate the reflection to be 8% in the spectral regions where absorption is very low. However, we are interested in the reflectance where the absorption is high (i.e., where the material appears to be opaque). To estimate the reflectance of this polyethylene film, we must first make the reasonable assumption that its surface reflectance stays constant over the absorption bands. Now recognize that the 8% value is the result of reflections from both sides of the film, i.e., approximately 4% per surface. At the absorption band, however, since the absorption in the material is almost complete, we get reflection only on one side. Thus rl = 0.04. From this rl , and the t l value obtained from the transmission graph (Figure 3 in this example), emissivity can be calculated:
the spectral response curve of thermo-electrically cooled HgCdTe (MCT) detectors, which are used in both MW and LW cameras. A better choice may be a NBP filter. In Figure 6, transmission characteristics of a glass, an SW camera, and two filters are superimposed. The green curve represents the LP filter response curve, whereas the NBP filter response is shown in blue. The latter was selected for the spectral location where glass becomes black, and has a center wavelength of 5.0m. The reflectance of this glass is shown in Figure 7. Note the peak between 8 and 12m, which must be avoided when using an LW camera to measure the glass. Another consideration is the cameras viewing angle, because glass reflectance can change with angle of incidence. Fortunately reflectance does not change much up to an angle of about 45 relative to normal incidence (Figure 8). From Figure 8, a value 0.025 for the glass reflectance is valid when using either the 4.7m LP or the 5.0m NBP filter (Figure 6), because they both operate in the 5m region. Consequently a proper value for the glass emissivity in those cases would be 1 0.025 = 0.975.
pg 20
Glass transmission curve SW/TE MCT spectral response 4.7m LP lter curve 5.0m NBP lter curve
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5 4 4. 5 5 5. 5 6
For many applications, the user will need to find a spectral band where the medium through which the camera is looking has minimum influence on the measurement. The object of interest is at the end of a measurement path on the other side of the medium. The medium is in most cases ordinary atmosphere, but it could also be a gas or a mixture of gases (e.g., combustion gases or flames), a window, or a solid semitransparent material. As is the case in absorption band applications, a spectral transmission measurement of the actual medium would be the ideal starting point. The objective is to find a band within the cameras response curve where the medium has minimum influence on IR transmission from the target object. However, it is often impractical to perform such a measurement, particularly for gases at high temperatures. In such cases it may be possible to find the spectral properties of gas constituents (or other media) in IR literature, revealing a suitable spectrum for the measurement. In most cases, IR camera manufacturers have anticipated the atmospheric attenuation problem. Camera manufacturers typically add a filter that reduces measurement errors due to inaccurate and/or varying atmospheric parameters by avoiding absorption bands of the constituent gases and water vapors. This is especially needed at long measurement distances and shorter wavelengths. For MW cameras, an appropriate filter utilizes the atmospheric window between the absorption bands of H2O+CO2 around 3m or CO2 at 4.2m.
Transmission %
Wavelength, m
Wavelength, m
Atmospheric effects on an LW camera are much less, since the atmosphere has an excellent window from 8 to 12m. However, cameras with a broad response curve reaching into the MW spectrum may require an LP filter. This is particularly true for high temperature measurements where the radiation is shifted towards shorter wavelengths and atmospheric influence increases. An LP filter with a cut-on at 7.4m blocks the lower part of the cameras response curve. An interesting transmission band application is temperature measurements on a gas-fired furnace, oven, or similar heating equipment. Objectives could be the measurement of flame temperature or the measurement of internal components through the flames. In the latter case, an unfiltered IR camera will be overwhelmed by the intense radiation from the flames, making measurement of the much weaker radiation from internal objects impossible. On the other hand, any transmission through the flames from cooler internal objects will make flame temperature measurements inaccurate.
