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529 SW Third Avenue, Suite 600 Portland, Oregon 97204 (800) 411-0834 The Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliances (NEEA) mission is to make the Northwest more energy efficient for the benefit of electric ratepayers. NEEA works in alliance with utilities to catalyze the marketplace to adopt energyefficient products and services. NEEAs industrial initiative works with food-processing and pulp-and-paper companies to support them in permanently integrating strategic energy management into their business operations.
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Primary Authors Marcus Wilcox, Rob Morton, Josh Bachman, Dan Brown: Cascade Energy Engineering Document Design and Editing Jeff Jansen: Modest Systems Ecos Technical Illustration Elaine Giraud: SeeFigureOne Document Concept, Contributing Author, and Project Management Steven Scott: Strategic Energy Group Heidi Sickert: Ecos Technical Reviewers Greg Jourdan: Wenatchee Valley College Anthony Radspieler and Steve Greenberg: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Doug Reindl: Industrial Refrigeration Consortium Michael Steur: Hixson, Inc. Manufacturer Photographs and Graphics Advanced Freezer, APV, Baltimore Air Coil, Cherry-Burrell, Colmac, Evapco, FES, Frick, Hansen, Honeywell, Imeco, Mercoid, Mueller, Mycom, Northstar, Sporlan, Vilter, Vogt, York Copyright
2007 Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, Inc. All rights reserved. Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance grants permission to reproduce this material in whole or in part only for information or education purposes.
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Table of Contents
List of Figures .....................................................................................................vi List of Tables ....................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................1
Background .......................................................................................................................................1 Goals .................................................................................................................................................1 Focus on Industrial Refrigeration ......................................................................................................2 Road Map to this Best Practices Guide ............................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2
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Improving Condenser Part-Load Performance........................................................................62 Upgrading Equipment .....................................................................................................................65 Introduction .............................................................................................................................65 Evaporator Coil Efficiency........................................................................................................ 65 Compressor Efficiency ............................................................................................................. 67 Condenser Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 68 Premium-Efficiency Motors .....................................................................................................70 Motor Sizing............................................................................................................................. 71 Improving System Design................................................................................................................ 71 Introduction .............................................................................................................................71 Multistage Compression .......................................................................................................... 71 Liquid Subcooling ..................................................................................................................... 72 Gas-Pressure Recirculation Systems ........................................................................................73 Hot-Gas Defrost ......................................................................................................................73 Heat Recovery .........................................................................................................................74 Purgers.....................................................................................................................................75 Reducing Refrigeration Loads.......................................................................................................... 75 Introduction .............................................................................................................................75 Building Upgrades ....................................................................................................................75 Process Upgrades ....................................................................................................................78 Computer ControlThe Backbone of Efficiency...........................................................................79 Efficiency Checklist .........................................................................................................................79 What Makes a Compressor Efficient? ......................................................................................80 What Makes an Evaporator Efficient? ......................................................................................81 What Makes a Condenser Efficient?.........................................................................................82
CHAPTER 5
Estimating the Annual Energy Cost of Your Refrigeration System................................................107 Using an Energy Study as a Management Tool .............................................................................109 Energy Accounting ........................................................................................................................ 111 Information Sources for Industrial Refrigeration ...........................................................................113
CHAPTER 7
Case Studies....................................................................................................114
List of Figures
Figure 1: Suggested road map to this Guide for various audiences..........................................................3 Figure 2: Refrigeration transfers heat from a medium to the ambient environment .............................10 Figure 3: The basic refrigeration cycle ...................................................................................................11 Figure 4: Thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression.........................................12 Figure 5: Refrigerant-to-air coil (left) and evaporator tube bundle (right) .............................................13 Figure 6: Spiral freezer (left) and freeze tunnel (right)...........................................................................14 Figure 7: Evaporator coil with four fans .................................................................................................14 Figure 8: Evaporator coils in a penthouse ..............................................................................................14 Figure 9: Evaporator coil with centrifugal fans .......................................................................................15 Figure 10: Recirculated (overfeed) refrigerant transport.......................................................................16 Figure 11: Flooded evaporator...............................................................................................................16 Figure 12: Direct expansion refrigerant transport .................................................................................16 Figure 13: Frosted evaporator coil.........................................................................................................17 Figure 14: Defrost controller .................................................................................................................18 Figure 15: Heat exchangers: Shell-and-tube, inside (left top) and outside (left bottom); Plateand-frame (center); Falling-film (right).....................................................................................20 Figure 16: Scraped-surface heat exchanger (left) and plate freezer (right)............................................20 Figure 17: Flake ice maker and cutaway view........................................................................................21 Figure 18: Cube ice maker.....................................................................................................................21 Figure 19: Twelve-cylinder reciprocating compressor ..........................................................................22 Figure 20: Cut-away view of compressor ..............................................................................................22 Figure 21: Reciprocating compressor part-load curves .........................................................................22 Figure 22: Twin screw compressor .......................................................................................................23 Figure 23: Screw compressor package ..................................................................................................24 Figure 24: Single-screw compressor ......................................................................................................24 Figure 25: Screw compressor and slide valve mechanism .....................................................................24 Figure 26: Diagram of slide valve unloading (left) and Photograph of slide valve (right)........................25 Figure 27: Screw compressor part-load performance curves for various capacity-control methods ...................................................................................................................................25 Figure 28: Diagram and photo of liquid-injection cooling system ..........................................................26 Figure 29: Discharge injection system showing pump (arrow) ..............................................................27 Figure 30: Diagram and photo of thermosiphon cooling system ...........................................................27 Figure 31: Direct-contact cooling system ..............................................................................................28 Figure 32: Diagram of overcompression and undercompression ..........................................................28 Figure 33: Compressor control panel ....................................................................................................29 Figure 34: Rotary vane compressor .......................................................................................................29 Figure 35: Rotary vane compressorinternal view...............................................................................30 Figure 36: Evaporative condenser..........................................................................................................32 Figure 37: Forced-draft, axial fan condenser (left); Induced-draft, axial fan condenser (center); Forced-draft, centrifugal fan condenser (right)........................................................................32 Figure 38: Low-pressure receiver (LPR) with insulation and liquid pump .............................................34 Figure 39: Diagram of an intercooler .....................................................................................................35 Figure 40: High-pressure receiver (HPR)...............................................................................................35 Figure 41: Liquid solenoid (left); Metered liquid solenoid (right) ...........................................................36 Figure 42: Hand expansion valve (left); Thermal expansion valve (center); Electronic expansion valve (right) .............................................................................................................36 Figure 43: Pressure regulators ...............................................................................................................37 Figure 44: Automatic purger ..................................................................................................................37 Figure 45: Spring-loaded (left) and Mercury (right) pressure switches ..................................................39 Figure 46: Thermostat ...........................................................................................................................39 Figure 47: Electro-mechanical control system .......................................................................................40 vi Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide List of Figures
Figure 48: Simple digital controller.........................................................................................................40 Figure 49: Computer-control system interface......................................................................................41 Figure 50: I/O communications panel ....................................................................................................41 Figure 51: VFD output voltage and current waveform ..........................................................................43 Figure 52: Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) .........................................................................................43 Figure 53: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a constant torque load..................................43 Figure 54: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a variable torque load ...................................44 Figure 55: Ice cream room within a refrigerated warehouse.................................................................48 Figure 56: VFD installation in a food distribution center........................................................................57 Figure 57: VFD with input reactor and output dV/dt filter ....................................................................59 Figure 58: Typical part-load power for a constant-speed screw compressor .......................................59 Figure 59: VFD application to screw compressor..................................................................................61 Figure 60: Comparison of constant speed and variable speed part load power ....................................62 Figure 61: Graph of coil efficiency versus face velocity..........................................................................66 Figure 62: Newer efficient fan-blade design (left) and older less efficient design (right) .......................66 Figure 63: Graph of efficiency versus pressure ratio..............................................................................68 Figure 64: Variation of condenser efficiency within frame sizes.............................................................69 Figure 65: Comparison of the efficiencies of various condenser types ..................................................69 Figure 66: High-performance spray nozzles ..........................................................................................70 Figure 67: Motor efficiencies 1800 rpm ..............................................................................................71 Figure 68: Thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression.......................................72 Figure 69: Two-stage system with multiple temperature levels ............................................................72 Figure 70: Strip curtain (left), fast-folding door (center), and vestibule-style door (right) for infiltration control ....................................................................................................................76 Figure 71: Infrared door heaters for frost control .................................................................................77 Figure 72: Dirty evaporator coil.............................................................................................................84 Figure 73: Slide valve potentiometer .....................................................................................................85 Figure 74: Plugged condenser spray nozzles..........................................................................................85 Figure 75: Examples of tracking energy use normalized to production (left) and temperature (right) .....................................................................................................................................111
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List of Tables
Table 1: Qualifying attributes of industrial refrigeration systems.............................................................2 Table 2: Examples of benefits beyond energy..........................................................................................8 Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of reciprocating compressors..................................................23 Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of screw compressors .............................................................29 Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of rotary vane compressors.....................................................30 Table 6: Sample compressor ratings ......................................................................................................30 Table 7: Relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia at sea level ............................47 Table 8: Weather data for Seattle, WA and Miami, FL ..........................................................................52 Table 9: Mix-and-match compressor staging .........................................................................................60 Table 10: List of coils with a capacity of about 50 TR at 10F temperature difference .........................65 Table 11: Compressor capacity and power ratings at a condensing temperature of 85F and various suction temperatures for ammonia .............................................................................68 Table 12: Example summary of savings and cost from an energy study ..............................................110
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Courtesy of Frick
Background
This Guide identifies and discusses best practices for making industrial refrigeration systems both energyefficient and productive. The highest levels of efficiency in these systems are achieved through a combination of design, construction, commissioning, operation, and maintenance coupled with a robust energy management program. This Guide provides insights into approaches to industrial refrigeration systems that cost less to operate, are reliable, can maintain accurate and consistent temperatures in refrigerated spaces, help ensure that processing equipment operates consistently, and can meet varying production needs. This Guide was developed with the support of the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance (NEEA). NEEA is funded by, and works in alliance with, local utilities to encourage the development and adoption of energy-efficient products and services. NEEAs mission is to make the Northwest more energy efficient for the benefit of electric ratepayers. NEEAs industrial initiative focuses on helping Northwest industry gain a competitive advantage via the adoption of energy efficient business practices. The industrial initiative works alongside local utilities and with regional industry associations to provide expert support, resources and services to give companies tools and training to make energy efficiency a core business value.
Goals
Ultimately, market transformation for energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration is achieved by changing the business practices of food processing companies, cold-storage and refrigerated warehouses, and the trade allies that support and serve them. Design standards and operation-and-maintenance practices that increase and maintain energy efficiency can also be adopted by users of industrial refrigeration and their engineering consultants and contractors. In this context, the goals of this Best Practices Guide are: ! To identify opportunities to increase electrical energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration systems The Guide specifically focuses on energy savings measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). It is Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 1: Introduction 1
written primarily for audiences in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, where energy costs are the largest portion (usually over 80%) of typical electric bills. The Guide does not specifically address reducing peak monthly power demand, measured in kilowatts (kW). However, in most cases, a system that saves energy will also reduce peak demand. This Guide also does not address loadshifting strategies, where refrigeration load is shifted from a high-cost time period to a low-cost time period, nor does it address reactive power (power factor, or kVAR) or power-quality issues such as harmonics. ! To better understand industrial refrigeration as a system Energy efficiency in industrial refrigeration includes both selecting efficient components and integrating those components into an efficient system. The goal is to minimize the energy consumption of the entire system. Frequently, one or more small constraints in a system can limit the efficiency of the overall system. In other instances, reducing the energy use of one type of component may increase the energy use of another. Understanding the way the system behaves as a whole lets us avoid building in weak links and allows us to strike an efficient balance between components. ! To motivate system designers, contractors, plant engineers, and owners to consider life-cycle costs when installing or upgrading industrial refrigeration systems The equipment-supply and design-build businesses are very cost-competitive, and facility owners have limited capital budgets. Therefore, system design often emphasizes low initial cost rather than low life-cycle cost. Energy costs are the most significant ongoing life-cycle cost, and are a major component of the total presentvalue cost of a refrigeration system. ! To highlight non-energy benefits of energy-efficient practices In most situations, investments in energy efficiency can also reduce labor costs, increase productivity, increase product quality, and increase system reliability. ! To emphasize that best practices include more than just system design Commissioning and well considered operation-and-maintenance practices contribute importantly to the long-term energy performance of the system. ! Encourage facilities to implement a robust energy management program A successful energy management program allows a facility to sustain and improve upon the efficiency benefits that have been achieved. Key elements of a successful energy management program include establishing an Energy Champion that is accountable for system energy use, tracking Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of system efficiency, ensuring that key personnel receive appropriate training, and creating a culture that embraces a continuous improvement philosophy towards energy efficiency.
Criteria 100 tons or larger Ammonia (R-717) in the vast majority of cases, with some R-22 applications Centralized and built-up, as opposed to commercial refrigeration equipment, which is simpler, more modular, and distributed Load Temperatures: -60F to 55F with normally at least one load below 40F Function: Primarily storage and processing of food products
Attribute Industries:
Criteria ! Refrigerated warehouses, including controlled atmosphere ! Fruit and vegetable processors, ranging from fresh product storage to highly processed pre-prepared meals ! Breweries and wineries ! Dairy and ice cream processors ! Meat, poultry, and fish processors
Industrial refrigeration systems are distinct from two related system types, which are not covered in this Guide: ! Commercial refrigeration systems (such as those in grocery stores) which tend to be smaller, simpler, and more modular. ! Large HVAC systems that cool spaces occupied by people and equipment, and that maintain space temperatures higher than 55F.
Although most of this Best Practices Guide will be of interest to all readers, some sections will be of particular interest to specific audiences. The chapters of the Guide and how each audience may find them valuable are outlined below. We hope that you will find useful information on best practices for your refrigeration system for energy efficiency, to control operating costs, and to realize productivity benefits fundamentally, to improve your bottom line. Chapter 2: Best Practices Overview, beginning on page 5, includes an overview of design, operation, and maintenance best practices, an outline of the major categories of improvement, and a guide on how to obtain best practices in industrial refrigeration systems. Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics, beginning on page 10, reviews refrigeration basics and, if needed, will help familiarize you with industrial Figure 1: Suggested road map to this Guide for various audiences refrigeration concepts and equipment. Regardless of your level of familiarity with refrigeration systems and related components, this chapter will be a very useful reference.
Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls, beginning on page 46, describes energy-efficient concepts, equipment, controls, and system types, along with recommended best practices. If you are an owner, plant engineer, or operator, we recommend that you understand these best practices and consider them, if feasible, for your facility. This chapter also highlights the benefits beyond energy cost savings that are often associated with increased energy efficiency. This chapter is not an engineering manual and should be accessible to all potential readers described above. Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning, beginning on page 83, addresses how operation, maintenance, and commissioning affect the energy performance of the system. This chapter is not a training manual for operation and maintenance, but addresses these points on a higher level that is suitable for most readers. Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices, beginning on page 91, explains the role of an energy management program and provides tools and concepts to help you address your system and work toward best practices. This chapter is geared more toward management personnel (owners, corporate engineers, and operators) at food processing plants. It includes a self-assessment survey that covers many of the concepts featured in this Guide, along with other energy management tools, concepts, and engineering references. Chapter 7: Case Studies, beginning on page 114, includes three short case studies that were selected to show how some of these best practices have been implemented in the Pacific Northwest. You will find another useful resource at the end of Chapter 4. Beginning on page 79, under Efficiency Checklist, are three tablesone each for compressors, evaporators, and condensersthat summarize the key best practices from Chapter 4.and Chapter 5.
CHAPTER 2
Commissioning ! Implementing commissioning for new construction, for major retrofits, or periodically for all systems to ensure that the system, equipment, and controls meet process and energy-efficiency objectives
Life-Cycle Costs
Best practices encompass much more than just energy performance. In the broadest sense, best practices could be defined as follows: Design, operational, and maintenance practices that help minimize life-cycle costs to the system owner are based upon factors that include: ! ! ! ! ! Initial capital investment The expected life of the equipment The reliability of the equipment Life-cycle cost of energy Life-cycle cost of equipment maintenance 5
! ! ! ! !
Life-cycle cost of operation labor Life-cycle cost of labor and equipment for maintenance Life-cycle costs associated with marginal improvements in product quality Life-cycle cost effects on employee and process productivity Capital and discount rate for the owner
Ideally, all of these costs and their interactions would be well understood, and selecting the best practices for a given situation would be straightforward. Real situations, however, are more complicated and have more unknowns, but we contend that in most cases, a system that is designed, operated, and maintained in an energy-efficient manner will typically have low life-cycle costs. There is no single set of best practices that is ideal for every situation. We do not suggest that every conceivable energy-efficient option should be integrated into every system. The optimum design for a system that operates continuously at a relatively high load will be different than the design for a system with a short season with highly variable loads. Instead, we believe that it is warranted to consider a range of energy-efficiency choices when designing a new refrigeration system or modifying an existing system. Existing system constraints, energy rates, and utility or government incentives can all significantly influence which best practices are economically viable for a specific system.
" In the performance evaluations of system operators and maintenance staff, consider recognizing operation-and-maintenance activities that contribute to efficiency. " Diligently perform maintenance tasks including: " Clean heat-exchange surfaces " Follow water-treatment recommendations " Eliminate non-condensable gas " Regularly calibrate pressure and temperature sensors and slide-valve position indicators " Perform all preventive maintenance on compressors " Track system performance through engine-room logs and control-system histories. Use this data to identify and address problems and to evaluate future upgrades with high-quality information. " Track the performance of the plant or system relative to normalized production (for example, kWh vs. pound of product) or weather (for example, kWh vs. average ambient temperature). Review performance regularly to identify concerns or progress towards cost-reduction goals.
Condenser maintenance practices pertaining to scale, non-condensable gas, and nozzle conditions
Energy Benefit Benefits Beyond Energy The control system uses energy-saving ! Remote access lets operator strategies for compressor sequencing, observe system remotely, resulting evaporator and condenser control, in lower labor costs associated with while meeting production troubleshooting requirements ! More consistent levels of service and, typically, more closely held temperatures ! Improved insight into system operation allows earlier recognition of problems ! Control system history shows how much system capacity has been used, which in turn lets owner make better capital-investment decisions Energy savings resulting from lower ! Provides flexibility for future condensing pressures expansion Lower and more uniform condensing ! Longer belt life pressures result in compressor and ! More stable operation condenser fan energy savings Energy savings resulting from lower ! Longer condenser life condensing pressure and lower fan ! Avoid production limitations and pump energy during peak loads
Energy Benefit Evaporator fan and compressor energy savings during low load periods
Benefits Beyond Energy ! Less product loss due to dehydration (for exposed fruits and vegetables) ! More comfortable and productive working environment for coldstorage employees
CHAPTER 3
Purpose of Refrigeration
The purpose of refrigeration is to remove heat from some medium a fluid or solidand transfer or reject that heat elsewhere. In most systems, heat is removed from the air (for example, a refrigerated warehouse), water or glycol (for example, a water chiller), or a food product (for example, ice cream), and transferred outdoors to the ambient environment. Although industrial refrigeration is also used in the chemical industry and in unique applications such as cooling the concrete during dam construction, the fundamental purpose and operation is the same.
Refrigerants
A refrigerant is a chemical compound that undergoes a phase change from liquid to gas and back as part of the refrigeration cycle. Refrigerant selection is a complicated topic that goes beyond the scope of this guide. Three refrigerants are noteworthy for industrial refrigeration. ! Ammonia is by far the most common refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems. It is inexpensive, energy-efficient, and has no ozone depletion potential.
! R-22 (also known as Hydrochlorofluorocarbon-22 or HCFC-22) is the next most common choice. It is occasionally used in industrial refrigerant systems and is used commonly in smaller packaged refrigeration system. R-22 is slated for gradual phase-out in the United States under an international treaty called the Montreal Protocol due to its ozone depletion potential.
For food processing and storage, ammonia is the most efficient refrigerant.
! Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been used in a few prototype low temperature hybrid refrigeration systems in recent years. These system use CO2 as the low temperature refrigerant in conjunction with ammonia on the high temperature side of the system. All of these refrigerants work in the same general way. When a liquid refrigerant is heated (absorbs heat), it boils and turns into gas. When a gas refrigerant (vapor) is cooled, it condenses into a liquid and releases heat. The engineering terms for these processes are evaporation and condensation. A refrigerant
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evaporating is no more complex a process than water boiling on a stove. Where water boils at 212F at atmospheric pressure, ammonia boils at -28F. Many more issues and refrigerant traits affect the refrigeration cycle. Though there is certainly value in understanding the constant pressure-temperature relationship of a refrigerantand issues such as enthalpy, entropy, and latent heatfor now, understanding that a refrigerant boils and condenses, absorbing and releasing heat in the process, is sufficient for a basic understanding of the refrigeration cycle.
Evaporation
Imagine we have a cold liquid refrigerant, such as ammonia, at 0 psig (atmospheric pressure) and -28F. The liquid ammonia is located in an evaporator coil. Air that is warmer than the refrigerant, at say -10F, is blown across the evaporator by fans. When that air passes over the fins on the evaporator, it is cooled by the -28F ammonia inside the evaporator. As the ammonia absorbs heat from the air stream, it boils (at a constant pressure and temperature) and the air exits the evaporator at a colder temperature than it entered, say -20F. The processes within the evaporator in any particular application are essentially the same. Instead of air blowing over a coil, water could be Figure 3: The basic refrigeration flowing through the tubes of a heat exchanger, or a food product cycle such as ice cream could be opposite a heat-exchange surface from the ammonia. In any case, the result is refrigerant that has absorbed heat, boiled, and made something else colder, thus achieving the refrigeration effect the system was designed for. We now have a volume of ammonia that is still at -28F and 0 psig, but is now a vapor. So that it can do more refrigeration, we must return it to a cold, low-pressure condition. To do this, we first need to raise the temperature of the refrigerant so we can get rid of the heat outside, where the temperature is likely much higher than -28F.
Compression
This is where compression comes in. A compressor is a piece of equipment that simply compresses the refrigerant vapor, raising its pressure and therefore its temperature. In our example, the compressor would receive the boiled ammonia vapor at -28F, 0 psig ($ in Figure 3), and compress it to an elevated pressure and temperature, say 85F and 150 psig (% in Figure 3). (In reality, the discharge temperature is superheated, but we have used saturated conditions for the sake of simplicity.) This achieves our goal of a high-temperature refrigerant that can now reject heat to the cooler ambient environment. We now need a piece of equipment that can reject that heat from the refrigeration system.
Condensing
The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant vapor now enters a piece of equipment called a condenser, which, like an evaporator, is a bundle of tubes that looks like a car radiator. The refrigerant vapor at 85F and 150 psig enters the condenser (%in Figure 3). Fans blow cooler ambient air at, say 70F, across the condenser. Within the condenser, the warm refrigerant vapor heats the air. The air leaves the condenser at Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics 11
a higher temperature, say 80F, while the refrigerant cools down and condenses from a vapor to a liquid (& in Figure 3). We now have a volume of ammonia that is still at 85F and 150 psig, but is now a liquid. But we still need to turn this into a low-temperature, low-pressure liquid. For this, we turn to expansion.
Expansion
When a liquid refrigerant at high pressure passes through a restriction such as a narrowed tube or a barely open valve, the liquid loses pressure. That loss of pressure causes a small portion of the liquid to vaporize. That vaporization absorbs energy from the remaining liquid refrigerant, causing it to cool down. This process is called expansion, and in industrial refrigeration systems it is achieved using an expansion valve. In our example, our 85F, 150 psig liquid enters an expansion valve, and its pressure drops to 0 psig. The liquid refrigerant temperature drops to -28F, and we find ourselves back where we started. Our cold liquid refrigerant is again ready to do more refrigeration (# in Figure 3).
Two-Stage Cycle
In applications where a very low temperature (for example, less than -25F for ammonia) is required, twostage refrigeration systems are often used. A two-stage system (Figure 4) is essentially two standard cycles stacked on top of each other (with an intercooler in between). The first stage of compression is performed by a first-stage, low-stage, or booster compressor, and the second stage is performed by a second-stage or high-stage compressor. The booster compressor discharges superheated refrigerant vaporthat is, vapor that is above the saturation temperature (the threshold boiling temperature) of the refrigerant. To improve efficiency (and to utilize a slightly smaller high stage compressor), most two-stage systems cool this superheated vapor back down to saturation prior to the vapor prior to entering the high stage compressor. This is where the intercooler comes in. The booster compressor discharges its superheated vapor at the bottom of a vesselthe intercoolerfilled with liquid ammonia. The gas bubbles up through this liquid, is cooled back to saturation, and is then drawn into the high-stage compressor.
The intercooler often has a second thermodynamic purpose. Two stage compression often incorporates subcooling of the liquid refrigerant that is destined for serving low temperature refrigeration loads. One simple type of liquid subcooler in a two-stage system consists of a piping coil within the intercooler vessel. High pressure liquid refrigerant flows through this coil on its way to low temperature loads flows. This coil is essentially bathed in the colder refrigerant of the intercooler. As the high pressure liquid refrigerant cools off while flowing through coil, it transfers heat to the liquid refrigerant in the intercooler. This heat transfer causes some refrigerant to boil off in the intercooler. The subcooling improves energy efficiency, as a fraction of the gas compression load is shifted from two-stage compression to high stage compression. Expansion can also be performed in two stages.
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Refrigeration Equipment
Four typical pieces of equipment are associated with the four major processes in the industrial refrigeration cycle: ! ! ! ! Evaporation: Evaporator coils (including fluid coolers and product coolers) Compression: Compressors (reciprocating, screw, and rotary vane) Condensing: Condensing coils (evaporative and shell-and-tube) Expansion: Various expansion valves and devices
The following sections discuss these in greater detail and address issues of performance ratings, capacity control, and design and selection.
Evaporators
Introduction
All cooling within the refrigeration cycle occurs in a piece of equipment called an evaporator. There are two primary types of evaporators: ! Refrigerant-to-air coils ! Heat exchangers There are two main types of heat exchangers: ! Refrigerant-to-secondary fluid ! Direct-contact This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of each.
Refrigerant-to-Air Coils
Overview
The most common evaporator configuration is the refrigerant-to-air coil (also called an evaporator fan coil), in which the cooled refrigerant is passed through tubes, and air is drawn over the tubes to refrigerate it. The tubes typically have attached fins to improve heat transfer. Figure 5 shows an example. Evaporator coils are used to cool air within a closed space. Examples include a freezer or cooler, a blast freezer, a spiral freezer (Figure 6, left), a freeze tunnel (Figure 6, right), or an industrial air-conditioning system.
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Evaporator coils can have from one to eight fans (Figure 7), ranging from less than one horsepower (hp) (fractional) to 20 hp or more. In most cases, evaporator coils are suspended from the ceiling. In some cases, the coil may be located on the floor or in a remote location, and ductwork transfers air to and from the coil. In other cases, the coils can be located in a penthouse (Figure 8). The following sections explain how the refrigerant and air sides of the evaporator work and how evaporator coils are rated for capacity and efficiency.
Courtesy of Colmac
Axial Fans
Most evaporator coils use axial fans that either push or pull air through the coil. In larger evaporator coil applications, the fan motors are standard NEMA frame units and are normally mounted to a rigid mounting plate with four bolts in the motor base. In smaller applications with fractional horsepower motors, there is often a belly-band mount, in which the fan shroud wraps around the body of a footless (often special OEM) motor, and is cinched around the motor body. This is important because these special motors are often inefficient and create challenges with VFD installations. Larger evaporator coils are usually equipped with Figure 8: Evaporator coils in a penthouse cast aluminum fan blades, while smaller coils are equipped with simple stamped-steel propellers attached to a hub.
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Centrifugal Fans
Less common are evaporator coils that use centrifugal (squirrelcage) fans (Figure 9). These are often floor-mounted, and are used when low noise levels or high static pressures (such as ducts) are required. In general, evaporator coils with centrifugal fans require higherhorsepower fans and are less efficient (that is, have a higher power per volume of air delivered) than those with axial fans.
Custom, fractional horsepower fan motors are inefficient, and create challenges for VFDs. Stamped-steel fan blades are inefficient. On evaporators, axial fans are more efficient than centrifugal fans. Constant operation of evaporator fans is common, but wastes energy.
Fan Controls
Evaporator fans can also be used to control evaporator capacity, either as the primary means of capacity control or as subordinate to the valves that control refrigerant as discussed in Valves on page 36. There are three primary methods of fan control. Cycling/Alternating/Shedding
In some systems, the entire evaporator coil fan (or set of fans) is cycled off when cooling is disabled. This is known as fan cycling. In some scenarios, only a subset of the fans on each coil are cycled off. Occasionally, an operator will choose to manually turn off or shed a portion of fans based on load or season. Two-Speed Evaporator fan motors can have two speeds, allowing full- and (typically) half-speed operation. Variable Speed Evaporator fans can be managed with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) to control fan speed continuously (rather than in steps). A detailed discussion of VFD technology is presented in Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) beginning on page 42.
Courtesy of Vilter
Refrigerant System
Refrigerant Transport
There are three major methods of supplying liquid refrigerant to evaporator coils: ! Recirculated or overfeed ! Flooded ! Direct expansion Normally, the capacity of evaporator coils is controlled by controlling the flow or pressure of the liquid refrigerant to achieve temperature control. The following sections describe each method and explain how evaporator capacity is controlled in each.
Virtually all ammonia evaporators are either recirculated or flooded. Direct expansion is rare, although it sometimes limits system efficiency.
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Recirculated or Overfeed In a recirculated (or overfeed) system (Figure 10), liquid refrigerant is held in a remote vessel called a low-pressure receiver (LPR) at low pressure and temperature. Refrigerant is pumped either with a mechanical pump or with a gas-pressure system from the LPR to the evaporator coil. The rate of flow is metered by a hand expansion valve to provide the coils with about three to four times more liquid than is boiled in the process of removing heat, resulting in the term overfeed. Hence, the refrigerant returning from the coil is about three-fourths liquid and one-fourth vapor (by weight, not volume). The mixture returns to the LPR, where the vapor rises to the top and is drawn away by the compressors.
In a recirculated system, the capacity of the evaporator coil is controlled by simply turning the refrigerant flow on and off with a solenoid valve. Flooded In a flooded system, low-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant is held in an adjacent vessel called an accumulator. The accumulator is physically located above the coil, and refrigerant simply flows to the coil due to gravity. As the refrigerant boils, the vapor bubbles rise through the coil to the top of the accumulator, where the vapor is drawn away by the compressors. In a flooded system, a pressure regulator is located on the accumulator. The refrigerant pressure (and hence temperature) is varied in the accumulator by throttling the gas returning in the suction line of the compressors. When the regulator is wide open, the Figure 11: Flooded evaporator refrigerant essentially sees the full suction pressure of the compressors and the refrigerant is at low temperature, thus maximizing capacity. As the regulator closes, the pressure rises in the coil, with a commensurate increase in boiling temperature and decrease in temperature difference between refrigerant and entering air. Direct Expansion In a direct expansion (or DX) system, highpressure liquid refrigerant is piped from the highpressure receiver to the evaporator coil. A thermalexpansion valve meters refrigerant flow to maintain a target superheat for refrigerant leaving the evaporator coil. Direct expansion evaporators are designed to evaporate all of the liquid refrigerant that is fed to the coil. When operating properly, a DX coil will evaporate refrigerant in Figure 12: Direct expansion refrigerant transport about 70% of the coil. The last 30% of the refrigerant circuit has little heat transfer associated with it as the refrigerant is being superheated in this section. Since 30% of the coil is lost to effective heat transfer, DX coils are less efficient on a fan power per ton basis relative to liquid overfeed and flooded coils. Refrigerant flow control is often challenging for direct expansion evaporators. Too much flow leads to liquid return in the suction line (which can damage compressors or create other problems for the system). Too little flow lessens refrigeration capacity and reduces evaporator efficiency. A high pressure differential is often required across conventional thermal expansion valve. Insufficient pressure differential can lead to some of the problems with under- and over-feeding the evaporator coils.
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On the other hand, a high pressure differential requirement can be a barrier to efficient low condensing pressures for the refrigeration system. Recently, motorized electronic valves have become available as an alternative to conventional thermal expansion valves for this application. The motorized valves offer stable performance and have lower requirements for pressure differential. Similar to a recirculated system, a direct-expansion system uses a liquid solenoid to turn refrigerant flow to the thermal expansion valve on and off.
In a hot-gas defrost system, high-pressure, high-temperature, refrigerant vapor is discharged from the compressor and routed to and passed through the evaporator coil. The gas is often managed by a pressure regulator at the coil outlet, maintaining a pressure of 65 to 95 psig within the coil. In addition, there may be a master pressure regulator on the main hot-gas line that reduces pressure to about 100 psig. Any liquid or vapor refrigerant leaving the coil is typically returned in the coil suction line.
Water Defrost
In a water defrost system, warm water (typically 40 to 80F) is sprayed over the coil surface. Although well or city water is sometimes used directly, there is usually a tank or pit where defrost water is stored. In a few cases, the water is heated by steam or electric resistance, but normally, it is heated using heat recovered from the refrigeration system. In most cases, a remote condenser sump serves double-duty as a defrost water tank, and water is heated during condenser operation.
Air Defrost
Air defrost is used in spaces where the refrigerant is below freezing and the air temperature is above freezing. The flow of liquid refrigerant is interrupted, and the fans continue to operate, blowing air over the coil surface to melt the ice.
Electric Defrost
Hot-gas and water defrost are most common. Hot-gas defrost is often done too frequently for too long, wasting energy.
Electric-resistance defrost is fairly uncommon in industrial refrigeration systems. Resistance elements are located on the evaporator coil, in contact with the metal. The elements heat the coil to melt accumulated ice. The size of the elements ranges typically from 10 to 40 kW per coil.
Hybrid Defrost
Although uncommon, some systems use a simultaneous combination of hot-gas and water defrost. A typical application would be a freeze tunnel where completely eliminating all frost quickly is critical to productivity.
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Defrost Control Defrost can be initiated manually, through simple local controls, or through a centralized computercontrol system. The need for defrost is a function of air flow, the coil temperature, and the amount of moisture in the air (which can vary seasonally or by product type). In cooled spaces that are seldom accessed and contain covered or sealed food products, defrost requirements are minimal. Defrost introduces significant heat to the refrigerated spaces through convection, radiation, and sublimation, so minimizing defrost cycles while keeping coils frost-free and efficient is a goal of defrost controls. Manual defrost is sometimes seen in processes such as spiral freezers or freeze tunnels, but manual defrost is becoming less common. Defrost is typically scheduled for the same time(s) each day, such as during plant cleanup in a potato freeze tunnel, and is initiated by system operators. Without a central computer-control system, defrosts are usually initiated with a dedicated local defrost controller. The controller is essentially a time clock with multiple set points for each phase of the defrost cycle. The most sophisticated form of defrost control is the central computer-control system that initiates and manages defrost cycles. It Courtesy of Hansen provides the greatest level of customization and is discussed more Figure 14: Defrost controller fully in Computer Control beginning on page 40. Unfortunately, many computer-control systems still use a time schedule for defrost and thus are inherently no more efficient than simple electro-mechanical controls. The simplest defrost scheme is a time schedule, in which defrost cycles occur at the same time every day. A more sophisticated option is to trigger defrost based on some measurement of coil load, such as cumulative refrigerant run time. Approaches to initiating defrost include measuring air-temperature drop across the coil, air-pressure drop, frost thickness, or fan-motor current, or using optical sensors that look through coil fins to see if they are blocked by frost. Despite the sophistication of some of these methods, initiating defrost based on sensed conditions has proved to be challenging. For this reason, most defrosts are triggered on a simple time schedule or after a specified refrigerant run time. Similarly, the simplest termination event for defrosting is a time schedule. The length of defrost cycles varies depending on many factors including moisture load, temperature, defrost method, condensing pressure, regulator pressure, hot gas line size, hot gas line insulation, valve configuration, and the degree of operator conservatism. Most industrial refrigeration defrost cycles last from 10 minutes to 1 hour. Most hot-gas defrost cycles last 15 to 45 minutes. Early in the defrost cycle, virtually all hot gas entering the coil is condensed, while later in the defrost cycle some or most of the gas can simply pass through the coil uncondensed. A more sophisticated method of terminating defrost is to measure the gas temperature leaving the coil with a temperature probe. A rising gas temperature indicates that the frost has melted and much of the defrost gas is simply passing through the coil and bleeding into the suction line without losing heat and temperature. In our experience, the radiation and convection losses from the coil are sufficiently large to cool the refrigerant to saturation temperature and condense, even after all frost has melted. As a result, measured temperature does not always accurately indicate when defrost is complete. Hence, direct observation is the key to adjusting the duration of the defrost cycle.
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For example a coil might be rated by the manufacturer at 10,000 Btu/hr/F. With entering air at 40F and a liquid refrigerant temperature of 30F, the resulting operating capacity of the coil would be: Operating Capacity = Normalized Rating ! Temperature Difference = 10,000 Btu/hr/F ! (40F 30F) = 100,000 Btu/hr While this is the general method of rating coils, there are design and selection issues that modestly affect coil performance. These include the type of liquid feed and whether the coil will operate frosted or wet.
Heat Exchangers
The second major category of evaporators is the heat exchanger. There are two main categories of heatexchange methods and several types of heat exchangers that are appropriate for each: Heat Exchange Methods ! Refrigerant-to-secondary fluid ! Direct-contact Types of Heat Exchangers ! ! ! ! ! ! Shell-and-tube Plate-and-frame Falling-film Scraped-surface Plate freezer Ice scraper and ice maker
Heat-Exchange Methods
Refrigerant-to-Secondary Fluid Chillers
In this method, refrigerant cools a secondary fluid, commonly water, glycol, or brine. This is usually done with a shell-and-tube, plate-and-frame, or falling-film heat exchanger. The secondary fluid is pumped to the ultimate cooling application. Examples include using chilled water to cool milk products in a creamery, or using brine to freeze popsicles or crabs.
Direct-Contact Freezers
In this method, refrigerant is used to cool a food product such as juice or milk. This is usually done with a plate-and-frame, shell and tube, or other specialty heat exchanger. Also, scraped-surface exchangers are used for high-viscosity or hardening products such as puree, ice cream, or flake ice. In other systems, refrigerant cools a plate or surface that is directly opposite a hardening product such as cartons of ice cream or fish fillets. This is usually done with a plate freezer. Also, batch ice-cube makers rely on contact between a refrigerated surface and freezing water.
Courtesy of Mueller
Figure 15: Heat exchangers: Shell-and-tube, inside (left top) and outside (left bottom); Plate-and-frame (center); Falling-film (right)
Plate Freezers
A plate freezer (Figure 16, right) is commonly used to harden or freeze food products such as cartons of ice cream or fish fillets. The product is placed on a flat horizontal surface with refrigerant or a secondary coolant directly on the other side.
Figure 16: Scraped-surface heat exchanger (left) and plate freezer (right)
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Courtesy of Northstar
Crushed, tube, or cube is usually made with specialized machines that manufacture ice in batches. Tube ice machines use hot gas refrigerant to harvest the ice. The batch operation can result in a highly variable refrigeration load. In the past, ice was manufactured manually in large blocks. Water was poured into large metal tubs which were then immersed in a brine solution. The blocks were then placed in storage or ground into smaller material. These systems were labor-intensive and very few remain in use.
Compressors
Introduction
The purpose of a compressor is to increase the pressure and temperature of refrigerant vapor returning from the evaporators. There are three primary types of compressors: ! Reciprocating ! Rotary screw ! Rotary vane Reciprocating and rotary screw compressors are most common. Although rotary vane compressors are rarely installed today, many are still in use. This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of reciprocating, screw, and rotary vane compressors.
Courtesy of Vogt
Reciprocating Compressors
Applications
Reciprocating compressors are widely used in either low- or high-temperature applications. They can accommodate compression ratios up to 8:1 with ammonia, and can be installed as boosters, high-stage, high-suction, and single-stage. Their maximum size is about 300 horsepower. Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics 21
Configuration
Reciprocating compressors use pistons to compress refrigerant vapor within a cylinder. Most compressors have 2 to 16 cylinders. Figure 19 shows a 12-cylinder compressor. The pistons are driven by a crankshaft which is driven either directly, by an electric motor, or indirectly, via a belt drive connected to a motor. An inlet valve opens and low-pressure, lowtemperature refrigerant vapor is drawn into the cylinder as the piston lowers. The inlet valve then closes and the piston rises, compressing the vapor. As the gas pressure increases, it exits the cylinder through the exhaust valve. Figure 20 shows an internal view. In some uncommon applications, a compound compressor provides multiple stages of compression in a single machine. For example, four cylinders might provide a first stage of compression, and another two cylinders may provide a second stage. Compound compressors are used to improve efficiency and to extend the operable pressure range of the machine.
Courtesy of Vilter
Capacity Control
Most, but not all reciprocating compressors have capacity control. For those with capacity control, Figure 20: Cut-away view of compressor cylinder unloading is the universal method. The inlet valve is held open (either by oil pressure or discharge-gas pressure), preventing the cylinder from compressing. Although the piston still draws suction gas on its downward stroke, it simply pushes the gas back into the suction line during the upward stroke. Most compressors have simple unloading stages (such as an 8-cylinder machine unloading to 75%, 50%, and 25% capacity). In general, electric solenoids activate unloaders. The electric solenoids can be managed by pressure switches mounted directly on the compressor, by remote electro-mechanical switches, or by a modern computer-control system. Cylinder unloading is an efficient form of capacity control, with a nearly proportional reduction in capacity and power (see Figure 21).