Figure 8. Glass reflectance as a function of camera viewing angle relative to normal incidence
The flame absorption spectrum in Figure 9 reveals the spectral regions where these two types of measurement could be made. There is very little radiation from the flames in the 3.9m area, whereas there is a lot of radiation between the 4.2 and 4.4m range. The idea is to employ filters that utilize these spectral windows for the desired measurements.
pg 21
Chapter 4
Relative Intensity
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
3.5
4.5
Wavelength [m]
Figure 9. Flame absorption spectrum of a gas-fired furnace with two types for filters for different measurement applications
For measurement of internal components, you need to avoid strong absorption bands because they attenuate the radiation from the target object and they emit intensely due to the high gas temperature, thus blinding the camera. Although gas-fired combustion gases consist mostly of CO2 and water vapor, an atmospheric filter is unsuitable because gas concentrations and temperatures are much higher. This makes the absorption bands deeper and broader. A flame filter is needed for this application. See Figure 9. This is a BP filter transmitting between 3.75 and 4.02m. With this filter installed, the camera will produce an image where the flames are almost invisible and the internal structure of the furnace is presented clearly (Figure 10). To get the maximum temperature of the flames, a CO2 filter will show they are as high as 1400C. By comparison, the furnace walls as seen with the flame filter are a relatively cool 700C.
Figure 10. FLIR ThermaCAM image of furnace tubes with flame filter to allow accurate temperature measurement
Conclusions
Filters can extend the application of IR cameras into areas that might otherwise restrict their use. Still, some preliminary spectrophotometer measurements may be needed on the objects and media of interest if spectral information cannot be found in IR literature. Once a filter is selected and installed, the camera/filter system should be calibrated by the camera manufacturer. Even with a well-calibrated system, it is a good idea to avoid errors by not using spectral regions of uncertain or varying absorption relative to the camera/filter system response spectrum.
pg 22
Chapter 5
Figure 1a. Infrared image of a 0.30 caliber bullet in flight with apparent temperatures
pg 23
Chapter 5
When the IC was sampled at a frame rate of 1000Hz, a maximum temperature of 95C was reported. However, when sampled at only 500Hz, the true maximum temperature was missed and a false maximum of 80C was reported (Figure 3).
Integrated Circuit Example
100 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (ms) Actual Data Under Sampled Data 7 8 9 10 11
This is just one example of why high-speed IR cameras can be so valuable for even simple applications that dont necessarily appear to benefit from high speed at first consideration.
pg 24
a single integration time. This would result in either over exposure on the hot object or under exposure on the cold object. The results of superframing are illustrated in the Beechcraft King Air aircraft images in Figure 5, captured at two different integration times. While the aircraft can be clearly seen in the left image (Preset 0 = 2ms integration time), there are portions of the engine that are clearly over exposed. Conversely, the right image in Figure 5 (Preset 1 = 30s integration time), shows engine intake and exhaust detail with the remainder of the aircraft underexposed. When the two images in Figure 5 are processed in ABATER software, the best resolved pixels are selected and used to build a single resultant superframed image with no over or under exposed pixels (Figure 6).
Superframing involves cycling the IR camera through up to four multiple integration times (presets), capturing one frame at each preset. This results in multiple unique data movie files, one for each preset. This data is then combined by using off-the-shelf ABATER software. The software selects the best resolved pixel from each unique frame to build a resultant frame composed of data from all the collected data movie files at varying integration times. This method is especially beneficial for those imaging scenes with both hot and cold objects in the same field of view. Typically a 14-bit camera cannot image simultaneously both hot and cold objects with
Figure 6. Superframed image created with ABATER software from Preset 0 and Preset 1 data.
As you may have figured out, the down side to this method of data collection and analysis is the reduction in the frame rate by the number of Presets cycled. By applying some simple calculations a 100Hz camera with two Presets will provide an overall frame rate of 50Hz, well under the limits of our discussion of high speed IR imagery. This only reinforces the need for a high speed camera. If a 305Hz camera is superframed as in the example above, a rate of over 150Hz per preset frame rate is achieved. This rate is well within the bounds of high speed IR imaging.