Sample Reciprocating Compressor Part Load
100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
Power
50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Cylinder Unloading Ideal
Cooling
Capacity
Usually, reciprocating Figure 21: Reciprocating compressor part-load curves compressors are cooled by circulating water through the heads and cylinder jackets. Some compressors have external oil coolers that are water-cooled. Water is often supplied from an adjacent condenser sump, although it is not uncommon to simply use a once-through supply of city or well water that is sent to the drain (which can be costly in terms of water use and possibly sewer charges). 22 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics
Control
As mentioned before, reciprocating compressors are often provided with simple pressure switches for cylinder unloading and safety cut-outs. Microprocessor-based controls are rarely provided for reciprocating compressor packages.
Disadvantages Frequent Maintenance High Maintenance Cost Limited Capacity/Size Discrete Unloading Many Moving Parts, Limited Pressure Differential
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Configuration
Screw compressors come in two designs: twin and single screw.
Twin Screw
A twin screw has a male and female rotor which rotate and mesh together (see Figure 22). Refrigerant vapor is drawn into the space between the rotors, and as the rotors turn and mesh, the vapor is trapped. As the rotors continue to rotate, the vapor is compressed and pushed to the opposite end of the compressor. The vapor is then opened to the discharge port, and pushed from the compressor.
Courtesy of Frick
The screw compressor package relies on oil to seal the rotors during compression. In addition, oil is pumped through bearings for lubrication. After compression, the refrigerant vapor and oil are mixed and must be separated. The compressor and driving motor are commonly mounted on top of an oil separator, as shown in Figure 23. The oil separator has coalescing elements that trap the entrained oil from the refrigerant vapor stream.
Single Screw
The single-screw design is relatively new and has a single rotor and two gate rotors, one on each side (see Figure 24). The center female rotor is driven by the motor and the two male gate rotors mesh with, and turn alongside, the female rotor. The resulting compression is similar to that of a twin screw.
Capacity Control
There are four methods of controlling the capacity of screw compressors: ! ! ! ! Slide Valve Poppet valve Inlet throttling Motor speed
Virtually all compressors use slide-valve unloading to control capacity. One prominent manufacturer offers a line of compressors with poppet-valve unloading, and another offers inlet throttling. (Figure 58 on page 59 shows typical part-load curves for a screw compressor.)
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Figure 26: Diagram of slide valve unloading (left) and Photograph of slide valve (right)
As the slide valve is moved, the point on the rotors where compression starts is delayed (Figure 26). Gas is allowed to return to the suction port, uncompressed. The slide valve can provide infinite adjustment of capacity, down to 10% to 30% of capacity. The slide valve is usually moved by oil pressure and, in new compressors, is managed by the packagemounted micro-processor. Figure 26 shows an actual slide valve.
Power
Slide valve unloading is a moderately efficient form of Figure 27: Screw compressor part-load performance curves for various capacity control, although the capacity-control methods efficiency of a machine degrades when highly unloaded, particularly in applications with a high pressure ratio. Fully unloaded power varies from 30% to 50% or more.
Capacity
Most screw compressor manufacturers now offer VFD control as a factory-provided option. (This is a relatively new development. There VFDs are the most efficient were few applications before the mid-1990s and most early form of capacity control for applications were retrofits.) The compressor is allowed to slow from screw compressors. 100% to its minimum speed set point which can vary from 20% to 50% speed depending on the application. The slide valve is held at the 100% capacity condition until the compressor is at minimum speed. Once at minimum speed, the slide valve is allowed to unload for further capacity reduction The VFD and slide are managed by the compressor microprocessor panel or a refrigeration computer-control system. VFD control provides better efficiency than any of the other methods of capacity control. A detailed discussion of VFD control is found in Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) beginning on page 42.
Cooling
Screw compressors use oil for lubrication and cooling during the compression process, so heat must be removed from the oil continuously. There are several methods of cooling screw compressors, including: ! ! ! ! Liquid injection Thermosiphon Water or glycol cooling Direct cooling
Liquid injection cooling imposes a small capacity penalty, and can impose a power penalty of 1% to 10% or more. The power penalty results from the need to recompress the refrigerant that was injected into the compression process. In general, the power penalty increases with pressure ratio, and is greatest in singlestage applications with a low suction pressure. An additional disadvantage of liquid injection is the need to elevate condensing pressure to ensure adequate pressure to inject properly. Older designs had a minimum pressure requirement of 100 to 125 psig, although modern designs with electronic expansion valves are capable of operating at lower pressures. In a small number of applications, the injection occurs in the compressor discharge line. This eliminates the power penalty, but requires a booster pump. A small liquid pump boosts liquid pressure sufficiently to
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allow injection into the compressor discharge piping. Figure 29 shows one manufacturers discharge injection system.
Thermosiphon Cooling
Thermosiphon oil cooling (Figure 30) is a passive method of cooling compressor oil. A shell-andtube (or small plate-and-frame) heat exchanger is mounted on the side of the compressor package, angled slightly from the horizontal. High-pressure liquid ammonia is piped from a pilot vessel (usually either a separate vessel located in the ceiling of the engine room, or the upper portion of a vertical high-pressure receiver with a catch basin) to one side of the exchanger, and the hot compressor oil is passed through the other side of the exchanger. The warm oil causes the liquid ammonia to boil, cooling the oil. The ammonia vapor from this process floats upward and is piped back to the condenser. There are three advantages to the thermosiphon Courtesy of Vilter system. First, there is no capacity or power penalty. Figure 29: Discharge injection system showing pump Second, there is no artificial lower limit to (arrow) discharge pressure. And third, all heat rejected from the oil is routed directly to the condenser, which provides energy savings with booster compressors in a two-stage system (discussed in Multistage Compression beginning on page 71). Thermosiphon cooling is not cheap: about $10,000 to $25,000 more per machine than injection cooling. In addition, the heat exchanger requires adequate space next to the compressor package.
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Direct-Contact Cooling
A recently developed technology is direct-contact cooling between the refrigerant and oil. A layer of liquid refrigerant is maintained on top of the oil within the oil separator. The refrigerant boils in the separator, cooling the oil. A mixture of oil and liquid refrigerant is injected into the discharge end of the rotor casing, providing cooling following the compression process. Figure 31 is a sample diagram of this cooling alternative.
Courtesy of Vilter
This method of cooling is relatively new in the marketplace. Claimed advantages include lower cost and higher efficiency.
Beginning of Compression
140 120
Pressure (psi)
100 80 60 40 20 0
Undercompression
Suction Pressure
Compression Process
undercompression In the case of undercompression, the gas within the compressor does not rise to the pressure outside the discharge port. As the rotors turn and open to the discharge port, gas actually rushes into the compressor from the discharge line. This gas must be recompressed and discharged from the machine. This results in inefficiency.
In the case of overcompression, the gas within the compressor rises to a pressure higher than that outside the discharge port. Unnecessary work on the gas within the compressor also results in inefficiency.
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Ideally, the gas pressure within the compressor perfectly matches the pressure outside the discharge port. Correctly selecting a fixed-VI compressor, adjusting a manual VI port, or upgrading to an auto-VI feature will improve efficiency (see Screw Compressor Volume Ratio on page 67 for details).
Compressor Control
Virtually all new screw compressors are controlled by a microprocessor panel mounted on the compressor package (see Figure 33). Microprocessor panels allow the operator easily operate the compressor in local, remote, or manual mode. They incorporate many safety and protection features. They allow for easy calibration.
Courtesy of Frick
Advantages Disadvantages Long maintenance intervals High initial cost Available in large capacity Factory-level service requirements Slide valve with infinite control Inefficient unloading Few moving parts Large package size
Configuration
Figure 34 shows an external view of a rotary vane compressor.
Figure 34: Rotary vane compressor
The center shaft is offset, and flat blades called vanes are located in slots of the rotor. As the compressor turns, the vanes are thrust outward and slide along the case. Gas is drawn in one side of the compressor, and discharged at the other side. Figure 35 shows an internal view. The compressors can move a tremendous flow of refrigerant, although they have limited pressure ranges. In addition, the compressors are frail and the vanes are highly susceptible to shearing when liquid accidentally enters the compressor. In addition, these compressors are very loud.
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Capacity Control
Virtually all rotary vane compressors have no capacity control. With no capacity control, suction pressure floats to an equilibrium pressure where load meets capacity. Rarely, a gas bypass feature is available that recirculates high-pressure gas from the discharge line back to the suction line. This is a very inefficient method of capacity control.
Cooling
In many rotary vane booster applications, no cooling is required because of the very low operating suction temperature. However, water cooling is used when needed.
Control
Virtually all applications are operated manually or with simple pressure switches or a computer-control system.
Advantages Disadvantages High-volume capacity No or limited capacity control Compact Susceptible to vane damage Noisy
Performance Ratings
Full-Load Ratings
All compressors are rated for capacity and power at various suction and discharge pressures and temperatures. Ratings are often available as a table, performance curves, or through factory-provided software. Capacity is rated in tons of refrigeration (TR), where 1 TR = 12,000 BTU/hour. Power is universally rated in brake horsepower (BHP), the input power required at the shaft. Table 6 shows sample ratings.
Table 6: Sample compressor ratings
Condensing Temperature & Pressure 75F (126 psig) 85F (152 psig) 95F (181 psig) 105F (214 psig)
Suction Temperature and Pressure -40F (8.7") BHP 269 301 336 374 TR 108 103 99 94 BHP/TR 2.49 2.92 3.39 3.98 BHP 347 389 436 486 0F (15.7 psig) TR 317 308 296 290 BHP/TR 1.09 1.26 1.47 1.68 +40F (58.6 psig)) BHP 350 419 496 582 TR 773 751 729 705 BHP/TR 0.45 0.56 0.68 0.83
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There are three general rules that can be applied to any set of full-load compressor ratings: ! Raising suction pressure increases compressor capacity. ! Lowering discharge pressure decreases power. ! In all cases, raising suction or lowering discharge pressure improves BHP/TR. These rules will be used in later sections to improve compressor and system efficiency (see Increasing Suction Pressure, page 46 and Reducing Discharge Pressure, page 49).
Part-Load Ratings
Traditionally, full-load ratings have been the focus for designing and assessing the overall performance of compressors. Only recently has part-load performance become prominent, particularly in response to increased energy awareness. Unfortunately, part-load ratings for compressors are developed and presented less consistently than full-load ratings, making it difficult to compare the part-load performance of equipment from different manufacturers. Historically, only general part-load ratings were published. That is, performance at specific operating conditions was not rated. In addition, manufacturers would take liberties with performance curves, for example, claiming reduced discharge pressure when unloaded to mask inefficiency. It was difficult to accurately assess compressor performance at reduced load. However, most manufacturers now offer rating software that allows detailed part-load curves to be developed, and variable speed performance to be documented. There are only two absolute rules that can be taken from any set of part-load compressor ratings: ! Compressor efficiency degrades as the compressor operates at decreasing percentages of full load. ! Speed control provides the best part-load performance for screw compressors. These rules will be used in later sections to improve compressor and system efficiency (see Improving Compressor Part-Load Performance, page 59).
Condensers
Introduction
Most existing, and nearly all new applications, use evaporative condensers.
The purpose of a condenser is to reject the heat absorbed by the refrigeration system. This step condenses, or returns to a liquid, the high pressure, high temperature vapor refrigerant discharged by the compressors. The total condensing load includes not only the heat absorbed by the evaporator, but all other energy entering the cycle, including compressor shaft power and other minor loads. In nearly all cases, the majority of the heat is rejected to the ambient (outdoor) environment. Engineered heat recovery systems are common (particularly for underfloor heating of freezers), but they only reduce the total condensing load by a small percentage. Though a few refrigeration systems use air-cooled or shell-and-tube condensers with cooling towers or even river water, we will focus on evaporative condensers, which are used for the vast majority of modern industrial refrigeration systems. This section describes the configuration, operation, and control of evaporative condensers in industrial refrigeration systems.
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Common Configurations
There are three common configurations of evaporative condensers: ! Forced-draft with axial fans ! Induced-draft with axial fans ! Forced-draft with centrifugal fans
Courtesy Imeco (left), Evapco (center), and Baltimore Air Coil (right)
Figure 37: Forced-draft, axial fan condenser (left); Induced-draft, axial fan condenser (center); Forced-draft, centrifugal fan condenser (right)
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Capacity Control
Condenser capacity is managed by interrupting or varying the water and/or air flow.
often installed to simplify water treatment, to provide a reservoir of water for defrosting or compressor cooling, or where frigid climates make integral sump designs troublesome.
Capacity Ratings
Full Load
All evaporative condensers are rated at nominal conditions (in thousands of Btu/hr, or MBH), and are corrected based on condensing temperature and entering wet-bulb temperature. These correction factors are virtually universal across all manufacturers and models.
Part Load
Condenser manufacturers do not provide part-load performance data in standard published literature. However, there are experimental or theoretical formulas that can be applied to rated capacity at reduced air or water flow. To be conservative, you can assume that capacity decreases proportionally with air flow. In reality, performance is slightly better due to more effective heat transfer.
Dry Operation
If a condenser must be operated without water (conditions below freezing), the fans can be operated alone. In this situation, heat transfer is very poor. Condenser manufacturers provide ratings for dry operation, but, as discussed in Wet vs. Dry Operation (page 64), dry operation is very inefficient and should be avoided unless absolutely necessary under frigid conditions.
Vessels
Low-Pressure Receivers
A low-pressure receiver (LPR) is an insulated tank that holds low-pressure, low-temperature liquid ammonia to be sent to evaporators (Figure 38). The liquid is pumped to the coils, and some of it (typically 1/4 to 1/3) boils in the evaporator coil. The mixture of vapor and liquid returns to the LPR where the gas rises to the top and is drawn away by the compressor suction. Since only some of the refrigerant is boiled in the evaporator, this system is often called overfeed or liquid recirculation.
Figure 38: Low-pressure receiver (LPR) with insulation and liquid pump
We address the LPR and its piping and valves in Chapter 4:Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls because overfeed rates and other related issues can affect efficiency.
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Accumulators
An accumulator is also an insulated tank that holds low-pressure, low-temperature liquid ammonia for flooded evaporator applications. It is located above an evaporator coil or heat exchanger, and the liquid ammonia level is held about midway in the accumulator and thus completely floods the evaporator below it. Virtually all accumulators have a manual, dual-position, or motorized pressure regulator between the vessel and the compressor suction line that manages ammonia pressure and temperature within the coil. We address adjusting and controlling pressure regulators on these coils in Optimum Evaporator VFD Control and Set Points on page 57.
High-Pressure Receivers
A high-pressure receiver (HPR) is an uninsulated tank that holds the high-pressure liquid draining from the condensers (Figure 40). Virtually all refrigeration systems have some kind of HPR. It is usually located in the engine room, but it is sometimes located on the roof immediately below the condensers, or outdoors adjacent to the engine room. These vessels can be horizontal or vertical designs.
Controlled-Pressure Receivers
Some systems use a gas-pressure recirculation design, where compressor discharge gas is used to move liquid refrigerant throughout the coils and Figure 40: High-pressure receiver (HPR) between vessels. In lieu of a high-pressure receiver, these systems use a controlled-pressure receiver (CPR). In a system with a standard HPR, the pressure inside the vessel floats with system condensing pressure. With a CPR, pressure in the vessel is held at a constant level, typically 65 to 100 psig. Gas-pressure systems are often inefficient for several reasons: ! CPR often presents a bottleneck to reducing condensing pressure. ! In the course of managing liquid refrigerant and controlling vessel pressure, a significant volume of refrigerant vapor is regulated or transferred from the condensing pressure to the low side of the system. This gas must be recompressed and represents a false load on the system.
Valves
Liquid Solenoids
A liquid solenoid is a valve that opens and closes to manage liquid (or gas) refrigerant flow (Figure 41, left). All refrigeration systems include liquid solenoids. A liquid Courtesy of Hansen solenoid opens and closes to manage the flow of liquid Figure 41: Liquid solenoid (left); Metered liquid solenoid (right) refrigerant. Solenoids are commonly used for evaporator feed in recirculated systems, for make-up liquid to LPRs and intercoolers, and for miscellaneous applications such as compressor liquid injection. In a newly developed type of solenoid, the valve doesnt just open and close abruptly, but rather modulates to meter the flow (Figure 41, right). This smoothes out system pressure changes, which often fluctuate wildly during liquid feed. This can have secondary energy effects on such issues as sequencing compressors or selecting a compressor for operation.
Poorly performing solenoids, pressure regulators, and valves can reduce system efficiency.
Figure 42: Hand expansion valve (left); Thermal expansion valve (center); Electronic expansion valve (right)
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Pressure Regulators
Pressure regulators maintain a steady pressure at their inlet or outlet (Figure 43). Examples include a suction-pressure regulator on a flooded evaporator coil, or a hot-gasdefrost regulator. Pressure regulators are common in industrial refrigeration systems. They can either be manual (set to maintain a fixed pressure), dual-pressure (with high and Courtesy of Hansen low settings), or motorized (continuously adjustable). They Figure 43: Pressure regulators play a large part in system performance, and adjusting them to the most appropriate pressure set points often improves efficiency.
Purgers
Systems operating with negative suction pressures (below atmospheric pressure) tend to draw air into the system. Left unresolved, the added air results in increased condensing pressures. We discuss the benefits of purgers (Figure 44) in Purgers on page 75.
Underfloor Heating
Virtually all systems with freezers (below 32F) need underfloor heating to prevent the floor from frost heaving. There are three common types of underfloor heating: ! Glycol ! Air ! Electric Underfloor heating can have dramatic direct and secondary impacts on energy efficiency. Heating can limit system operating pressures, can put too much heat under the floor, and can use inefficient forms of heating (for example, electric resistance).
Courtesy of Hansen
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through a small condensing exchanger, with the refrigerant condensing into liquid as it heats the glycol. It is rare that the glycol is heated with anything other than refrigerant heat.
Controls
Introduction
All industrial refrigeration systems must be controlled to keep temperatures, pressures, and other critical variables within suitable ranges. Refrigeration controls affect production, safety, and efficiency. The basic features of most computer-control systems are: ! ! ! ! ! Evaporator liquid solenoid and pressure regulator control Evaporator fan on/off control Evaporator defrost control Compressor on/off and unloading control Condenser pump and fan on/off control
In the simplest sense, evaporators are controlled in response to zone temperature, compressors are controlled in response to suction pressure, and condensers are controlled in response to condensing pressure. In addition to these basic functions, refrigeration control systems can also provide additional advanced functions including: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Advanced compressor sequencing Advanced condenser control algorithms Advanced demand defrost initiation and termination control Two-speed motor and variable frequency drive control Underfloor heating system monitoring and control Recording of system variables (trending) System alarms Remote control
The presence of advanced control features depends on the control system capabilities and the customers needs. There are four basic categories of control systems: ! ! ! ! Manual control Electro-mechanical control Simple programmable logic controllers (PLC) Computer control
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Manual Controls
Manual control is simply the complete management of equipment by attending personnel. With manual control systems, system operators simply turn on equipment (such as a compressor, condenser pump, or fan) and, in some cases, adjust capacity as needed. Simple push-button controls or hand switches are most common for equipment start and stop. Manual control is increasingly uncommon.
Electro-Mechanical Controls
Electro-mechanical controls use simple pneumatic or electronic circuitry to manage refrigeration equipment. Electro-mechanical controls are still relatively common, particularly for small systems where computer control is not cost-effective, and with equipment such as reciprocating compressors where pressure switches are often integrated with the equipment by the manufacturer.
Pressure Switches
Simple pressure switches are most often used to unload the cylinders in reciprocating compressors and to control the cycling of condenser pumps and fans. There are two common types of pressure switches: ! Spring-loaded ! Mercury Spring-loaded pressure switches (Figure 45, left) all have a cutin set point and either a differential or cut-out set point. They are adjusted with a screwdriver, are difficult to set accurately, and are susceptible to drift. Mercury pressure switches Courtesy of Mercoid (right) (Figure 45, right) use a liquid mercury switch, and offer a cutFigure 45: Spring-loaded (left) and Mercury (right) pressure switches in and cut-out setting. These switches are easy to set and are most common on condenser controls.
Thermostats
A thermostat senses temperature changes and activates a switch that controls a piece of equipment. In refrigeration systems, they are most often used to control evaporator coils and associated liquid solenoids and fans. Figure 46 shows a sample application.
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Though electro-mechanical control systems were once the most effective option, they are increasingly rare in new installations. PLC and computer-control systems have superseded electro-mechanical systems on nearly all new construction projects, and are replacing many aging electromechanical systems in existing installations.
Courtesy of Honeywell
Although many older packages were originally equipped with simple electro-mechanical controls, these can be upgraded to a modern microprocessor panel for additional features and improved integration with a central computer-control system.
Computer Control
Introduction
Computer-control systems for refrigeration first became available in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These systems were a remarkable leap forward in control, trending, alarms, and other operations. Since these early systems, the capabilities of computer-based controls have expanded dramatically, with easy-to-use graphical interfaces, remote access, and advanced features.