Conclusions
Sophisticated IR cameras are now available with advanced readout electronics and high speed pixel clocks, which open the door for high speed IR imagery. This allows us to expand the boundaries of which applications can be solved using IR camera solutions. Furthermore, it allows us to begin capturing more data and increase our accuracy for demanding applications with fast moving targets, quick temperature transients, and wide dynamic range scenes. With the release of this new technology in the commercial IR marketplace, we can now begin to realize the benefits of high speed data capture, once only available to the visible camera realm.
Figure 5. Active aircraft engine imaged at integration rates of 2ms (top) and 30s (bottom)
pg 25
Cameras
Entry A325sc The A325sc transitions seamlessly from the research lab to the production line with multiple optic options, available data recording and analysis software, and simple Gigabit Ethernet connectivity. Waveband Sensor Type Pixel Resolution Pixel Pitch Spectral Ranges NETD NEI (Low Gain, High Gain) Dynamic Range Camera Temp Calibration Standard Camera Calibration Range Optional Camera Calibration Range Ambient Drift Compensation Hypercal / CNUC Functionality Digital Full Frame Rate Digital Data Streaming Analog Video Camera Control FPA Windowing Manual Tactile Focus Motorized Focus Auto Focus Built-in IRIG-B Timing Triggering Options Integrated Visual Camera Integrated GPS On-Camera Image Storage SDK Support f/# Filtering Options X f/1.3 Snapshot and Video X f/1.3 X f/1.0 Single Behind-the-Lens X X 3.1 Mega Pixel X X X X X Gigabit Ethernet 60 Hz Gigabit Ethernet 60 Hz USB NTSC USB USB, Gigabit Ethernet Fixed Size and Location X X X 50 Hz USB, Gigabit Ethernet 14-bit X -20C to 350C Up to 2,000C X 14-bit X -20C to 650C Up to 1,200C X 14-bit X -40C to 650C Up to 2,000C X LWIR Microbolometer 320 240 25 m 7.5 m 13.0 m <50 mK T400 Series Highly ergonomic with a tiltable thermal camera and touch screen interface, the handheld T400 Series is the perfect portable system for bench-top testing in the lab or dynamic testing in the field. LWIR Microbolometer 320 240 25 m 7.5 m 13.0 m <45 mK A655sc The A655sc camera offers ultra-sharp 640 480 image resolution, high-speed sub- windowing, Gigabit Ethernet and USB connectivity, and filtering. LWIR Microbolometer 640 480 17 m 7.5 m 14.0 m <50 mK
pg 26
Cameras
Performance T600 Series The T600 Series offers superior thermal and visual image quality, spot size resolution, and temperature measurement accuracyat an affordable cost. Waveband Sensor Type Pixel Resolution Pixel Pitch Spectral Ranges LWIR Microbolometer 640 480 17 m 7.5 m 14 m A2600sc The A2600sc is the ideal choice for research, spectroscopy, astronomy, water or ice detection, laser profiling, medical, solar cell inspection, silicon wafer processing, and many manufacturing applications. SWIR InGaAs 640 512 25 m, 15 m 0.9 m 1.7 m 0.5 m 1.9 m SC7000 Series The FLIR SC7000 Series delivers excellent thermal imagery at fast frame rates while preserving temperature accuracy and sensitivity. Available with a field replaceable motorized filter wheel and wide variety of lens options. MWIR, LWIR InSb, MCT 320 256, 640 512 15 m, 16 m, 30 m 3.0 5.0 m or 1.5 5.1 m (InSb) 7.7 9.3 m (MCT) 7.7 11.5 m (MCT) <25 mK (InSb), <20 mK (MCT) <2.5 109 ph/s/cm2, <0.75 1010 ph/s/cm2 14-bit X -40C to 650C Up to 2,000C X 14-bit 14-bit X 5C to 300C (InSb) 5C to 150C (MCT) Down to -80C Up to 3,000C X X 30 Hz USB NTSC, DVI USB X X X Optional X 5.0 Mega Pixel X Snapshot and Video X f/1.0 X Lens-Dependent Single Behind-the-Lens X f/2.5 , f/3.0 Motorized 4-Position Filter Wheel Optional 8-Position High Speed Filter Wheel (Orion Module)
f/1.5 X 30 Hz 14-bit X -40C to 300C
GF335 MWIR The handheld, high sensitivity, low noise GF335 is ideal for the detection of faint heat signatures and suited for a wide variety of range, clandestine device detection, non-destructive, research and science applications.