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Both central and distributed systems have advantages and disadvantages. Both designs operate well, and as hardware and software continue to be refined, any differences between the two designs may narrow.
Also included in this category are in-house or corporate control specialists. For example, industrial food processing facilities often have process-oriented control systems that can be expanded to manage the refrigeration system. Also, in some cases, the facility may have staff with sufficient control or refrigeration expertise to successfully implement a stand-alone computer-control system.
Control Software
In the earliest systems, computer control depended on Unix, DOS, Assembly Language, C++, and other low-level languages. These systems were usually proprietary, and have mostly given way to systems with modern, open software platforms such as Wonderware, Intellution, Allen Bradley, GE, Think-N-Do, and others. However, there are still many systems that use proprietary or low-level software for control. Advanced features, brought about by Microsoft Windows and its graphical user interface, networking, and the Internet, have expanded the abilities of control software. In general, there has been an evolution away from proprietary and low-level software toward open architectures that require less arcane coding.
Standard Motors
Whether driving fans, pumps, or compressors, virtually all industrial refrigeration motors are three-phase induction units that operate at fixed speeds of 900, 1200, 1800, or 3600 rpm. Motor speeds for typical equipment are: Evaporator Fans: Compressors Reciprocating: Compressors Rotary Screw: Compressors Rotary Vane: Condenser Fans: 1200 or 1800 rpm 1200 rpm (direct) or 1800 rpm (belt) 3600 rpm 900 or 1200 rpm 1800 rpm
The operating speed of the motor is determined by the frequency of the line current (in North America, 60 Hertz, or 60 cycles per second), and the winding configuration (number of poles) of the motor. When running unloaded a motor turns at its nameplate-listed speed, slowing a few percent as load is placed on the shaft. Equipment run by motors at a single, fixed speed meet peak loads requirements, but do not accommodate part-load conditions well, which account for most operating hours.
Voltage
Amps
0 -200
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Time (milliseconds)
Time (milliseconds)
VFDs are available in a wide range of capacities, from fractional horsepower to thousands of horsepower. In the United States, virtually all industrial refrigeration applications are 480-volt, although some 240 volt applications still exist. Although rare in refrigeration, medium voltage units2300 to 4160 voltsare also available. Figure 52 shows a VFD installation. It is important to note that a VFD itself does not reduce energy use. Rather, energy savings occur by operating the driven equipment at a lower speed and possibly reduced torque. Placing a VFD on a motor that always operates at full speed will not reduce energy, but will actually increase power slightly as VFD are themselves only about 95% efficient at full speed.
Torque In situations of constant torque, 10% Power the torque load on the shaft 0% does not vary with speed. For 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Speed example, the twisting force at 30 Hz (half speed) is the same as that at 60 Hz (full speed). In Figure 53: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a constant industrial refrigeration torque load applications, compressors are the only constant torque load of interest. For constant torque loads, shaft power varies in direct
100%
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proportion to speed. That is, the power at 30 Hz is only (30"60) or one-half the power at 60Hz. Figure 53 is a chart of torque and power versus speed for a constant torque situation. In situations of variable torque, the torque load on the shaft varies with the square of speed. That is, the twisting force at 30 Hz is only (30"60)2 or onequarter the twisting force at 60 Hz. In industrial refrigeration applications, evaporator and condenser fans are the variable torque loads of interest. For these variable torque loads, shaft power varies in proportion to the cube of speed, often called the cube law. That is, at 30 Hz, the load would require (30"60)3, or one-eighth the power. Figure 54 is a chart of torque and power versus speed for a variable torque situation.
Variable Torque Loads
100% 90% 80%
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% Torque Power 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Speed
Figure 54: Graph of torque and power versus speed for a variable torque load
Note that for both the constant and variable torque applications, capacity varies in direct proportion to speed. So a screw compressor operating at half speed provides half the capacity. Likewise, for a fan operating at half speed, the fan moves half the air flow. Operating a screw compressor or fan at reduced speed provides higher efficiency than other methods of capacity control.
Motor Issues ! Cooling at reduced speed ! Insulation dielectric capabilities ! Current in bearings Driven-Equipment Issues ! Minimum and maximum allowed speeds ! Resonant frequencies 44 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics
Control Issues ! ! ! ! Serial or discrete I/O for control Control algorithms Control set points Alarms and faults
In the Best Practices chapters, we address these issues and the proper application of VFDs to evaporator fans, screw compressors, and condenser fans; we identify inappropriate refrigeration applications such as reciprocating compressors and condenser pumps; and we discuss proper control algorithms.
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CHAPTER 4
At the end of this chapter, we highlight the importance of computer controls (page 79) and provide three checklists (page 79) pertaining to evaporators, compressors, and condensers that help tie together these concepts.
Reducing Lift
Introduction
Lift in a refrigeration system is the difference between suction pressure and discharge pressure at the compressor. Reducing lift by raising suction pressure or lowering discharge pressure improves compressor efficiency. Three general rules apply to lift: ! Increasing suction pressure increases compressor capacity. ! Reducing discharge pressure decreases power. ! Increasing suction or reducing discharge pressure reduces BHP/TR (brake horsepower per ton refrigeration) and thereby increases efficiency. This section presents methods for reducing lift, discusses some of the barriers to doing so, and presents the potential energy savings. Note that suction and discharge pressure are often referred to as temperatures, as there is a direct, proportional and consistent relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated ammonia vapor. This section will sometimes use one or the other description. Table 7 describes the relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia.
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Table 7: Relationship between pressure and temperature for ammonia at sea level
Pressure
Temperature
Pressure
Temperature
-15 in. Hg -10 in. Hg -5 in. Hg 0 psig 5 psig 10 psig 15 psig 20 psig 25 psig 30 psig 40 psig
-51.4 F -42.1 F -34.5 F -27.9 F -17.3 F -8.5 F -1.0 F 5.6 F 11.3 F 16.6 F 25.8 F
50 psig 60 psig 70 psig 80 psig 90 psig 100 psig 120 psig 140 psig 160 psig 180 psig 200 psig
33.8 F 41.0 F 47.3 F 53.2 F 58.5 F 63.5 F 72.6 F 80.7 F 87.9 F 94.7 F 100.8 F
Energy savings from increased suction are seen at the compressor. When you increase the capacity of the compressor, it will operate at a lower fraction of its full-load capacity when meeting a given cooling load. Hence, the part-load performance characteristics of the compressor ultimately dictate the magnitude of the energy savings. In the same way, an increase in suction may actually allow a compressor to be turned off, or a large compressor to be shut down in favor of a smaller one. So although the 2% rule of thumb is good for estimating, a complete analysis of compressor operation would be needed to determine savings precisely.
The cooling capacity of an evaporator is directly proportional to the difference between the temperature of the air entering the coil and the temperature of the refrigerant within the coil. This difference in temperature is called the temperature difference, or TD. Evaporator coil capacity is also proportional to the area of the heat-exchange surface of the coil. So by using a larger evaporator coil (one with more surface area), you can reduce the TD and still maintain cooling capacity. This lets you increase suction pressure while providing the same amount of cooling in the space. Typically, evaporator coils are selected based on their capacity at a TD of 12 to 15F. By using a larger coil that allows a TD of 10F or even 8F you can increase suction temperature. For example, reducing coil TD from 15F to 10F will allow a 5F increase in suction temperature and reduce compressor energy consumption about 10%: (15F 10F) ! 2%/F = 10% savings You can also increase the number of evaporator coils to increase the area of the heat-exchange surface, and achieve similar savings.
compressor power and evaporator fan power are at a combined minimum. ! When no fan savings are possible, set suction pressure as high as possible. ! A small increase in suction pressure will often let the operator shut off a compressor. This strategy should be pursued aggressively particularly for systems with screw compressors.
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Choosing a larger evaporator coil may make it necessary to use a larger (higher horsepower) evaporator fan. The increased energy use by the larger fan may offset some or all of the savings achieved by the compressor, and may even result in a net increase in energy use, so be sure to evaluate that interaction. The same issues apply to heat exchangers or any other evaporator loads, such as chillers or process loads. Pressure drop and pumping energy should be considered when assessing larger heat exchangers.
In nearly all refrigeration systems, the worst-case evaporator load or the zone with the largest cooling requirement determines the maximum allowable suction pressure. This can be a room that requires a lower temperature than others, or a process load that requires a lower suction pressure. Consider the example of a food distribution warehouse with a small -20F ice cream room served by the same refrigeration suction as a -10F main freezer, as shown in Figure 55. Although the main freezer creates most of the refrigeration load, the lower temperature of the ice cream room dictates the eventual evaporating temperature. Where the main freezer could be served by a suction of -20 to -25F, the ice cream room requires -30 to -35Fa full 10F lower. Using our 2%/F rule of thumb, the refrigeration for the main freezer could be about 20% more efficient if it were served by a dedicated compressor (separate from the ice cream room) with a higher suction.
Figure 55: Ice cream room within a refrigerated warehouse
oversized evaporator coils with a temperature difference of 8 to 10F. ! Get extra coil capacity with more surface area, not more evaporator fan power. ! Size suction line losses for a pressure drop that equates to 2F or less at design for critical loads.
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requirements on the same suction system. In particular, do not let a small, lower temperature load dictate the suction pressure for a larger, higher temperature load. ! Serve each load with the highest possible suction system, even if it means additional compressors, piping, and complexity. ! Additional suction systems can mean more simultaneously unloaded compressors. Improving compressor part-load efficiency must also be addressed.
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condensing pressure. ! New Construction: In the Pacific Northwest, use a target condensing pressure of 90 psig. ! Retrofit projects: Every system is different. 90 to 110 psig should be possible in most systems. Never let a small or low-cost barrier dictate minimum pressure.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! Lower pressure puts less stress on equipment,
particularly reciprocating compressors. ! Lower condensing pressure increase both compressor capacity and system capacity. ! Lower condensing pressure requires more attention to maintenance and operation, but this attention often helps identify and ultimately fix underperforming components.
The economic return on increased condenser capacity can be assessed incrementally. That is, a baseline condenser designed for a 20F approach can be compared to a condenser designed for an 18, 16, 14, or even 12F approach. At some point, the incremental return on investment will diminish, particularly when the additional structural, piping, electrical, and water-treatment costs are considered. In selecting incrementally larger condensers, it is better to rely on more surface area than on higher air velocity, air-pressure drop, and fan power. In the field, many condensers underperform relative to their design ratings. That is, they do not attain the condenser approach that is expected based upon condenser rating, heat rejection load, saturated condensing temperature, and ambient wet-bulb temperature. Many factors contribute to this underperformance, including: ! Humid micro-climate brought on by condenser placement, spacing, or proximity to steam or other humidity sources (for example, boiler stack) ! Inadequate piping that, among other things, can create pressure drop, causing the effective loss of condensation surface area, and contribute to problems with non-condensable gases ! Inadequate maintenance that impedes condenser performance because of, for example, tube scaling, unaddressed non-condensable gas, poor spray water dispersion, belt slippage, inadequate water pressure, and blocked or clogged drift eliminators
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with a 15F or lower approach to design wetbulb temperature. ! To do this, select a condenser with larger surface area, not higher fan power.
Benefits Beyond Energy
For industrial ammonia refrigeration systems, a minimum pressure of 80 to 90 psig is a relatively aggressive target for energy efficiency. The number of hours per year when condensing pressure can fall this low will determine how aggressively this target range should be pursued.
production ! A safety margin that helps avoid production slow-downs under peak loads.
To illustrate, we will compare systems in Seattle, WA and Miami, FL. To assess the opportunity to operate at reduced condensing pressure, we must look at weather data for each location. Table 8 shows the number of hours per year that fall within 5-degree ranges of dry-bulb temperature and the mean coincident wet-bulb temperature for each dry-bulb range. Since evaporative condenser performance is dictated by the condensing temperature relative to the ambient wet-bulb temperature, the distribution of wet-bulb temperature is the key factor. The table shows that the average wet-bulb temperature for Miami is almost 25F higher (70.2F 46.3F) than that for Seattle. Now, consider a system with a condenser designed for a 15F approach (ambient wet-bulb temperature minus refrigerant temperature). With a target minimum condensing pressure of 90 psig (at which ammonia is 58F), we need to determine how many hours per year the system would operate at this pressure. In both Seattle and Miami, these conditions correspond to the dry-bulb temperature ranges from 44#F and below. In Seattle, there are 2,907 hoursabout one-third of the yearwhen the system could operate at 90 psig. In Miami, however, there are only 24 hoursabout 0.3% of the yearwhen the system could operate at 90 psig. As this example shows, trying to reduce minimum condensing pressure to this 90-psig target will be a more fruitful exercise in Seattle than in Miami. Note that a constant 15F approach to ambient wet bulb was assumed, regardless of actual wet-bulb temperature. In reality, the necessary approach increases in cool weather since the psychrometric properties of cooler air reduce the airs ability to evaporate water. In this case, the same condenser may require 20F or 25F approach during the winter to reject the same amount of heat. The constant approach was used to simplify this example.
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Seattle, WA Miami, FL Condensing Temperature Dry-Bulb with 15F Approach Range Annual Wet-Bulb Annual Wet-Bulb (F) Hours (F) Hours (F) Seattle, WA Miami, FL 95 to 99 12 67.2 82.2 90 to 94 85 to 89 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 11 36 76 137 234 376 764 1,220 1,554 1,433 1,405 863 523 114 2 67.7 66.3 64.4 61.9 60.1 58.0 55.5 53.0 49.0 44.2 40.1 35.2 30.6 25.4 24.0 46.3 70.2 70 910 2,046 2,680 1,692 743 307 158 92 38 14 10 77.4 76.8 74.6 71.8 67.9 63.2 57.2 52.7 48.1 43.5 40.4 34.5 82.7 81.3 79.4 76.9 75.1 73.0 70.5 68.0 64.0 59.2 58.0 58.0 58.0 58.0 58.0 92.4 91.8 89.6 86.8 82.9 78.2 72.2 67.7 63.1 58.5 58.0 58.0
Weighted Averages:
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Solutions The same general solutions to hot gas defrost apply here. The most common solution is to use a dedicated compressor to supply hot gas for the heated zones. Another option is to equip these zones with steam, hot-water, or gas-fired heaters. Although this will cost more than the free hot gas from the engine room, it is easier to control and wont force the compressors to operate at elevated discharge pressure. Water Defrost and Common Sumps Some facilities (for example, fruit storage) use water defrost, with water from a common defrost tank and condenser sump. Water temperatures of 55F to 65F usually defrost coils fully and promptly. Condensing pressure is elevated to maintain warm water in the tank. Solutions The simplest solution is to tolerate cooler water and slightly longer defrosts. A more aggressive solution is to provide a weir to separate tanks for defrost water and condenser water. Defrost water can then be heated using heat recovery (for example, compressor jacket cooling or oil cooling), or with an ammonia desuperheater. This latter option provides warm water at low head pressurethe best of both worlds. Oil Separator Performance Oil separators on screw compressors are often sized for lower refrigerant velocities than will be experienced at the target 80 to 100 psig. In addition, some reciprocating compressors discharge through master oil separators to trap oil. In some cases, oil carryover can be a barrier to reducing discharge pressure. Gas density decreases at reduced discharge pressure, resulting in increased velocity. This can be exacerbated by efforts to increase suction pressure, further increasing mass flow and separator velocity. Solutions On new construction projects, all oil separators should be sized at the factory for 80 to 100 psig discharge pressure. On most retrofit projects, the existing separator works fine, although the factory should be consulted. In rare cases, the internal baffling of the separator can be improved, or an external oil separator and return system can be installed. This is also the case for reciprocating compressors that discharge through master oil separators. Hot Gas Unloaders and Gas-Powered Valves Some compressors use hot gas to activate cylinder unloaders. These unloaders may not work correctly at reduced condensing pressure. Similarly, some system valves can be gas-powered and pose barriers to condensing pressure. Solutions This barrier is rare. In the case where unloader or valve operation becomes a barrier, a source of high-pressure gas can be supplied, or the unloaders and valves can be converted to electric solenoids. Flooded System Liquid Delivery In flooded systems, liquid ammonia is piped from the high-pressure receiver directly to flooded accumulators. In systems with improperly sized piping, excessive pressure drop may prevent adequate liquid delivery to loads, starving the coil. Solutions For new construction projects, the solution is to specify a design minimum condensing pressure of 80 to 100 psig for the design engineer or refrigeration contractor. Retrofit projects may require the installation of a pump on the liquid ammonia line from the high-pressure receiver. The pump can be sized to provide an additional 20 to 40 psig of pressure to ensure proper liquid distribution. This problem is rare. Liquid Injection Oil Cooling Liquid injection oil cooling is one of the most common barriers to reducing condensing pressure. Depending on compressor design and system operating pressures, a minimum pressure of 115 to 125 psig is often specified by compressor manufacturers. Below these pressures, there is inadequate liquid flow into the compressor, either due to limited expansion valve performance, or simply insufficient pressure differential between the liquid supply and the injection port of the compressor. Solutions The most popular solution is to convert to external cooling, usually a thermosiphon system. This not only eliminates the barrier to reducing condensing pressure, but eliminates the injection efficiency penalty, improving efficiency by 3% to 10% or more. A second option is a liquid pump to pressurize the high-pressure liquid line serving the injection systems. This could be coupled with converting to discharge injection, also eliminating the standard efficiency penalty. A third option is to apply electronic expansion valves that require less pressure differential. These valves are available on some compressor models. Finally, several injection ports could be machined into the compressor.
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The injection can be relocated to a port earlier in the compression process, although this could increase the net injection penalty. Slide Valve Operation Some screw compressors (e.g., Frick RXF series) have slide valve mechanisms that are actuated by discharge gas pressure. Solutions Simple factory-authorized modifications to the slide valve mechanism may be required. Consult the manufacturer to determine if modifications are required. Underfloor Heating At warehouses and distribution centers with freezers or blast cells, warm glycol (typically at 50F to 80F, or as high as 100F for uninsulated floors) may be circulated under the concrete slab to prevent frost heaving. This glycol is usually heated in a shell-and-tube or plate-and-frame desuperheater or condenser that is piped in series or parallel to the main condensers. Reducing condensing pressure can reduce the glycol temperature and risk from floor frost heaving. Solutions Floor heaving is a serious issue. Underfloor temperature probes should be monitored closely for proper ground temperatures. Converting from a condensing heat exchanger to a desuperheater might maintain higher glycol temperatures. In more severe cases, a dedicated compressor operating at an elevated discharge pressure or a larger heat exchanger may be required. In some cases, experimentation and underfloor temperature probes have shown that heating is unnecessary because of insulation levels or low water tables. Pumper Drum Systems Some systems use a pumper-drum transfer system. In these systems, the highpressure receiver is replaced by a controlled-pressure receiver (CPR) at 65 to 100 psig. These systems are usually liquid recirculated, with liquid from the CPR passing overfed through the coils and returning to an accumulator. The liquid then drains into one or two liquid transfer units (LTUs) or dump traps, which are emptied by introducing high-pressure compressor discharge gas into the top of the LTU and pushing the liquid back to the CPR. These systems can have multiple barriers, including a high CPR pressure, pressure requirements for proper transfer, and balance gas introduced into the CPR when pressure inadvertently falls. Solutions For new construction projects, the system should be designed for a minimum condensing pressure of 80 to 100 psig, or installed as a standard pump-based recirculation system. For retrofits, the pressure of the CPR can be reduced (possibly requiring the adjustment of system expansion valves), and dump tank transfers can be modified for reduced pressure. In stubborn cases, a dedicated compressor can be set up to deliver high-pressure gas when needed. Finally, it may be necessary to convert to a mechanical pump-based recirculation system. Direct Expansion Valves Evaporators and process equipment (for example, scraped-surface heat exchangers) may use thermal expansion (TX) valves. These valves are designed for particular minimum pressure ratio, and may not operate correctly at reduced head pressure. Solutions For new construction projects, DX coils can be upgraded to a flooded or recirculated design. For retrofit projects, the TX valves can be upgraded to electronic versions, the coils can be retrofit or converted, or a liquid ammonia pump can be installed. Process and Door Hot Gas Some process equipment may use high-pressure ammonia vapor for heating and other applications. Examples include warehouse heating, freezer door heating, and the thaw cycle in ice makers. or high pressure ammonia gas may also be utilized for agitation in some flooded water chiller packages. These applications can require elevated hot gas pressure for proper operation. Solutions The equipment manufacturer should be contacted to determine the minimum allowable pressure. If operation at reduced pressure is not allowed, a source of high-pressure gas may be required. Oil Circulation Some compressors use the pressure difference between suction and discharge to drive the circulation of oil. This is an unusual barrier to discharge pressure, but it does occur. Solutions Contact the equipment manufacturer to determine the minimum allowable lift for a given set of operating conditions. A supplemental oil pump is sometimes an option.
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Common Misperceptions
In addition to equipment or system barriers, there are also some common operational misperceptions that limit efforts to reduce minimum condensing pressure. Some of the common misperceptions are: Concern About Increased Condenser Power In nearly all cases, reducing condensing pressure will increase condenser pump and/or fan power. However, compressor energy savings will nearly always exceed the increase in condenser energy consumption. Only when available condenser capacity far exceeds operating compressor capacity (for example, in a processing facility in holding mode on the weekend) could increased energy use by the condenser outweigh compressor savings. In this case, applying a wetbulb approach algorithm will operate an optimum amount of condenser. Issues of Screw Compressor Volume Ratio A screw compressor with a fixed internal volume ratio (VI) can experience overcompression or undercompression when external pressure ratios do not match the internal design of the compressor. Although this reduces the adiabatic or isentropic efficiency of the compressor, compressor efficiency (in terms of brake horsepower per ton, or BHP/TR) always increases when suction increases and discharge pressure decreases. Compressor VI should never be used to justify maintaining an artificially high discharge pressure. Operator Tradition Unfortunately, the preferences or traditions of system operators may result in high condensing pressure. System operators often mark target or acceptable pressure levels on master discharge pressure gauges in the engine room. When they grow accustomed to seeing system pressure steady at some elevated value, they can find it disconcerting to see condensing pressure fall to unprecedented levels during cool weather, even though that may be a perfectly reasonable condition under a newly implemented control strategy. Ultimately, as system operators become more familiar with new operating parameters and strategies, they will become more comfortable with variations in operating conditions.
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Fan Cycling
Computer controls for refrigeration systems can allow evaporator fans to cyclethat is, turn off and on periodically. The most common strategy is to cycle all evaporator fans off when the desired space temperature is reached. Another strategy (used, for example, in controlled-atmosphere fruit storage) is to schedule fan cycling; for example, the fans are on for two hours and off for two hours. Some systems even use an alternating strategy, where every other evaporator fan operates for a set period of time, and then the remaining fans operate for the same duration. This is used in some fruit storage with the idea that the scheme provides diversity in air flow patterns while saving energy. Another strategy is to cycle fans off a few minutes after shutting off refrigerant flow with the liquid solenoids. And some systems use a swirl strategy where the evaporator fans operate periodically say, 5 of every 30 minutesto move air around. In some situations, entire coils or zones are manually turned off by the system operator. An example is a refrigerated dock in a food distribution center, where dock cooling is not needed for a season. A similar approach is to manually turn off one (or more) of several fans (often using overloads or by pulling fuses). An example is a fruit storage facility in holding mode.
control option. ! Use VFD-rated motors or protect existing motors with filters. ! Install temperature probes at worst-case locations to ensure uniform temperatures. ! Tailor minimum speeds to the specific application.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! More stable storage temperatures than with fan
cycling. ! Lower moisture losses for exposed products. ! Flexibility associated with continuous fan speed adjustment. ! More comfortable working environment when loads are low (lower air movement and quieter).
With any form of fan cycling, savings are maximized by operating as few fans for as little time as is necessary to maintain the required space temperature. This is usually best accomplished using computercontrol systems that operate evaporator fans strictly as needed. Note that fan cycling should be avoided in refrigerant-heated zones (e.g., food distribution centers) where the control system temperature probe is located in a rooftop penthouse. In this situation, cold air may settle at the floor and the control system will not register the need to heat the room. This may result in excessive stratification and possibly damage sensitive products.
Two-Speed Fans
Two-speed fans can operate at three conditionsoff, half speed, and full speedand require special twospeed starters. They offer a level of control between fan cycling and VFD control. At half speed, fan power obeys the affinity (or cubic) laws and draw about 1/8 the power needed to run at full speed while still moving about one-half the air. Computer-control systems can optimize operation to prioritize half-speed operation, particularly with multiple coils serving a single zone or room. For example, with two evaporators in a room, it is better to operate both fans at half speed than to turn one off and operate the other at full speed. In addition, liquid solenoids should be kept on, and suction-pressure regulators at 100% capacity as long as possible when running fans at half speed, as the evaporators are ideally four times more efficient (1/2 capacity for 1/8 power) than at full speed. As much heat as possible should be removed during half-speed operation before switching to full speed.
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Field measurements, which include motor and VFD losses, indicate that the real-life affinity-law exponent is about 2.7 (instead of the theoretical 3.0). That is, fan power= (fraction of speed)2.7.
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Swirl Cycle When minimum-speed set points are particularly low, or when temperature gradients are a concern, a swirl cycle can ramp fans up to full speed temporarily, as discussed under fan cycling. Optimal VFD Parameters Particularly with evaporator fans, the internal control parameters of the VFD can dramatically affect input power. Critical parameters include the type of torque load (selecting square or variable is better than constant or linear) and carrier or switching frequency. In addition, any energy-saving features such as motor optimization should be enabled. Finally, VFDs tend to be more efficient with the lowest carrier frequency setting. Since each VFD is different, experimenting with a threephase RMS power meter on the input to the VFD will let you identify the combination of parameters that will minimize power. Liquid Solenoid and Pressure Regulators Fan speed should be used as the first stage of reducing coil capacity. The fan should be reduced from full to minimum speed while the liquid solenoid or pressure regulator calls for full cooling from the coil. When the fan is at minimum speed, then you can reduce capacity further by reducing refrigerant flow. (It may be tempting or easy to vary fan speed along with regulator position, but doing so squanders savings since maximum savings comes from reducing speed while keeping the regulator wide open.)
often custom OEM designs. In some cases, these manufacturers can provide replacements that comply with NEMA MG1-Part 31. Bypass Feature A bypass feature may be necessary where a VFD failure or trip can cause operating problems. A bypass feature is usually built into the VFD package from the factory, and allows the motors to run directly across the line when needed. Figure 57 shows a VFD control for an evaporator fan. Excessive Temperature Difference A rare phenomenon has been seen in applications where an extreme evaporator temperature difference (>20F to 25F) exists in a freezer warehouse application. At reduced air flow, the extreme Figure 57: VFD with input reactor and output dV/dt temperature difference can cause snowing, filter where the moisture in the air doesnt freeze to the evaporator coil, but rather freezes as it flows across the evaporator surface. This application may require elevated minimum speed set-points, although the excessive temperature difference should be addressed prior to applying VFD control.
Power
Capacity
! Reciprocating compressors with cylinder unloading Figure 58: Typical part-load power for a constant-speed screw have excellent part-load compressor performance characteristics. ! Screw compressors have poor part-load performance characteristics, but can be improved with VFD control. These criteria can help you configure equipment and select control algorithms to operate your compressors efficiently.
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! ! !
sequencing. The control-system programmer must address load variations in a way that avoids excessive motor starts and stops. Use a mix-and-match compressor sequencing to best meet the load. Keep base-load compressors fully loaded. The trim compressor on each suction system should be a VFD-driven screw or reciprocating compressor.
In systems with both screw and reciprocating compressors, a good strategy is to use screw compressors (operating continually at full capacity) for base loads, and use reciprocating compressors to meet fluctuating loads as the trim compressor. System operators often hesitate to have screw compressors (particularly large units) turn on and off throughout the day. A compressor in disrepair may fail to restart when instructed by a control system, or there may be anti-recycle issues that limit the effectiveness of the mix-and-match strategy. Any barriers to implementing this mix-and-match strategy should be addressed.
Table 9: Mix-and-match compressor staging
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 100 hp ' ' ' ' 200 hp ' ' ' ' 400 hp ' ' ' '
Unit
Stage Number
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system. ! Allow VFD-driven screw compressors to slow to minimum speed before unloading slide valves. ! On a suction system with different compressors sizes, consider applying a VFD on the larger compressor. This approach simplifies compressor sequencing and minimizes slide valve unloading.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! VFDs provide the same soft-start capabilities
and benefits as solid-state motor starters. ! VFDs provide smoother suction pressure control.
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Factory-Authorized Control Note that with the emergence of VFD control as a factory option, several manufacturers insist on retaining full control of the slide valve and VFD speed within the compressor-mounted microprocessor package. In systems with a computer control system, the control system asks for a change in compressor capacity, and the microprocessor determines whether speed or slide valve position is adjusted.
Power
Capacity
Figure 60: Comparison of constant speed and variable speed part load power
Some important design and installation issues are summarized below. Factory Option Most major screw-compressor manufacturers now offer VFD control as a factoryprovided option. Some manufacturers are experimenting with increasing maximum speed and reducing minimum speed for increased flexibility. A factory-configured VFD has been optimized for efficiency and equipment longevity. Retrofit vs. New Construction VFD control can be retrofitted to existing compressors, but is most cost-effective in new construction where the additional cost is only the incremental cost of the VFD control above that of a basic solid-state starter. It is very important to consult the compressor manufacturer in any retrofit application. Inverter-Rated Motors Due to the limited speed reduction (2:1), virtually all existing ODP (open dripproof) and TEFC (totally enclosed fan-cooled) motors can be used for VFD control of screw compressors. To be safe, contact the motor or compressor manufacturer for written authorization to operate at 2:1 speed reduction with a constant-torque load. If the motor normally operates into the service factor, note that motors are often down-rated from 1.15 to 1.0 service factor with VFD control. One manufacturer currently offers 5:1 speed reduction, which requires a blower-cooled motor and utilizes a liquid-cooled VFD.
Two-Speed Fans
Manufacturers have offered two-speed fans for condensers for some time. One variation is a half-speed pony motor driving the same shaft. In either configuration, the fans can be operated at full or half speed, adding an additional discrete operating point that is highly efficient due to the affinity laws. Because of the advantages of VFDs, the use of two-speed motors with new condensers is uncommon and will likely disappear.
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condenser fans. Avoid dry operation. Operate condensers wet except in extreme cold weather. Avoid pump-only operation. Operate multiple condenser fan VFDs at the same speed. Target mid-range VFD speeds for peak system efficiency, between 30% and 80%. Use a wet-bulb approach algorithm. Stage condensers so that the highest efficiency units operate first.
operating conditions. ! Reduces belt wear from fan cycling. ! Runs quietly when at reduced speed. ! Allows for simplified control system set-points, with a single target pressure rather than multiple on/off values for multiple pump & fan stages.
Optimal Control AlgorithmsSingle Condenser A system with a single condenser should have a very low minimum fan speed (0% to 10%), and a maximum speed of 90% to 95%. The pump should be turned on first (before fans) unless frigid weather dictates an alternative strategy. Optimal Control AlgorithmsMultiple Condensers Optimal control algorithms for multiple condensers will include all of the previous recommendations in a single strategy. Only the first condenser in the staging sequence will be allowed to operate at very low speeds (for example, 0% to 10%), and only when all condensers are running should the maximum speeds be allowed to rise to 100%. At all intermediate stages of capacity, the condenser fans will operate between about 30% and 80% of full speed. Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls 63
In addition, as each condenser comes online, its fans and pumps will be running. These strategies ensure that condensers only operate wet, and in their most efficient speed range. Wet-Bulb Approach Algorithm Instead of using a simple target condensing pressure, use an integrated wet-bulb approach algorithm to prevent overcondensing, that is operating much more condenser capacity than is needed to reject heat. (An example would be a processing facility that drops to one compressor on the weekend, but has a large assembly of condensers trying to drive condensing pressure down). A wet-bulb approach algorithm adds a user-input approach value (typically 12F to 15F) to the ambient wet-bulb temperature, and converts this to a target condensing pressure. Proper Ambient Probe Locations If you use a wet-bulb approach algorithm, the placement of ambient dry-bulb and wet-bulb (or humidity) sensors is critical. Placing a temperature sensor where it receives direct solar radiation, or a humidity sensor near a process exhaust steam outlet, produces false readings and will result in improper control operation. Periodically calibrating the probes and cross-checking with local weather stations are also important for the same reason. The computer control algorithm should have safeties that prevent an unreasonable or false wet bulb reading from creating a high target condensing pressure. Optimal VFD Parameters The internal parameters of the VFD can dramatically affect input power. (See Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Fan Control on page 57.)
fan in reverse at high speed for extended periods can damage the fan; consult the manufacturer before doing so.
Upgrading Equipment
Introduction
Major refrigeration components, including evaporator coils, compressors, and condensers, can all be ordered or retrofitted with features or options that improve efficiency. This section discusses the available options that improve efficiency independent of operating conditions or part-load considerations. Note that systemequipment considerations are also important in achieving energy efficiency. We discuss those in Improving System Design on page 71.
area rather than higher fan power. ! Choose flooded or liquid recirculation controls over direct expansion evaporators.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! Oversized evaporators minimize moisture loss
Option #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10
Capacity (TR) 52.3 48.7 49.8 49.5 51.1 47.5 47.6 51.5 52.8 54.3
Surface Air Fan Total Efficiency area Velocity Configuration BHP (TR/BHP) (sq ft) (fpm) 15,627 595 8 6.54 4 ! 2 hp 11,313 14,650 12,503 12,067 11,722 15,627 11,722 11,313 14,650 647 615 632 625 655 595 733 725 682 4 ! 2 hp 4 ! 2 hp 4 ! 2 hp 4 ! 2 hp 4 ! 2 hp 4 ! 2 hp 5 ! 2 hp 5 ! 2 hp 5 ! 2 hp 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 10 6.09 6.23 6.19 6.39 5.94 5.95 5.15 5.28 5.43
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Plotting this data (Figure 61) reveals the relationship between fan power and air velocity. In general, coils designed for higher air velocity are less efficient, but also less expensive. Since coil design affects other installation costs (for example, weight, electrical, etc.), you should also take these attributes into account when assessing the life-cycle cost of a coil selection.
Refrigerant Feed
Liquid overfeed or flooded evaporators are more efficient than direct expansion (DX) evaporators. There are three reasons to avoid DX coils. First, DX coils are derated since some of the coil surface area is not internally wetted. Second, DX coils can limit the reduction of condensing pressure. Third, evaporator fan VFDs are difficult to implement on DX coils.
7.0 6.5
6.0
TR/HP
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740
Some evaporator coils, particularly those with small (less than 1 hp) fans, may have stamped-steel fan blades of an older, inefficient design. Modern alternatives provide the same fan performance (in terms of air flow and pressure) but require less shaft power. In Figure 62, the fan blade on the right is the original four-blade version provided with the coil. The fan blade on the left performs nearly identically, but uses about 1/3 less shaft power. (In this example, the fan blade was teamed with a premium-efficiency motor and VFD control for a package upgrade.) Purchased in bulk, the new fans cost about $10 to $15 each. (It is important to get a fan-performance curve for the existing fan blade. If none is available, a testing lab can generate one.)
Penthouse Applications
Locating evaporator coils in a penthouse (Figure 8, and older less efficient design (right) page 14) offers many advantages, including simplified maintenance. However, a penthouse design can be energy intensive for several reasons, including:
! Additional nozzles or ductwork increases pressure drop and fan power. ! The coils are centrally-located, requiring additional air flow and velocity for proper air movement. ! The coils may discharge air perpendicular to aisles, requiring higher air velocity for air movement. For these reasons, you should evaluate penthouse designs by comparing them to ceiling-hung evaporators based upon all quantifiable life-cycle costs. If you implement a penthouse design, use fan-control strategies (for example, VFD control, simultaneous speed control) to minimize energy use.
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Compressor Efficiency
Efficient Compressors
One common misconception is that one type of compressor (for example, reciprocating versus screw) is inherently more efficient than others. This is simply not true. Given the same suction and discharge conditions, the full-load performance of reciprocating, rotary-screw, and rotary-vane compressors are very similar. Rather, it is the options available for screw compressors that affect their full-load efficiency. These primary options are cooling, volume ratio, and economizer.
cooling option. ! Specify automatically variable VI for applications where suction or discharge pressures will vary.
Benefits Beyond Energy
to liquid injection cooling. ! Does not require cooling circulation pumps like water- or glycol-cooled compressors. ! Sometimes produces a small increase in compressor capacity.
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Table 11: Compressor capacity and power ratings at a condensing temperature of 85F and various suction temperatures for ammonia
Brake Horsepower (BHP) Volume Ratio 2.2 309.8 314.2 314.2 313.0 310.5 306.8 301.9 2.6 280.8 291.5 296.7 301.8 307.5 312.8 319.0 3.7 243.4 267.9 284.5 304.0 327.0 353.9 385.4 4.8 231.1 266.1 291.7 322.7 359.8 403.8 455.6 2.2 3.28 2.02 1.57 1.24 0.98 0.78 0.63
BHP/TR Volume Ratio 2.6 2.97 1.88 1.49 1.19 0.97 0.80 0.66 3.7 2.58 1.73 1.42 1.20 1.03 0.90 0.80 4.8 2.45 1.71 1.46 1.27 1.13 1.03 0.95
Screw Economizers
Screw compressors used in applications with low suction pressure can benefit dramatically from an economizer or side port feature. In the simplest of economizer configurations, liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is subcooled in a flash or shell-and-coil economizer. The purpose is to send colder liquid refrigerant to the evaporator coils, increasing overall system capacity. You can think of an economizer as a poor mans two-stage system (see Multistage Compression on page 71).
BHP/TR vs Pressure Ratio
2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0
BHP/TR
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2.2 VI 2.6 VI 3.7 VI 4.8 VI Var. VI
Condenser Efficiency
High-Efficiency Condenser Selection
Evaporative condensers are usually selected after the heat-rejection capacity at design conditions has been determined. There are many condenser designs to choose from, including forced-draft, induced-draft, axial-fan, and centrifugal-fan. All evaporative condensers are rated relative to nominal conditions. Plotting the efficiency of
efficiency (MBH per fan hp). ! Induced draft (draw-through) axial-fan condensers are more efficient. ! Specify high-performance, self-cleaning condenser spray nozzles.
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several condensers at these nominal conditions can help you identify high-efficiency units. Figure 64 is an example of such a graph. The vertical lines in this chart Sample Condenser Series Efficiency represent points of nominal heat-rejection capacity where 400 the surface area of the tube 350 bundle (or ammonia volume) 300 increases. Within each band, surface area remains almost 250 constant, and higher capacities 200 (at the right end of the band) are achieved by higher air flow. 150 This chart shows that condenser 100 efficiency is highest at the left side of each band, where heat 50 transfer is dominated by surface 0 area rather than high air flow. 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 As you move left-to-right within Nominal Heat Rejection (MBH) each band, capacity is increased by increasing air flow, and the Figure 64: Variation of condenser efficiency within frame sizes condenser efficiency steadily drops. The lowest efficiencies occur at the maximum air flow for a given tube bundle size.
MBH per Fan/Pump HP
Ammonia Charge
30,000
It also helps to plot, on a single graph, the condenser efficiencies of a variety of basic designs from a single manufacturer. Figure 65 shows an example of such a graph that compares forced- and induced-draft designs, as well as axial- and centrifugal-fan designs. In general, centrifugal-fan condensers are least efficient. The forced and induced axialfan units are both more efficient, but the induced-draft design is slightly more efficient than the forced-draft design. The following rules will help you select high-efficiency condensers:
Evaporative Condenser Efficiency Comparison
400 350
! Axial fans are more Forced Draft - Axial 50 Induced Draft - Axial efficient than centrifugal Forced Draft - Centrifugal fans. 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 ! Induced-draft designs are Nominal Heat Rejection (MBH) slightly more efficient than forced-draft designs. Figure 65: Comparison of the efficiencies of various condenser types ! A tube bundle of a given surface area is more efficient with a low air-flow rate than a high air-flow rate. When low-efficiency condensers are installed, the reason is usually that they cost less. The condenser cost (in $/MBH) is the lowest at the greatest capacity for a given tube bundle size range (that is, at the right end of the bands on the graph). Increased air flow is a relatively low-cost method of adding capacity, albeit at the expense of efficiency. It is important to compare condenser models or manufacturers at the same wet-bulb and condensing temperatures. Some manufacturers use different nominal conditions, making direct comparison difficult.
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near condensers (confined spaces, inadequate spacing, and proximity to steam or humid exhaust sources). ! Use integral sumps instead of remote sumps in temperate climates. ! Install an automatic non-condensable gas purger for systems that operate under vacuum. ! Use modern high-performance spray nozzles.
Unfortunately, it is often difficult to convince a refrigeration designer or operator that integral sumps are worth the inconvenience, particularly for water treatment or freeze protection. Creative solutions such as hybrid integral/remote sump design can often be implemented. Also, using computer control to automatically operate condensers dry during freezing weather can help.
Courtesy of Frick
Unlike standard 180 nozzles, the modern designs provide improved 360 spray patterns and greater resistance to plugging . These modern nozzles are available on new condensers from all major evaporative condenser vendors, and can also be retrofitted to older condensers.
Premium-Efficiency Motors
All major pieces of refrigeration equipment can be ordered with premium-efficiency motors. Most evaporator and condenser manufacturers offer two or three brands of motors, each available with a premium-efficiency line. You can ask manufacturers about their current products, and select the motor with the highest efficiency. Compressors are treated somewhat differently. Most motor manufacturers offer a premium-efficiency series through the largest NEMA frame size (400 to 450 hp). Anything above this size is considered custom and often built to order. Premium-efficiency motors cost more, so you should specify them with care; the energy savings from the increased efficiency may not outweigh the higher initial equipment cost.