MWIR InSb 320 240 30 m 3.0 m 5.0 m
NETD NEI (Low Gain, High Gain) Dynamic Range Camera Temp Calibration Standard Camera Calibration Range Optional Camera Calibration Range Ambient Drift Compensation Hypercal / CNUC Functionality Digital Full Frame Rate Digital Data Streaming Analog Video Camera Control FPA Windowing Manual Tactile Focus Motorized Focus Auto Focus Built-in IRIG-B Timing Triggering Options Integrated Visual Camera Integrated GPS On-Camera Image Storage SDK Support f/# Filtering Options
<35 mk
<25 mK
100, 115, 235 Hz Gigabit Ethernet, Camera Link Composite or S-Video Gigabit Ethernet, Camera Link User-Defined X
X X X USB HDMI USB
X
3.2 Mega Pixel X Snapshot and Video
pg 27
Cameras
Advanced SC6000 Series The versatile SC6000 Series offers high speed, high resolution, and flexibility with a built-in, userconfigurable 4-position filter wheel, and multiple lens configurations. SC8000 Series The SC8000 Series brings science and R&D thermography into the world of high definition with highly sensitive cooled InSb detectors, superb resolution, and lightening fast frame and data rates for extreme imaging flexibility and data capture. MWIR InSb 1024 1024, 1344 784 18 m, 14 m 1.0 m 5.0 m 3.0 m 5.0 m <20 mK 14-bit X -10C to 500C Up to 2,000C X 47, 132 Hz Simultaneous Gigabit Ethernet, Camera Link Full NTSC, PAL, S-Video, SVGA USB, Gigabit Ethernet User-Defined X X X X X X X X X 126 Hz Simultaneous Gigabit Ethernet, & Camera Link NTSC, SVGA Gigabit Ethernet, RS-232, Camera Link User-Defined -10C to 350C RS6700 Series The rugged, full-featured, highperformance RS6700 is specifically designed for range tracking and target signature applications and is built to thrive in harsh test range environments. MWIR InSb 640 512 15 m 3.0 m 5.0 m
MWIR InSb 640 512 25 m, 15 m 1.0 m 5.0 m 1.5 m 5.0 m 3.0 m 5.0 m <20 mK (InSb) 14-bit X -10C to 350C (f/2.5) -10C to 500C (f/4.1) Up to 2,000C X 125 Hz Simultaneous Gigabit Ethernet, & Camera Link NTSC, PAL, S-Video, SVGA USB, Gigabit Ethernet, RS-232, Camera Link User-Defined X
NETD NEI (Low Gain, High Gain) Dynamic Range Camera Temp Calibration Standard Camera Calibration Range Optional Camera Calibration Range Ambient Drift Compensation Hypercal / CNUC Functionality Digital Full Frame Rate Digital Data Streaming Analog Video Camera Control FPA Windowing Manual Tactile Focus Motorized Focus Auto Focus Built-in IRIG-B Timing Triggering Options Integrated Visual Camera Integrated GPS On-Camera Image Storage SDK Support f/# Filtering Options
<20 mK 14-bit
X f/2.5, f/4.0, f/4.1 Single Behind-the-Lens and Motorized 4-Position Filter Wheel
X f/4.0
pg 28
Lenses
Entry Camera Lens Detail Camera A325sc, T400 Series Lens
T197411 1196960 Built-in 1196961 T197407 T197215 T197214 T197415
FOV
90 73 45 33.8 25 18.8 15 11.25 6 4.5 32 24 mm 16 12 mm 8 6 mm 80 64.4 45 33.7 25 19 15 11.3 7 5.3 64 48 mm 32 24 mm
IFOV
6.25 mrad 2.58 mrad 1.39 mrad 0.82 mrad 0.33 mrad 100 m 50 m 25 m 2.62 mrad 1.23 mrad 0.68 mrad 0.41 mrad 0.19 mrad 100 m 50 m
f Number
f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.3 f/1.0 f/1.0 f/1.3 f/1.0 f/1.0