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Many motor manufacturers offer their premium line as their recommended inverter-duty line. For many applications, the designation of NEMA Premium indicates a motor meeting a certain efficiency standard. Most motors achieve their improved efficiency through a higher loaded rpm. In some fan and pump applications this may slightly increase energy use because of the affinity law.
Efficiency (%)
92 90 88 86 84 82
ODP-Highest Available ODP-EPACT
Motor Sizing
Power (hp)
It is important that a screw compressor motor be Figure 67: Motor efficiencies 1800 rpm adequately sized to prevent current-limiting. Current-limiting occurs when a motor exceeds its full-load amps (FLA) rating, and operates into the service factor. Virtually all modern screw compressors use forced unloading to protect the motor from overheating. A compressor that is current-limiting is inefficient (since it is unloaded), and may cause another compressor to start to satisfy the load. You should carefully assess both maximum discharge pressure and suction pressure to prevent current-limiting.
Multistage Compression
Compression is more efficient if done in stages. The more stages, the better, particularly for lowtemperature or multiple-temperature systems. In low-temperature industrial refrigeration applications, this often means two-stage compression. For ammonia systems, two-stage compression is typically considered when operating in a vacuum, below 0 psig (-28F). The efficiency improvement of two-stage operation increases with overall system lift, and is particularly effective in deep suctions of -50 to -60F (20" vacuum). Figure 68 shows the thermodynamic process associated with two-stage compression. Energy savings occurs on both sides of the process. The use of an intercooler between stages reduces the energy consumption of the high-stage compressor. Also, subcooling the liquid refrigerant between stages of expansion increases system capacity, as colder liquid refrigerant is expanded to serve low-temperature loads.
system for low temperature loads. ! Avoid aggregating loads with dissimilar temperatures on the same suction system. ! Subcool the liquid for all low temperature loads. ! Avoid system constraints on condensing pressure imposed by gas pressure recirculation systems.
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Two-stage systems are popular when multiple suction levels are required for a processing or storage facility. For example, a warehouse may have coolers on an intermediate suction, and a freezer on a low suction. Food processing facilities with multiple production and storage requirements may have three, four, or even five suction levels, such as an ice cream factory with loads served at -65F, -45F, -35F, +5F, and +35F. In this example, the -65F, -45F, and -35F systems would be served by booster compressors discharging to the +5F system. The +5F suction would be served by high-stage compressors, and the +35F system would be served by dedicated single-stage compressors. This arrangement is shown in Figure 69.
Compared to single-stage systems, multistage systems are more complex and expensive. Additional vessels, controls, and engine room space, and more compressors may be associated with a two-stage system. In many applications, a screw compressor with an economizer can substitute for a two-stage system. This is a good compromise in systems where suction pressure is not too low, and the number of suction levels is limited. In deciding between a single-stage system (with or without an economizer) and a multistage systems, you should weigh long-term energy savings against the increased initial cost. Some screw compressor packages are provided with two compressors on a single oil separator. In some cases, one compressor is a booster and one a high-stage, with the booster discharging directly into the high-stage with no intercooling. Avoid this design because the lack of intercooling reduces efficiency.
Liquid Subcooling
Liquid subcooling is a process of cooling liquid refrigerant below the saturated condensing temperature for the purposes of increased capacity and efficiency. Whenever multistaging or economizers are applied, subcooled liquid is available. Serving loads with subcooled liquid increases efficiency by reducing the total amount of refrigerant that must be supplied and compressed from evaporator loads. Hence, additional stages of subcooling, and using subcooled liquid whenever possible are two methods of increasing efficiency. In the previous example of five suction levels, the +35F system could serve liquid to the +5F system. The +5F system could then serve the -65F, -45F, and -35F systems. These lowest suctions would benefit from two stages of subcooling, substantially increasing efficiency.
with multiple temperature levels In applications with single-stage economized screw compressors, the economizer port on an unloaded screw compressor will become inactive as the compressor slide valve unloads (for example, at 70% capacity). Unless there are other operating economized compressors or a stand-alone subcooling system, efficiency will suffer due to diminished or eliminated liquid subcooling.
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Hot-Gas Defrost
In the Reducing Lift section of this chapter (page 46), we addressed the importance of avoiding high condensing pressures for defrost. Four other basic tenets apply to energy-efficient defrost: 1 2 3 Use free sources of heat for defrost (hot gas or water). Avoid any form of electric resistance heating. Only defrost when needed. Only defrost for as long as needed.
4 Return hot gas defrost to the highest available suction system. Hot-gas defrost can have a significant effect on system efficiency. Proper initiation, gas management, and termination are all key to efficient hot gas defrost.
Detailed explanations of these systems are beyond the scope of this guide.
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As discussed in the Basics section, defrost can be initiated with frost sensors, cumulative liquid run time, or by a simple fixed schedule, the first being the most efficient and the last the least. Frost sensors have met with moderate success, and require proper setup and maintenance to operate properly. If a frost sensor fails or is not adjusted properly, the evaporator coil can defrost more frequently than needed. Liquid run time is a solid intermediate solution that avoids fixed schedules and initiates defrosts somewhat in proportion to anticipated frost buildup. Fixed initiation schedules should be avoided if at all possible. Defrost duration is nearly always fixed via a time clock or computer control system. In some instances, suction line temperature can be monitored by a control system, and the defrost is terminated when the returning gas temperature exceeds a target value for a specified time period.
suction system.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! Reduces system loads, which frees compressor
capacity and reduces compressor run time. ! Results in more stable operation.
Ideally, all hot gas entering the evaporator coil would condense and return to the engine room as liquid to be used in the refrigeration cycle. In practice, hot gas passes through the coil and defrost pressure regulator toward the end of the defrost cycle, returning to a compressor suction line. This gas must be recompressed in the engine room, often placing a significant load on the compressors. One important design issue is the defrost return piping. Defrost gas should be returned to the system with the highest available suction. This is often possible in multistage systems where piping for multiple suctions are available for defrost return. This will minimize the energy consumption of any compressor that receives gas returning from the defrost system. One major opportunity to optimize hot gas defrost is the use of liquid condensate traps or drainers on the hot gas return lines. This would ensure no refrigerant vapor returns to the engine room. Although the use of drainers is an outstanding opportunity to improve efficiency, only a handful of applications have been observed in the field. The cause of this disparity is likely tradition, cost, and a lack of familiarity within the design and contracting community. This is one of the greatest untapped efficiency opportunities. Water defrost has relatively little effect on system efficiency provided that it does not impose a high minimum condensing pressure requirement. Since the evaporator coils are heated during every defrost, minimizing the frequency of defrosts will maximize efficiency.
Heat Recovery
Heat recovery, particularly for food processing facilities, is popular. Many systems use hot compressor discharge gas for underfloor heating (using glycol), boiler makeup water, or plant cleanup water. The greatest opportunity to recover heat is through a desuperheater, where water can be heated as high as 100 to 120F in a circulating loop. Unfortunately, about 10% or less of total compressor heat rejection is superheat, so the total heat (Btus) available for recovery is limited. If a condensing heat exchanger is installed, water temperature is limited to the condensing temperature which, at 90 psig for ammonia, is only 58F. Although most of the total rejected compressor heat is released in condensing, the quality of the heat recovery is limited by saturated condensing temperature. In this case, the water could not be heated higher than the 58F temperature of the condensing ammonia. The economics of heat recovery often depend on the relative costs of electricity and natural gas or other fossil fuels. In some situations, it may be cost-effective to operate at elevated discharge pressure to increase heat recovery. In most cases, however, the energy cost savings from reduced condensing pressure outweighs the savings afforded by increasing heat recovery. In addition, any analysis should include the effect on compressor energy of the pressure drop on the ammonia side of the heat exchanger. In some multicompressor applications, one or more compressors can be operated at increased discharge pressure to act as heat pumps. An example would be a large vegetable processor that uses steam or other 74 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls
sources to heat defrost water. In this case, heat recovery from the refrigeration system may be costeffective, because compressor heat pumps can produce water temperatures up to 85 or 90F.
Purgers
Refrigeration systems operating with a suction pressure below atmospheric pressure inevitably pull air into the system. The air ultimately ends up in the condenser, where, as an ideal gas, it drives up condensing pressure (due to partial pressures of the mixed air and ammonia vapor) and therefore decreases efficiency. One way to gauge the effect of air in the system is to measure the pressure within the condenser, and measure the liquid temperature leaving the condenser. With no air in the system, the condensing temperature and liquid temperature should be the same. An increasing difference between these two values indicates the buildup of air in the system. The effect of air in the system is increased condensing pressure during summer months, and possibly increased condenser fan and pump energy during winter months.
operate in a vacuum some or all of the time. ! As a non-condensable gas check, the computercontrol system should monitor the temperature of the high-pressure liquid ammonia draining from the condenser.
Benefits Beyond Energy: Effective Non-condensable Gas Purge ! Effective purging helps avoid overloading or
current-limiting the compressor motors, which can reduce production or product quality.
Automatic purgers can be installed to remove air from the system. Even if the air adds only a few pounds to condensing pressure, the entire compressor system discharging to the condenser is penalized. Purgers are almost always a good investment in systems that operate at vacuum suction pressures. Purger piping (and condenser piping) are essential for proper purger operation. Foul-gas piping is the term for piping that runs from the condenser circuits to the purger. Each condenser circuit should have a separate foul-gas line. The foul-gas piping should have no low points that can trap liquid condensate. Even positive-pressure systems can benefit from manual or automatic purging. Although the system does not operate in a vacuum, air can enter the system during maintenance.
Although an efficient refrigeration system is important, reducing refrigeration loads is equally important. On new construction projects, reduced loads can result not only in energy savings, but in reduced installation cost (such as smaller or fewer compressors). This section discusses ways to reduce refrigeration load.
Building Upgrades
Insulation
Increasing the insulation levels in the roof, walls, floors, piping, and vessels saves energy by reducing heat flow into the refrigerated space or refrigerant piping. Increasing insulation is possible in both new construction and retrofits, but is usually more cost-effective in new construction where the installation cost includes only the incremental cost of higher insulation compared to a less efficient alternative. (In some Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 4: Best Practices for Equipment, Systems, and Controls 75
cases, such as roof insulation, there may be costs associated with additional structural capacity to account for additional weight.) In retrofits, on the other hand, installation costs include the full cost of all-new insulation and the costs of removing and disposing of the old insulation.
Doors
For coolers and freezers, air infiltration through main doorways can be a significant source of heat gain and coil frost accumulation. These doors are often 8 to 10 feet wide, and 10 to 12 feet high. In worst cases, a manual door is the only barrier, and is left open during periods of heavy traffic. A strip curtain (Figure 70, left) or air curtain is often used in this situation, but strip curtains often fail or are purposefully trimmed or bypassed by the staff to minimize the bother of moving through the doorway. Air curtains only reduce infiltration modestly, but are bothersome due to noise and the velocity of air blown on personnel.
sensors. ! Select doors with little or no supplemental heat. ! Select doors that are robust and protect them from damage. ! Encourage traffic patterns that avoid false door openings.
Benefits Beyond Energy
Fast-acting doors can be effective in reducing infiltration. Among the available door designs are bi-parting doors, roll-up doors, and horizontal ! Increase employee safety. sliding doors. These doors open in only a few ! Reduce defrost requirements and frost buildup. seconds or less, and ideally are controlled by magnetic sensing loops in the floor, optical motion ! Create more consistent temperatures on both detectors or remotely controller by forklift sides of the door. operators. In some applications, a simple pull-cord is used to open and close the door. Unfortunately, pull-cord systems without a closure timer allow a door to be left open out of laziness, convenience, or indifference about energy. Fast-acting doors typically cost $10,000 to $15,000 to install.
Figure 70: Strip curtain (left), fast-folding door (center), and vestibule-style door (right) for infiltration control
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Fast-acting doors used in freezer applications are often equipped with heating to prevent frost accumulation and ensure clear sight through door windows. One design places radiant heaters, from 3 kW to 20 kW or more, at the top of the doorway. 3 Other designs use electric heating elements and fans to blow warm air on the doorway. Other designs use heat tape or heater strips on or in the door. In many existing facilities, the energy use of those heating elements is greater than the infiltration load eliminated by the door itself, and a retrofit to a more effective door can be justified based simply on eliminating the heater loads. Several manufacturers now offer innovative door designs that require minimal heating.
Another type of doorway is the engineered vestibule, with multiple air curtains, electric- or refrigerant-heated blowers, and no physical barrier. These systems are quite expensive, ranging from $30,000 to $100,000 or more. They are popular because they allow a clear line of sight through the doorway, a major productivity and safety advantage. Unfortunately, some of these vestibules are installed with very high amounts of electric resistance (up to 60 kW), or they use compressor discharge gas at high minimum pressures to heat the air. You can avoid these drawbacks with careful design and equipment selection, but a careful assessment of the life-cycle economics is well advised. Following these guidelines when considering energy-efficient door options: ! For fast-acting door applications, install motion or loop sensor activators. ! Avoid all door designs that require excessive electric-resistance heating. ! Avoid door designs that require high-pressure (>90 psig) ammonia gas for heating, particularly in the engineered vestibule design. ! Protect the door hardware with goal post structures or bollards and select doors that can withstand forklift impact without incurring permanent damage. A damaged door is generally an inefficient door. ! Encourage traffic patterns that avoid false door openings.
where employees need to see. ! Use efficient fluorescent, pulse start metal halide, or high pressure sodium. ! Install occupancy controls for automatic dimming or on/off control. ! Use time clocks on lighting circuits in areas with consistent schedules.
Benefits Beyond Energy ! Fluorescent and pulse-start metal halide
Lighting
Using efficient lighting in refrigerated spaces lumen maintenance. reduces the refrigeration load. Most existing refrigerated warehouses and distribution centers ! Efficient lighting improves safety and labor use metal halide or high-pressure sodium fixtures. efficiency. There are now aisle-style fixtures that put out a narrow rectangular light pattern, allowing fixture spacing to be increased. By selecting highefficiency fixtures and modern pulse-start metal halide ballasts, you can reduce total connected load.
These heaters use more energy than is wasted from infiltration through a fully open doorway.
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In addition, both metal halide and high-pressure sodium can be equipped with bi-level controls that allow the fixture to immediately transition to and from a low-level light output and power condition. Motion detectors are installed in one or more zones within an aisle, or each fixture can have its own motion detector. Time clocks are another option that can be effective in areas with consistent schedules. Increasingly, modern fluorescent lighting systems are being considered for refrigerated warehouse applications. Both T8 and the emerging T5 lamps have high color-rendering qualities. They can be applied at cooler (32F) and freezer (0F) temperatures provided they are integrated into enclosed fixtures. Insulating or heating fixtures may be required in freezer applications. Often, one of the lamps within a fixture is left on for safety, and the rest can be turned off with motion detectors. In warehouses that still have incandescent or mercury vapor lighting, switching to a more efficient alternative is very often cost-effective.
Process Upgrades
Clearly, any system improvement that reduces process refrigeration loads will be beneficial. The following are some commonly encountered scenarios in food processing.
Though it doesnt actually reduce the refrigeration ! Remove heat from products in stages, using load, you can cool or freeze a product in stages with multiple suction systems. Consider cooling a higher suction pressure systems first, and lower product in scraped-surface heat exchangers (such suction systems for final heat removal. as vegetable puree in a Contherm or Votator) before freezing. The heat exchangers often operate at a higher suction pressure than a freezer. Removing additional heat in the heat exchangers will ultimately reduce loads on the more costly freezer suction, saving energy. Again, you should assess the cost-effectiveness of installing or expanding heat exchangers to reduce freezer load.
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purchases.
Chapter 3: Refrigeration System Basics outlines various control system types. We recommend that you refer to that chapter to review the options. Although there are several variations on computer control, we generally recommend that the control solution have these three attributes: It is designed and built by a firm that specializes in industrial refrigeration control. These systems consistently have the highest level of functionality. Their designers have typically already encountered and addressed many issues that are specific to industrial refrigeration. Control systems put together by generalists can work just as well, but the design process will likely be less efficient. If you use a generalist, make sure a knowledgeable refrigeration consultant, either in-house or contracted, is on the team. It is designed and built by a control-system firms that is willing to customize the system for the specific application. Every system is different and although most control solutions have already been developed, there are almost always some control issues that are unique to a given project. It has extensive trend-logging capabilities Extensive trend-logging, including the ability to export data, are valuable for commissioning, O&M, and evaluating capital projects.
Efficiency Checklist
In this chapter, we have separated best practices into the several categories (listed under Energy EfficiencyThe Big Picture on page 6). However, most of these practices and the systems they affect are interactive, so treating them separately may result in missed opportunities or in solutions that are less than optimal. To foster a comprehensive approach, the following tables pull together all of the major concepts related to compressors, evaporators, and condensers from the preceding sections. The tables also preview the effects of proper maintenance procedures, which are addressed in the next chapter.
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Volume ratio
Screw
67
Screws that operate over a wide range of conditions. Low temperature single-stage screws All All
67
68
70 70
Oil circulation
All
54
All
59
53 25, 29, 71
85 84
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Configuration Sump location Location Fan control Pump and fan staging Set point and control Winter operation Piping issues Operation and maintenance Motor efficiency
33, 68 70 50 63 63 49
64 50 85 70
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CHAPTER 5
Performing Periodic Calibration Calibration is primarily associated with maintaining process or space temperatures at targeted levels. However, instrumentation and controls that are out of calibration can negatively affect energy performance. Poorly calibrated pressure gauges, temperature sensors, and slide valves can lead to: ! Overly conservative settings that compensate for the unknown. ! Faulty interpretation of problems with the system. Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning 83
! Less effective control algorithm performance. Tracking Equipment and System Performance Best practices include establishing habits and procedures that allow the emerging problems to be identified and fixed before they impact process or energy performance. This includes maintaining daily engine room logs, trend-logging control points with a computer-control system, and comparing performance over time. Seeking Optimization The operators that attain the highest levels of efficiency make regular adjustments to control system settings and adjustments to equipment. These adjustments are followed by observation or measurement to see how the system responds. Being Well-trained Knowledgeable maintenance staff and operators have a better understanding of all of the items on this list. They also have a better conceptual understanding of the overall performance goals. Plus, training often is used to satisfy PSM requirements as per federally mandated OSHA standards. The following sections address some key O&M issues for evaporators, compressors, and condensers that affect energy performance.
Evaporators
Clean Coils Clean evaporator coils regularly. Pressure washing can remove dirt that accumulates on evaporator fins and tubes. This is especially true in dirty or dusty environments. Fix Leaking Valves Rebuild liquid and gas valves when leaking or other improper operation is detected. For example, a leaking hot-gas defrost valve will impart false refrigeration loads by leaking gas into the suction line. Calibrate Temperature Probes and Sensors Calibrate temperature probes and sensors regularly using a consistent and traceable standard (for example, an ice bath). Replace Failed Motors Failed evaporator motors lessen total coil airflow (cfm) and capacity. The failed motor also creates an alternate path for air to flow back through the fan shroud on the front of the evaporator
Check Air Temperature Drop Track or check air temperature drop across the evaporator coils. This technique helps identify evaporators that are underperforming. Underperforming coils should be debugged to identify and address the underlying problem. For example, a typical evaporator coil in a freezer application should provide approximately degree reduction in air temperature per degree temperature difference (entering air minus refrigerant temperature).
Compressors
Calibrate Slide Valves on Rotary Screw Compressors Rotary or linear potentiometers are often used to measure slide valve position (and for variable VI, the slide stop position) on a screw compressor (Figure 73). The potentiometers eventually drift or wear, preventing the compressor from properly determining slide valve position. Where slide valve position is used for sequencing or other advanced control, accurate slide position is important. Calibrate Pressure Transducers All screw compressors have built-in pressure transducers for information, control, and safeties. Errors in these pressure readings can result in poor control of suction pressure, and possibly operating at a lower suction pressure than desired.
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Maintain Belt Drives Many reciprocating or rotary vane compressor applications use V-belt drives. Slippage and inefficiency can result from worn and improperly adjusted belts. Manufacturers of reciprocating compressors normally recommend allowing 3% BHP for belt losses. Poorly adjusted belts will have higher losses. Maintain Compressor Unloading Controls Properly maintain the controls that manage unloader operation on reciprocating compressors. This allows correct control of suction pressure. In the same way, make sure that screw compressors are capable of fully loading and unloading with their slide valve or other mechanism.
Condensers
Clean Water-Spray Nozzles and Strainers Figure 73: Slide valve potentiometer Proper flow and water distribution to condenser tube bundles is critical. Check for spray pattern and clean nozzles and strainers as needed to ensure full flow and wetting of coil surface (Figure 74). Clean Condensers Remove build-up of solids and other foreign material from all condenser surfaces. In particular, a clean tube bundle is critical to maximum heat transfer. Also, pressurewash drift eliminators regularly, as they accumulate solids that can reduce air flow. Maintain Belt Drives Adjust and replace fan belts as necessary. A slipping belt is not only inefficient, but results in less air flow and heat transfer in the condenser.
Prevent Recirculation and Saturation Normally located on building roofs, evaporative condensers are susceptible to recirculation between each other, where the warm, moist discharge air of one condenser enters the inlet of a neighboring condenser. In addition, food processing facilities often have multiple sources of steam exiting stacks or vents, such as blanchers, washers, and boiler blow-down. Preventing or correcting warm, moist air from entering the condenser will ensure full performance. Treat Condenser Water Treating condenser water is critical to equipment performance and long life and to control potential contamination. Water treatment should be done in a proactive preventative manner as opposed to reactively to a problem. Condenser tube bundles are particularly susceptible to solid build-up because of the alternate wetting and drying of surfaces. In addition, the warm water of a condenser is an attractive environment for biological growth. Check and Purge Non-Condensable Gas To test for non-condensable gas, measure the temperature of liquid condensate draining from each condenser circuit and compare it to the Figure 74: Plugged condenser spray nozzles saturated condensing temperature. Ideally, the refrigeration control system would measure the average liquid temperature draining from the condensers Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning 85
Stay on top of the three big threats to condenser performance with proper maintenance at correct intervals: ! Non-condensable gases. ! Scale on the condenser tube bundle. ! Poor spray water dispersion.
and check for the presence of non-condensable gas in real time. When problems are identified, manually purge the system or check the performance of the automatic purger and overall purging system.
Commissioning
Introduction
Refrigeration commissioning involves goals. methodically verifying that all elements of the refrigeration system operate as intended on both a ! Methodically address all key set points and component level and a system level. This review equipment adjustments. encompasses mechanical, electrical, and control checks. The primary responsibility for this work ! Review system operation over time. rests with the start-up or on-going refrigeration, electrical, and controls technicians. The primary objectives of these specialists are to ensure that systems refrigerate effectively and operate reliably and safely. One objective of this Guide is to broaden this perspective to include to optimizing energy performance. This chapter does not comprehensively cover refrigeration commissioning, because the topic is too broad. Instead it focuses on energy commissioninga subset of the overall refrigeration commissioning. Energy commissioning can be defined as the inspection, review and adjustment of set points, control strategies, and equipment features, as compared to the design intent or original specifications, in a way to maximize performance and efficiency. Energy specialists can provide these services, but progressive refrigeration, electrical, and control contractors increasingly target energy performance as part of their services. This work focuses mostly on a period of review (typically a month or less) during which the performance of the system is watched and adjusted An energy specialist leads this effort, but it is most effective when it is a joint effort of all involved parties (energy specialist, refrigeration, electrical, and controls contractors, and plant personnel who have the ongoing responsibility for the system. To maximize and sustain performance, energy commissioning should start earlier and include some longer term involvement beyond the month of intense review. This broader involvement should include: ! Reviewing the design prior to construction to make sure that problems and misunderstandings are prevented. ! Reviewing system performance over time to see how control strategies react to varying system operations. ! Educating operators and regular service technicians on the performance goals of the system and how system settings and operations affect those goals. ! Documenting set-points and sequence of operations such that operators and service technicians have helpful resources as time passes and operating personnel change.
or the ammonia pump might generate insufficient refrigerant pressure. Without fixing the underlying problem, the evaporator could underperform resulting in high fan speeds to compensate. Both the investment in the VFD and the investment in energy commissioning would be unproductive due to the lack of oversights in refrigeration commissioning. A skillful energy commissioner will broaden his focus to identify refrigeration commissioning or O&M problems that hinder energy performance. The most common time to energy commission a system is after the initial new construction and start-up. Sometimes, energy commissioning is required by utility energy efficiency programs pre-condition for financial incentives. New construction is an excellent time to commission whether or not an outside party requires it. Commissioning protects the investment in the system and in energy efficiency upgrades to that system. Without commissioning, projected energy savings could merely be phantom savings. Retro-commissioning can be an ongoing continuous improvement process or an intensive review of system operations on a pre-existing system. Investment in retro-commissioning can produce significant energy savings for systems where there has not been an on-going keen focus on energy performance. This process can also identify underlying maintenance or (non-energy) refrigeration commissioning issues. The return on investment for energy commissioning is usually less than a year, and in some cases can be a matter of months or weeks.
Evaporators
Coil Overfeed Rates Adjust overfeed or recirculated evaporator coils for the specified overfeed rates. Proper overfeed rates are typically 3:1 to 4:1 (rates that maximize overall heat transfer). This adjustment is particularly critical in gas pressure recirculation systems where excessive overfeed rates can reduce system efficiency. Evaporator Pressure Regulators In some flooded or recirculated systems, evaporator coil pressure regulators are manually set to limit refrigerant pressure and temperature within the coil. This means that with the regulator operating at 100% capacity, the refrigerant pressure within the coil is well above the compressor suction pressure. These limitations are appropriate to avoid excessive temperature differences that cause evaporators to frost rapidly. However, excessively high regulator settings limit the capacity of the evaporator coil, and limit savings from evaporator fan cycling or VFD control. Adjusting the pressure regulator for maximum capacity will increase capacity and maximize efficiency. Defrost Regulators Defrost regulators that are set too high can limit the minimum condensing pressure of the refrigeration system. Defrost regulators that are set too low can result in ineffective defrosts. Most efficient systems use a regulator setting in the 70 to 75 psig range.
Compressors
Adjust Economizers for Effectiveness On economized rotary screw compressors, the economizer port should always be enabled when it is necessary for liquid subcooling of low temperature loads. Loss of subcooling can reduce compressor efficiency by 5% to 10% or more. In addition, most economizer ports are equipped with pressure regulators to maintain pressure in the subcooler or economizer vessel. Adjust these regulators for the optimal intermediate pressure. Avoid part-load operation on economized screw compressors that are necessary to serve a liquid subcooling load. The economizer is typically disabled or ineffective below about 70% capacity. Manually Adjust VI Properly For compressors with manually adjusted internal volume ratio, review factory recommendations for proper setting at the given operating pressures. Improper VI adjustment can reduce compressor efficiency, particularly after adjusting system pressures, or reassigning the compressor to an alternative duty. Investigate Current-Limiting Virtually all screw compressors implement a current-limiting feature into the microprocessor panel. If motor load exceeds the nameplate capacity or the service factor, the compressor can limit further loading or actually be forced to unload. This occurs most often when a motor is undersized or a compressor is operating at elevated suction or discharge pressure relative to design conditions. Since operating unloaded is inefficient, you may need to reassign the compressor or replace the Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning 87
motor. Also, ensure that the compressor microprocessor is properly set up with motor full-load current value and factory-recommended limiting parameters, and that the current transformer (CT) is reading properly. Ensure Full Loading Some screw compressors have hardware, often called a slide stop, that limits compressor loading or unloading. Consult the manufacturer to ensure the compressor is set to fully load, and also to fully unload.
Condensers
Review Purger Operation Inspect automatic system purgers for proper operation and capacity. If a system has increased in size and capacity over time, a purger may not be capable of handling all noncondensable load. Make sure that the foul-gas piping from the condenser circuits to the purger does not trap liquid.
Refrigeration Loads
Optimize Door Heating Adjust door and air curtain controls to minimize heating while maintaining door functionality. Electric resistance heating, blowers, and even ammonia hot gas are often employed with doors and air curtains. Several door controls have features that allows heating to be cycled rather than operated continuously or only cycle on heating for a period after the door has been opened. Minimize Door Cycle Times and False Openings Adjust closing delay timers to minimize open time for doors that automatically close. Tune door motions sensors to eliminate false openings caused by cross traffic or activity by the door that is not passing through the doorway. Optimize Underfloor Heating The underfloor heating system should use the lowest possible air or glycol temperature required to prevent frost heaving. Due to the slow thermal response of the slab and underfloor system, you should experiment slowly and carefully. Minimize Pressure Differences Between Rooms Exhaust systems, make-up air units, and positive pressure requirements can all have create pressure differentials that force high levels of infiltration into a refrigerated spaces. Commissioning can sometimes mitigate these effects while meeting plant requirements.
Controls
Optimize Suction Pressure Set Point In some systems it is best to raise the set-point as high as possible. In other systems, it is best to balance pick a set point that best balance compressor energy use with evaporator fan energy. As part of the commissioning process, keen attention should be focused on the limiting refrigeration load to make sure that it is performing consistent with its design rating. Compressor Sequencing Carefully review and optimize compressor sequencing set points, including order and criteria for starting and stopping compressors. Simultaneously unloading multiple screw 88 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning
compressors should be avoided. Operating large compressors in a highly unloaded fashion should also be avoided. Compressors with good part-load efficiency should be used as trim machines. Evaporator Fan VFD Control Commissioning focuses on minimum and maximum fan speeds, rates of speed change, coordination of VFD control with liquid solenoid or BPR control, and grouping of zones to share load. Remote vs. Local Compressor Control Ensure that the computer is in full control of all compressor functions, including start/stop and load/unload. Leaving compressor microprocessors in Local control mode prevents centralized suction pressure control and compressor sequencing. Minimize Condensing Pressure Set Point Set the minimum condensing pressure as low as possible, until problems are encountered. Recognize that advice on condensing pressure from manufacturers, contractors, and technicians is often very conservative. When a barrier is encountered, assess the cost and energy savings that are possible by correcting it. Optimize Condenser Staging Operate evaporative condensers wet as often as possible. In addition, stage condensers in order of decreasing efficiency, using axial-fan and integral sump units first, before other units without these features. Finally, stage condensers as entire units. That is, avoid the temptation to stage all pumps online first, then all fans. Rather, implement a pump-fan-pump-fan strategy. If VFDs are used, follow the staging recommendations discussed in Improving Condenser Part-Load Performance on page 62. Ambient Temperature Probe Location Locate ambient-temperature and relative-humidity probes in locations that are unaffected by direct sun or humidity sources. Check temperature and humidity relative to nearby weather stations. Accurate measurement of ambient conditions is important for successful implementation of wet-bulb approach condenser control. Maximize Zone Temperatures Set all freezer or cooler zones to the highest acceptable temperature set point allowed by product, customer, or corporate temperature criteria. Enable Fan Cycling If your computer-control system has an evaporator fan-cycling feature, enable it. If there is an option to choose between scheduled cycling (for example, two hours on, two hours off), and cycling on demand, the latter provides the greater savings. If a fan-cycling feature is not available, add it to the control system. Optimize Defrost Settings Defrost only when necessary, and for only as long as necessary. Experimenting will help determine the necessary defrost schedule parameters. If the system uses time clocks, a seven-day time clock is better than a 24-hour time clock, because often defrost is only necessary at intervals greater than 24 hours. If the control system offers a more advanced method of initiating defrost (for example, liquid run-time), take advantage of the feature and experiment with extended time between defrosts. Optimize Pumper Drum and LTUs In a pumper-drum design, set controlled-pressure receiver (CPR) pressure at the minimum possible pressure to minimize the amount of high-pressure gas required to push the liquid from liquid transfer unit (LTU) vessels. Verify that the transfer vessel float controls are terminating the transfer process prior to the vessel being fully empty. This minimizes transferring high pressure gas into the liquid receiver. VFD Parameter Settings Confirm that VFDs for evaporators and condensers are set for variable torque and that VFDs for compressors are set for constant torque. Also, VFDs should generally be set for low switching frequency (4 kHz or less). Finally, confirm that the VFDs and control system are programmed correctly for speed settings and speed conversions. We have seen many control systems where the indicated speed and the actual VFD speed are different. These discrepancies must be addressed. Utilize Setback Features If a time-of-use utility rate schedule provides low-cost energy during off-peak hours, take advantage of scheduled suction pressure and zone temperature features to shift a portion of refrigeration load to the off-peak periods, and coast during the on-peak periods. There may be a slight increase or decrease in total energy use as a result, but the primary goal is prioritizing load during low-cost periods. Demand Limiting Features In some cases, a facility may operate under a rate schedule that charges very high rates for demand (kW or kVA) during peak periods. Also, some rate schedules penalize the facility for Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 5: Best Practices for O&M and Commissioning 89
the one or two highest peak demand values during the previous 12 months or calendar year. In these cases, the control system can provide demand limiting and shedding features. With a connection to the utility pulse meter or a secondary power transducer, the control system will follow a prescribed order of equipment unloading or shutdowns to avoid target peak demand levels.
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CHAPTER 6
the full extent. Energy represents the next layer of opportunity to reduce costs. The bottom line is that increased global demand for energy, tightening environmental regulations, and growing threats such as global warming will undoubtedly increase the cost and availability of energy in the future. Those companies with an effective energy management program that have reduced energy costs and reinvested savings in new energy projects will have a considerable competitive advantage.
4 Capital Projects Pursue equipment upgrades that improve efficiency. This is pursued by facilities that feel that efficiency is primarily an equipment issue or want to avoid tackling efficiency from a staff perspective. Energy cost savings can be significant but fall short of true optimization because of the failure to address opportunities from the human perspective. 5 Strategic Energy Management Incorporate energy into all aspects of normal business operations. A facility develops a formal energy policy, assigns leadership and sets goals. An energy plan enables a facility to prioritize opportunities and assign roles and responsibilities for achieving goals; the next step is to pursue capital projects and low-cost, no-costs methods to reduce energy use. By tracking Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), a facility can measure system performance and improvements in energy productivity.
Clearly, a Strategic Energy Management program presents the best opportunity to fully optimize energy efficiency. An energy management program is most effective when it is appropriately scaled to meet the needs of a facility. In general, the greater energy costs are and the greater percentage of total operating costs energy represents, the greater opportunity for a comprehensive energy management program.
some of the attributes that are common to successful energy management programs within these four areas: 1 Gain Upper Management Support The most successful energy programs are supported by upper management, which provides clear goals and the resources for achieving them. Management must convey that the energy program is real, is a long-term effort, and that staff will be held accountable for its success. Assign an Energy Champion Assigning an Energy Champion to oversee the energy management program establishes accountability. An effective Energy Champion understands the technical aspects of energy use and optimization, as well as the financial requirements to implement improvements. The champion must be able to effectively manage and motivate staff whose actions affect energy use as well as successfully secure necessary financial resources from management. An Energy Champion may be also be selected for each major technical system in a facility, such as refrigeration or compressed air. An Energy Champion is most effective when he/she establishes an energy team which is represented by members from each technical system as well as each department. An energy team meets regularly and helps the Champion lead activities and measure results. Establish and Track Key Performance Indicators Establishing energy-focused Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) allows a facility to track and benchmark the performance of individual energyrelated upgrades as well as a comprehensive energy management program. Employing appropriate KPIs ensures that a facility will sustain and improve upon advancements made in the energy program.
4 Adopt a Continuous Improvement Philosophy At the onset of an energy management program, it is likely that a few low-cost, no-cost opportunities will be discovered that provide dramatic energy savings. At this point, it may be tempting to claim that the program was a success and move on. The downside is that many other viable opportunities have not yet been realized and experience shows that gains made in the past degrade over time. Significant energy savings can only be achieved with a continuous improvement system that finds new opportunities, measures KPIs and each year evaluates and increases goals. 5 Participate in Training Providing training for plant staff whose actions affect energy use is critical towards success. Training for plant engineering staff and upper management as well as operators and maintenance staff is vital because key decision makers and daily operators significantly impact the overall direction and savings resulting from an energy management program.
6 Reduce the Cost of Energy Actively pursue options to reduce the cost of energy. Many utilities offer reduced rates if a facility agrees to an interruptible power service option. As well, most utilities offer free energy management software and training. This utility service will help you understand and manage factors that affect energy costs such as time-of-day rate changes, peak demand charges, and power factor penalties. You will be better able to optimize usage and reduce your overall electric utility costs. Another method is to research whether alternate rate schedules are available from your existing utility provider. 7 Conduct Proper Cost and Savings Accounting How project costs and savings are accounted can help or hinder the results of an energy management program. To ensure a successful energy management program, incentive must be provided to those responsible for making improvements and meeting goals.
8 Document and Replicate Successes Ensure that the lessons learned and techniques from a successful energy management program can live on as plant operations and staff evolve and change. Companies with multiple facilities need to spread knowledge, best practices, and success stories gained from site to site and department to department.
data, such as refrigeration energy, versus variables that strongly affect its use, such as production or outdoor ambient temperature. By normalizing the data, plant staff can determine whether refrigeration system energy use has been reduced because of efficiency improvements that were made or simply because production dropped, for example. The following are just a few of the KPIs that could potentially be utilized on an industrial refrigeration system: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Refrigeration system power (kW) Refrigeration system load (TR) Refrigeration system power versus load (kW/TR) Refrigeration system power per unit production (kW/lb) Refrigeration system power per unit cold storage volume (kW/cu. ft.) Average condensing pressure (psig) Average suction pressure (in. Hg or psig) Average refrigeration load versus peak refrigeration load (TR/TR) Evaporator defrost duty (%) Cold storage door open time (hrs) Outdoor ambient dry bulb temperature (F) Outdoor ambient relative humidity (%)
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We have expanded our system. After the expansion, we see noticeably more pressure drop in our suction lines; or, sometimes we have trouble maintaining temperature in zones far from the compressor room. Points Yes ............................................................................................................................................ 0 No ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Score
10 points possible
Section Score
13 points possible
Section Score
Questions in this section are geared toward the Pacific Northwest region of the United States.
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8 points possible
Section Score
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97
12 Which of the following best describes the typical unloading of our compressors?
Points It is common to have two or more screw compressors operating at less than 100% capacity on the same suction system. ................................................. 0 All operating compressors remain fully loaded, but operate at lower than necessary suction pressures. ................................................................................... 2 Our control system fully loads our base-load compressors with one screw compressor acting as trim compressor by unloading the slide valve to maintain suction pressure at set point. .................................................. 4 Our control system fully loads our base-load compressors with either a reciprocating compressor or VFD-driven screw compressor acting as the "trim" compressor. ............................................................... 6 Score
14 points possible
Section Score
98
Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices and Energy Management
15 We run our system dry for several months each winter, which often includes a month or more when the weather is above freezing. Points Yes ............................................................................................................................................ 0 No ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Score
7 points possible
Section Score
15 points possible
Section Score
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99
3 points possible
Section Score
100
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27 We practice preventive maintenance on our compressors including regularly scheduled oil changes, filter changes, oil analysis, vibration analysis, and clearance checks. Points False .......................................................................................................................................... 0 True .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Score 28 We routinely inspect our hot gas solenoid valves to confirm that no gas is leaking through to the suction system. Points False .......................................................................................................................................... 0 True .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Score 29 Which of the following statements best describes how you manually record and track variables that have a significant energy or process impacts (examples include space or process temperatures, system pressures, compressor motor current, slide valve positions, compressor hour meter readings, etc.). Points We don't formally track these variables................................................................................ 0 We manually record engine room and space temperature logs on at least a daily basis. This technique allows us to recognize problems early, but we seldom refer back to previous logs for comparison. ............................. 1 We record engine room logs on at least a daily basis. We use this for early recognition of problems and we periodically compare performance over time to identify emerging problems................................................ 2 Score 30 Which of the following best describes our use of our computer-control system for control? Points We either don't have a computer-control system or we have overridden and disabled most/all of its control functions. ......................................... 0 Our control system provides most/all of the control for our system, but we largely rely on the original settings. .................................................................... 1 We consider the control system a tool for active use. We routinely make control changes with a particular emphasis on minimizing energy use. ......................................................................................................................... 2 Score
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101
31 Which of the following describes the use of our computer system for "trend-logging"? Trend-logging is defined as storing important system variables (space temperatures, system pressures, etc.) that can be reviewed in graphs or tables. Points We either do not have a control system, or we have a control system that we do not use for trend-logging. ............................................................................. 0 We use the trend-logging capability of our computer on an occasional basis. .................................................................................................................................... 1 We review trend-logging on a regular basis and trend most/all of the control points that the system allows. ............................................................................ 2 Score
20 points possible
Section Score
5 points possible
Section Score
102
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35 During the course of our plant construction or last expansion, we had contractors provide bids on energy efficiency upgrades and evaluated incremental investments in energy efficiency. We selected options with low life-cycle costs that met our return on investment criteria. Points No ............................................................................................................................................. 0 Yes ............................................................................................................................................ 3 Score
5 points possible
Section Score
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103
Total
This self-assessment tool is intended to give you an initial idea of your refrigeration systems energy efficiency and potential. Youve probably noted that more expensive or complex options are represented by higher scores. In most circumstances, this also indicates greater energy efficiency. But there are many operation-and-maintenance options for reducing energy costs with minimal investment. This self-assessment tool was developed with a typical refrigeration system at a cold storage warehouse. Remember that your refrigeration system is customized and unique to your situation. If you have significant process loads for fluid cooling or freezing, or your system is older, some of the scoring choices may not apply well to you. 104 Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices and Energy Management
Take some time to assess your score for each section individually and for your total score. Even if your score is ranked excellent, there are likely still options for controlling costs. The only way to keep a refrigeration system in top condition is by regular and comprehensive maintenance and thoughtful operation. Also note, that the efficiency of some systems ranked Fair or with Opportunity for Improvement could be increased at little or no cost. Many industrial refrigeration systems will have a chance to become more efficient when undertaking a major renovation or new construction. During these times, try to consider various options in an energy study that includes a life-cycle cost analysis.