Spectral Band
7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 13 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m 7.5 14 m
Focal Length
25 mm 50 mm 12 mm 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm 200 mm Close-up 15 m Close-up 5 m Close-up 15 m 27 mm 50 mm 100 mm 200 mm 12 mm 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm 200 mm Close-up 30 m Close-up 10 m 12 mm 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm 200 mm Close-up 15 m Close-up 5 m 23 mm 38 mm 92 mm
FOV
35.5 28.7 18.2 14.6 44 36 22 17 11 8.8 5.5 4.4 2.75 2.2 9.6 7.7 mm 3.2 2.6 mm 9.6 7.7 mm 20 16 11 8 5.5 4.4 2.75 2.2 44 36 22 17 11 8.8 5.5 4.4 2.75 2.2 9.6 7.7 mm 3.2 2.6 mm 46.2 37.7 23.2 18.6 11.7 9.4 5.9 4.7 2.93 2.35 9.6 7.7 mm 3.2 x 2.6 mm 24 18 14.5 10.8 6.0 4.5
IFOV
1.0 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.56 mrad 0.60 mrad 0.30 mrad 0.15 mrad 0.075 mrad 15 m 5 m 15 m 0.56 mrad 0.30 mrad 0.15 mrad 0.075 mrad 2.5 mrad 1.2 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.3 mrad 0.15 mrad 30 m 10 m 1.25 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.3 mrad 0.15 mrad 0.075 mrad 15 m 5 m 1.30 mrad 0.79 mrad 0.33 mrad
f Number
na na f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/3.0 f/3.0 f/3.0 f/3.0 f/3.0 f/ 2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/ 2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/2.0 f/1.5 f/1.5 f/1.5
Spectral Band
Visible NIR Visible NIR 3.5 5.0 m 3.7 5.15 m 3.7 5.15 m 3.7 5.15 m 3.5 5.0 m 3.5 5.0 m 3.5 5.0 m 3.7 5.15 m 1.75 4.9 m 1.75 4.9 m 1.75 4.9 m 1.75 4.9 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 10.0 m 7.5 10.0 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 11.75 m 7.5 10.0 m 7.5 10.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
SC7300L / SC7900VL
SC7750L
GF335
pg 29
Lenses
Advanced Camera Lens Detail Camera
SC6000
Lens
322-0005-01 322-0005-02 4113445 4113446 23517-000 4110813 26921-000 26959-201 25333-201 322-0005-06 26509-201
FOV
63.2 52.4 35.5 28.7 18.1 14.6 9.1 7.3 9.1 7.3 4.6 3.7 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.5 0.9 0.7 18.1 14.6 3.7 2.9 18.1 14.6 3.7 2.9 1.8 1.5 18.1 14.6 1.8 1.5 16 12.8 mm 6.4 5.12 mm 4.0 3.2 mm 3.2 2.56 mm 35.5 28.7 18.1 14.6 9.1 7.3 3.7 2.9 21.7 17.5 10.9 8.8 5.5 4.4 21.7 17.5 2.2 1.8 1.1 0.9 21.7 17.5 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.4 21.7 17.5 10.9 8.8 5.5 4.4 56.9 56.9 40.4 40.5 20.9 20.9 10.5 10.5 2.1 2.1 20.9 20.9 4.2 4.2 2.1 2.1 20.9 20.9 2.1 2.1 1.1 1.1 40.4 40.5 20.9 20.9 10.5 10.5
IFOV
1.9 mrad 1.0 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.25 mrad 0.25 mrad 0.13 mrad 0.07 mrad 0.05 mrad 0.025 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.1 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.1 mrad 0.05 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.05 mrad 25 m 10 m 6.25 m 5 m 1.0 mrad 0.5 mrad 0.25 mrad 0.1 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.3 mrad 0.15 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.06 mrad 0.03 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.03 mrad 0.03 mrad 0.015 mrad 0.6 mrad 0.3 mrad 0.15 mrad 1.06 mrad 0.72 mrad 0.36 mrad 0.18 mrad 0.036 mrad 0.36 mrad 0.072 mrad 0.036 mrad 0.36 mrad 0.036 mrad 0.018 mrad 0.72 mrad 0.36 mrad 0.18 mrad
f Number
f/2.3 f/2.4 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/4.1 f/4.1 f/4.1 f/2.3 f/4.0 f/2.3 f/4.0
Spectral Band
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
50/500 mm Continuous Close-up 25 m Close-up 10 m Close-up 6.25 m Close-up 5 m 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm 250 mm 25 mm 50 mm 100 mm 50/250/500 mm
f/4.0 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/4.1 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/4.0
Call for details 60.3 mm 25.4 mm 12.7 mm 11.75 mm 200 mm 500 mm 2.5 m Call for details 125 mm 500 mm 1.5 m Call for details
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
SC6700
f/4.0 f/2.3 f/4.0 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/2.3 f/4.0 f/4.0 f/4.0 f/4.0 f/2.3 f/4.0
Call for details Call for details Call for details 200 mm 500 mm 1.5 m Call for details 125 mm 500 mm 1.5 m Call for details Call for details
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 1.0 5.0 m 1.0 5.0 m 1.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
SC8200
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m
pg 30
Lenses
Advanced Camera Lens Detail Camera SC8300 Lens
4110796 23898-000 23899-000 23900-000 26959-200 26509-200
FOV
57.9 35.7 41.2 24.8 21.3 12.5 10.7 6.28 2.1 1.3 21.3 12.5 4.3 2.5 2.1 1.3 21.3 12.5 2.1 1.3 1.1 1.1 40.4 40.5 20.9 20.9 10.5 10.5 10.9 8.8 2.2 1.76 5.5 4.4 1.1 0.9 3.7 2.9 0.7 0.6
IFOV
0.82 mrad 0.56 mrad 0.28 mrad 0.14 mrad 0.028 mrad 0.28 mrad 0.056 mrad 0.028 mrad 0.28 mrad 0.028 mrad 0.014 mrad 0.56 mrad 0.28 mrad 0.14 mrad 0.3 mrad 0.06 mrad 0.15 mrad 0.03 mrad 0.1 mrad 0.02 mrad
f Number
f/4.0 f/4.0 f/4.0 f/4.0 f/2.3 f/4.0
Spectral Band
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
Call for details 100 m 125 mm 500 mm 1.5 m 1 m/3 m 5 m/10 m 20 m/20 m
3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 1.5 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m 3.0 5.0 m
RS6700
The SPOT SIZE represents what a single detector (pixel) element will see at a given distance. The IFOV is the solid angle subtended by a single pixel of the imaging system. It varies by camera FPA dimensions and lens combination. SPOT SIZE = IFOV x Distance to Target
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BOSTON FLIR Systems, Inc. 9 Townsend West Nashua, NH 03063 USA PH: +1 866.477.3687 PH: +1 603.324.7600 www.flir.com NASDAQ: FLIR
PORTLAND Corporate Headquarters FLIR Systems, Inc. 27700 SW Parkway Ave. Wilsonville, OR 97070 USA PH: +1 866.477.3687
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Equipment described herein may require US Government authorization for export purposes. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited. Imagery for illustration purposes only. Specifications are subject to change without notice. 2012 FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. (Rev. 12 /12)