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1 2 3 4 5 Total
From motor nameplate Possible data sources would include manually recorded engine room logs, refrigeration control system history, or amp measurements at typical operations.
Engine room logs that include hour meter readings are an excellent source for estimating hours per year.
Technically: kW = motor shaft power x .746 / motor efficiency but a decent approximation is: kW = Motor Nameplate hp x typical motor amps / motor full load amps * 0.8
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4 3 3 3 5
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 4
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 40 124
Constant Constant Constant Constant Fan Cycling Fan Cycling Fan Cycling VFD
Typical Average Input Duty Shaft Hours per Power Cycle or Power year (kW) speed (hp)
Average shaft power should address control type (constant, fan cycle, or speed control). A rough estimate is: kW = shaft power x 0.8
Load
Avg Avg Condenser Condenser Pump Fan Duty Fan/Pump Fan/Pump Hours per Pump hp Fan hp Shaft Input year duty cycle Cycle Power Power (hp) (kW)
20 15 0
50% 30%
15 12 5 32
You can use either an average rate inferred from your energy bill (total $ / total kWh) or look up your energy rate from your utility rate schedule.
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A lower level of efficiency is cost-effective when one or more of the above conditions are not met. In such a scenario, an energy study is the best tool for addressing the specific case and helping define what is economically feasible. An energy study defines the capital costs and energy cost savings associated with various upgrades (in the case of new construction) or retrofits (for existing systems). It also summarizes any utility incentives or tax benefits that may be available, and provides the proper rigorous analysis and documentation required to obtain them. If possible, the study should list or quantify non-energy benefits and/or costs. Financial results are presented in terms of simple payback, return on investment, or annual net cash flow, depending on the preferences of decision makers. An energy study should be conducted by someone with expertise and experience in refrigeration and energy analysis. A lack of refrigeration knowledge will result in missed opportunities and poor recommendations. A lack of energy experience will miss the big picture in terms of energy baseline, utility rate schedules, and incentives. Limited analytical experience will result in dubious savings estimates. Some larger food-processing facilities have developed (or may want to develop) energy-study expertise inhouse. More commonly, energy studies are contracted out to energy-efficiency specialists. Often, energyefficiency programs of electric utilities will provide partial or full funding for these studies. However, even if the customer pays for the study, this investment is small relative to the capital cost of the equipment and the lifetime energy costs of the system. In other words, it is a best practice to invest in high-quality decision-making information. At a more detailed level, an energy study includes the following: An engineering model of the energy use of the refrigeration system This model would represent the loads, equipment, and control of the system. Such models can be constructed for both existing systems and for proposed new construction. ! A baseline model is constructed that represents either as-is conditions (for an existing system) or a baseline design model (for new construction). ! Modified versions of the model are created to represent alternate system configurations. The difference in annual energy use between the baseline and alternate models represents potential energy and cost savings. ! These models can be quite complex, due to a combination of factors including seasonal variations in weather and production, interactions between energy-using equipment, nonlinear equipment partload, and control subtleties. To be an accurate representation, a comprehensive model should address both full-load and part-load equipment operation and the full range of load levels and ambient conditions. It is a mistake to concentrate strictly on worst-case design loads that occur for only a small fraction of the time. ! For existing systems, we advocate monitoring the system for a representative period of time to observe how the system actually operates. The monitored loads and equipment control are then Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices and Energy Management 109
integrated with the refrigeration model. This monitoring typically includes compressor motor current or true power, system pressures, equipment on/off status, and slide valve positions. As an alternative to monitoring, many newer refrigeration computer-control systems record these variables into a database that can be accessed and analyzed. Estimates of the cost of efficiency upgrades These costs can be estimated based upon similar projects, but a better approach is to obtain contractor costs based upon the specific case. It is an excellent management practice to ask contractors for cost estimates for efficiency alternates as part of the bidding process for new construction. Design details The study should provide enough detail on specific design details, necessary set points, and control algorithms to ensure that the energy-efficiency goals will be achieved. Measurement and verification plans It is a good idea to describe how the system will be commissioned and how savings will be verified at this early stage, particularly if incentives are at stake.
Table 12: Example summary of savings and cost from an energy study
Savings and Cost Summary EEM Number 1 Description Engine room computer control, condenser fan VFDs, thermosiphon oil cooling Freezer evaporator zones computer control Retrofit upgrades to compressor #3 (economizer, VFD, alternate VI) New single-stage compressor (economizer, variable VI, premium motor, VFD) Include in Package? Yes Annual Energy Savings (kWh/yr) 483,786 Energy PreInstalled Cost incentive Cost Savings Payback ($) ($) (years) $26,608 $93,608 3.5
2 3a 3b
Yes No No
$16,236 $15,991
$37,882 $90,090
$16,142 $180,391
Compressor 3 upgrades and new single-stage compressor Total for recommended package: 3c
Cost of Energy: $0.05500 /kWh
Yes
452,261 1,231,251
9.0 5.3
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Energy Accounting
Another step toward energy efficiency is to manage whole-plant energy costs using energy accounting. Energy accounting is a system for recording, analyzing, and reporting energy consumption and cost regularly. Just as financial accounting is used to effectively manage the costs of a business, energy accounting can be used to manage energy systems. Energy accounting provides feedback on how much energy your facility uses and can help you communicate energy-use information that facility staff and management can use to control energy costs. If submetering is available, its also possible to perform energy accounting by cost center or sometimes by end-use. Energy accounting can help you with the following: ! Record and assign energy consumption and related costs. Compare energy use and cost among facilities and look at changes over time. With electrical submetering for your refrigeration system or other major production centers, or real-time monitoring, you can gain further insight into plant energy. One excellent idea is to track energy use normalized to some particular index such as production, average ambient temperature, or other key variable, as shown in Figure 75. ! Troubleshoot energy-use problems and billing errors. By consistently tracking energy use, you can identify problems in plant equipment or operation. A sudden unexplained increase in consumption, for instance, means its time to investigate and identify the cause. ! Provide a basis for prioritizing energy capital investments. Find out which facilities have the highest energy costs, and consider giving additional attention to those systems. ! Evaluate energy-efficiency success and promote the results. Clearly identify actual cost savings and compare it to predicted cost savings. Without energy accounting, its very difficult to answer this question accurately. ! Create incentives for energy management. Energy accounting can help measure and establish incentives for those staff who implement energy management. Providing incentives by sharing energy cost savings with the maintenance department is an example of an incentive structure that could not be done without energy accounting. ! Increase budget accuracy. Energy accounting gives a historical look at costs to create realistic budgets.
Electrical Energy vs Production
3,000,000 1.90 2,500,000 1.85 2,000,000 1.80
kWh
1,000,000
500,000
kWh
1,500,000
Production (lb/month)
Figure 75: Examples of tracking energy use normalized to production (left) and temperature (right)
Energy accounting can help your facility staff understand how and where energy is used in your plant, and can help motivate people to take actions that can significant reduce utility costs. To get the most benefit from energy accounting, allocate sufficient staff resources to set up and maintain the system, and to develop a system of communication with owners, managers, facilities staff, and others whose decisions affect energy use. Energy accounting cant save energy on its own. But when used as a tool for energy management, it can help you make changes in operation or equipment that will reduce energy costs. Energy accounting will Industrial Refrigeration Best Practices Guide Chapter 6: Tools for Implementing Best Practices and Energy Management 111
also contribute to accurate budgets and resource allocation. It can be used to evaluate capital investments, and most importantly, verify the results of all energy-management investments and programs.
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CHAPTER 7
Case Studies
This section contains short case studies that were selected to show how some of these Best Practices have been implemented in the Pacific Northwest. ! ! ! ! Henningsen Cold Storage Oregon Freeze Dry SYSCO Food Services WestFarm Foods
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CASE STUDY
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n n n
Financial Overview
Incremental Installation Cost $410,000 Oregon Business Energy Tax Credit $143,500 Portland General Electric Incentive ~$70,000 Energy Savings 58% of base energy use 1,140, 000 kWh/year Energy Cost Savings $51,000/year (1996 rates)
The Project
The Henningsen family has been in the cold-storage business since 1923. When you have been in the business for more than eighty years, you take the long view, and one way to do that it is to look at life-cycle costs. Headquartered in Hillsboro, Oregon, Henningsen Cold Storage Co. is a full-service, public, refrigerated warehousing company that offers over 36 million cubic feet of frozen and refrigerated warehousing space and has locations in Idaho, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington. In 1996, Henningsen built a state-of-the-art cold-storage warehouse in Gresham Oregon. After nearly a decade of operation, it is still an outstanding example of Best Practices in energy-efficient industrial refrigeration.
Resources
Project Owner Henningsen Cold Storage (503) 531-5400 www.henningsen.com Energy Consultant Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc. (509) 529-8040 Marcus Wilcox, P .E. marcus.wilcox@cascadeenergy.com Business Energy Tax Credit Oregon Department of Energy 1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon) (503) 378-4040 www.energy.state.or.us Electric Utility Portland General Electric (Incentives are now available through the Energy Trust of Oregon) 1 (866) 368-7878 (inside Oregon) (503) 493-8888 www.energytrust.org
250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Energy Efficiency
Energy-efficiency improvements include:
n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n
6 inches extruded polystyrene wall insulation 6 inches extruded polystyrene floor insulation 15 inches extruded polystyrene ceiling insulation Three fast-acting warehouse doors serving dock 400W Bi-level HPS lighting fixtures Oversized condenser at 85F design Axial condenser fans VFD condenser and evaporator fan control Evaporators sized for 10F temperature difference Three diversely sized screw compressors Thermosiphon compressor cooling Premium-efficiency motors Computer control system Automatic non-condensable gas purger Coordinated VFD and slide-valve control on trim compressor
Continued Success
The energy-efficient system design proved its worth to the companys bottom line, so when Henningsen more than doubled the size of the facility in 1998, efficient design, equipment, and controls were again specified. This brought an additional 660,000 kWh per year in energy savings and reduced operating costs by $30,000 annually.
CASE STUDY
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n n n n
Financial Overview
Incremental Installation Cost $241,777 Oregon Business Energy Tax Credit $81,535 Pacific Power Incentive $115,042 Energy Savings 34% of base energy use 1,939, 000 kWh/year Energy Demand Savings 160 kW/month (results are highly variable) Energy Cost Savings $77,700/year
The Project
Oregons Willamette Valley with its mild climate, 40 inches of annual rainfall and fertile soil is one of the largest food production centers in the nation. It was the perfect home in 1963 for a small firm that processed dried fruit for breakfast cereals. Over the years, the firm developed military rations and private-label food brands. It also perfected the freezedrying process that combines the freshness, color, and aroma of frozen foods with the shelf stability and convenience of canned and dehydrated foods. Today, Oregon Freeze Dry, Inc. in Albany is the largest custom processor of freeze-dried products in the world and a technological leader in the freeze-drying process. Oregon Freeze Dry has three manufacturing plants on its 35acre site. Its manufacturing process is energy-intensive, especially the two-stage ammonia-based industrial refrigeration system that serves 14 freeze-dry chambers and several cold rooms. The companys engineering staff initiated a study, with help from Pacific Power and an energy-engineering firm. The study revealed several energy-saving opportunities that the company implemented. In March 2003, Oregon Freeze Dry completed installation of variable-frequency drives (VFDs) on each of four screw compressors of its refrigeration system. These allow the compressor motors to vary speed to match refrigeration loads. The company also replaced an undersized 8-inch suction line with a 12-inch line. The energy savings of the VFD and suction line were substantialnearly 2 million kilowatt-hours annually or 34% of the refrigeration systems base energy use. In addition, the VFDs require minimal employee training and reduce motor and compressor wear.
Resources
Project Owner Oregon Freeze Dry, Inc. (541) 926-6001 www.ofd.com Energy Consultant Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc. (503) 287-8488 Rob Morton, P .E. rob.morton@cascadeenergy.com Business Energy Tax Credit Oregon Department of Energy 1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon) (503) 378-4040 www.energy.state.or.us Electric Utility Pacific Power (For Oregon customers, incentives are now
available through the Energy Trust of Oregon)
Inside Oregon: 1 (866) 368-7878, www.energytrust.org Outside Oregon: 1 (800) 222-4335 energy.expert@pacificorp.com
Background
The engineering staff at Oregon Freeze Dry believes plant energy use is their responsibility. In 2002, they decided to look at the ammonia-based refrigeration system, one of their most energy-intensive systems. They invited Al Leake of Pacific Power to discuss energy-efficiency projects and available incentives. Pacific Power arranged for Cascade Energy Engineering to perform an energy study to find specific ways to improve the efficiency of the refrigeration system. Their report suggested three efficiency measures: 1) installing variablefrequency drives (VFDs) on four of the eight compressors; 2) adding a new suction line between two plants, and 3) expanding computer controls to manage the VFDs. The existing compressors inefficiently varied capacity with slide valves. The VFDs would instead allow the compressor motors to vary speed to match refrigeration loads. The existing undersized suction line created a large pressure drop which required a lower (and less efficient) system suction pressure. Oregon Freeze Dry management reviewed the report, found the financial payback and incentives attractive, and approved the installation.
Features
n ABB variable frequency drives were installed on four
screw compressors (two high stage and two booster compressors). The remaining four compressors are now used for base loading and back-up. n A Techni-Systems computer-control system manages which compressors run and at what speeds to meet the refrigeration load with maximum efficiency. n A 12-inch-diameter suction line supplements the old 8inch line.
Replication
n In industrial refrigeration systems, VFDs are often cost
Benefits
n VFDs and control system efficiently vary the capacity of
n n n
the refrigeration system with speed control rather than with the less efficient slide valves. Energy savings of 1,939,000 kilowatt hours/year (34 percent of base energy use) with no reductions in production. Energy cost savings of $77,700/year. Reduced wear on motors and compressors due to soft starts and fewer operating hours. The VFDs and control system require minimal employee training.
effective for screw compressors, evaporator fans, and condenser fans. Generally, VFDs are useful where equipment operates for long hours in systems with variable loads or light loads. n If a compressor operates at or near full speed most of the time, adding an adjustable speed drive will not be cost effective. n A VFD may not always be the best way to control capacity. Sequencing of multiple compressors or the use of a reciprocating compressor for trim are other possibilities. n The use of VFDs is only one way to save energy in industrial refrigeration systems. Other ways include refrigeration computer control, thermosiphon oil cooling, high-speed energy efficiency doors, and bi-level lighting.
CASE STUDY
Energy Management Strategy
To achieve their energy efficiency goals, SYSCO implemented an energy management program at each facility:
n Energy Champion: An Energy Champion was assigned at
The Program
SYSCO has long been a market leader in the highly competitive North American food-service distribution industry. At the heart of the company are over eighty broadline distribution facilities spread throughout the United States and Canada. These facilities provide ingredients needed to prepare meals as well as other services for restaurants, hotels, schools, cruise ships, and other food-service locations. In 2006, SYSCO established energy goals for each broadline facility to reduce use by 10% in the first year and by 25% after three years (by 2009). Energy represented the next layer of our operating costs that could be reduced, noted Pete Richter, SYSCO Corporate Project Manager. We had some past experience implementing energy projects at a few of our facilities. The ROI for these projects was always excellent. We knew that a corporate-wide effort could yield tremendous cost savings.
Energy Use Comparison
35,000 30,000 Before Commissioning After Commissioning
each facility. The Champion is accountable for achieving SYSCOs energy reduction goals and manages all energy related aspects at the facility. The Champion also manages key resources such as facility maintenance staff, vendors and contractors, and the local utility in order to implement energy efficiency improvements. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs): A website tool was developed to track facility energy use and to establish KPIs which track and benchmark improvements. KPIs include tracking current facility energy use versus historic performance and plant energy use per warehouse storage volume. Commissioning: A rigorous commissioning was conducted by Cascade Energy Engineering at each facility to identify low- or no-cost opportunities to reduce energy use. Capital Projects: Each facility was tasked with identifying, prioritizing, and implementing capital projects to reduce energy use in an effort to meet SYSCOs energy reduction goals. Performance-Based Incentives: A system was put in place to tie compensation of the energy champions and upper management to achieving and sustaining SYSCOs energy efficiency goals.
In regards to establishing comprehensive energy KPIs, Richter commented, SYSCO has always been a data driven company. We recognize that extending this philosophy to energy is critical towards achieving and sustaining success.
25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Month
Financial Overview
Energy Savings 17% of total facility 1,700,000 kWh/year Energy and Demand Cost Savings $100,000/year
Resources
Project Owner SYSCO Food Services of East Wisconsin (262) 677-1100 www.syscoeast.com Energy Consultant Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc. (509) 529-8040 Marcus Wilcox, P .E. marcus.wilcox@cascadeenergy.com
CASE STUDY
PROJECT SUMMARY
Benefits
n n n n n n
WestFarm Foods
Reduced energy cost Increased system capacity Improved control Improved trending and alarming Reduced evaporator fan noise Reduced condenser fan noise
Financial Overview
Incremental Installation Cost $310,000 Oregon Business Energy Tax Credit $108,000 Portland General Electric Incentive $127,000 Energy Savings 40% of base energy use 2,000,000 kWh/year Energy Cost Savings $75,000/year
The Project
WestFarm Foods is one of the largest dairy manufacturers in the nation, with 1,200 employees at 11 processing plants in Washington, Oregon, Idaho and California. In early 1996, WestFarm Foods began planning for an expansion and modernization of their Portland, Oregon creamery. WestFarm engineers were designing a new Extended Shelf Life (ESL) processing line and the associated cooler space. Increased loads from the ESL process and cooler would require adding a 350-hp compressor to supplement the existing 350-hp and 600-hp screw compressors. This in turn would require another condenser. WestFarm and their Portland General Electric account representative arranged for Cascade Energy Engineering to perform a detailed energy study, starting with data logging of the existing refrigeration system. The data collected included suction pressure, condensing pressure, and compressor slide valve position. Hour meters recorded run time for the liquid solenoid valves and power measurements were made on the primary refrigeration compressor. Data logging revealed three major issues with the existing systems. First, compressors operated unloaded much of the time because they were sequenced manually, not by computer control, to meet the wide range of plant loads. Second, the high minimum condensing pressure of 140 psig, which was required to ensure proper liquid ammonia flow throughout the sprawling plant, resulted in increased compressor power, particularly during the winter. Third, the evaporator coil liquid solenoids in the milk cooler were off much of the time, resulting in excessive fan power.
Resources
Project Owner WestFarm Foods (206) 281-3456 www.WestFarm.com Energy Consultant Cascade Energy Engineering, Inc. (503) 287-8488 Rob Morton, P .E. rob.morton@cascadeenergy.com Business Energy Tax Credit Oregon Department of Energy 1-800-221-8035 (inside Oregon) (503) 378-4040 www.energy.state.or.us Electric Utility Portland General Electric (Incentives are now available through the Energy Trust of Oregon) 1 (866) 368-7878 (inside Oregon) (503) 493-8888 www.energytrust.org
Efficiency Opportunities
A review of the baseline refrigeration bid specification revealed several opportunities to increase energy efficiency. First, the baseline design condensing temperature of 90F would unnecessarily increase summer compressor energy use. Second, the heat rejection rate of the baseline condenser was a relatively inefficient 225 MBH/hp. Efficiencies of 300 MBH/hp or higher are possible. Third, the baseline design included neither computer control nor variable-frequency drives (VFDs).
Efficiency Measures
Implemented energy-efficiency measures include:
n Refrigeration computer control system n Screw compressor VFD control n Evaporator fan VFD
pressure
n Oversized/efficient
evaporative condenser
n Condenser fan VFD
control
Features
800
Example Hourly Refrigeration Profile Including Existing & New ESL Loads
A computer control system was installed to provide improved compressor sequencing, tighter control of condenser fan set points, and more importantly, a backbone for VFD control. A 350-hp VFD was installed on the new compressor, working in conjunction with its slide valve to provide load trim. The other compressors are now either off or at 100% capacity. VFDs were used on the evaporator fans in the milk cooler and the new ESL cooler. The computer reduces fan speed whenever space temperature is satisfied. A new high-pressure ammonia receiver with a booster pump was installed to ensure adequate liquid pressure to sensitive loads. This allowed the minimum condensing pressure to be reduced from 140 psig to 90 psig. A larger, more efficient condenser was specified, and all condenser fans were equipped with VFD control to manage condenser capacity with speed rather than cycling.
New Loads
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Existing
Sun
Mon
Day
Results
Implemented measures reduced annual energy consumption at the WestFarm facility by more than 2,000,000 kWhnearly 40% of the total refrigeration energy use. Annual operating costs were reduced by about $75,000. The entire package of improvements cost $310,000. Although this represented an attractive 4.2-year payback, incentives from Portland General Electric and a 35% tax credit from the Oregon Department of Energy reduced the final customer payback to one year.
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