Ancient India - Education

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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022940773
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
IN
ANCIENT INDIA
BY
NOGENDRA NATH MAZUMDER,

Professor, Dacca Training College
M.A., B.T.
WITH AN INTRODUCTION
BY
E. E.
BISS,
I.E.S.
Principal, Dacca Training College
CO., Ltd. CALCUTTA, BOMBAY, MADRAS, LONDON
MACMILLAN
&
|. !:
I.'
FEINTED BY JYOTISH CHANDRA QllOSn AT THE COTTON PEESS 57, PAIRKISON ROAB, CAIjCjnTTA.
THE AUTHOR'S NOTE.

The general
worked out
work.
so
in
outline of the
book was
the
first
class-room
lectures.
It has
subsequently developed into
present
The subject-matter
feel it
of the
book
is
complex that I
should have been

to
undertaken by abler hands.
The main object of meet the demand for
this publication
is
small
Hand-hook
in
that will give a clear and systematic account

of the ideal and the system of education
ancient
India,
and also to remove some

'
grave misapprehension that seems to exist
about the Hindu ideals of education in the
minds of some eminent foreign
writers.
Dr.
Graves of the Ohio State University following Mr. Davidson remarks that ''despite all the Hindu's fineness of intellect and his India seems typically religion, idealistic
'barbarian'
".
It
is
really unfortunate
that
such a remark should have come from such

a man.
The
following pages,
hope,
will
IV
THE AUTHORS NOTE.

clearly
show
how
hasty, unjust
and unfound-
ed his remarks are.
The book has been read in manuscript as well as in proof by Mr. Evan. E. Biss, I. E. S., Principal, Dacca Training College,
to
whom my
gratitude
is
due for writing
the Introduction and for helping
me with
many
valuable criticisms and suggestions.
My
thanks are he
also
due to Professor
Satyendra Nath Bhadra,

permission
M.A.,
given
for
the
to
has kindly
me
reprint those
portions of the book which

his
appeared
in
Review and
to
my
friends
who have helped me with their suggestions. Nor must I omit to express my obligation
to
the various authorities
whom
have'
consulted and quoted from.
Training College,
Dacca
August, 1916.
j-
N. N.
MAZUMDER
INTRODUCTION.
Stung American
to indignation
writer,
by the remark of an and supported by the

enormous debt to
feeling that the
world's
India should at least be acknowledged, the
author of this
little
book has done good

setting
service to the cause of education by
forth in a compact form

ideals
an
account of the
and practices of the ancient Hindus
in relation to the
immature portion of their

the
correctness
community.
has referred
it is
Of
1
of
his
reading of the ancient authors to
whom
he
cannot pretend to judge, but

feel,
a comfort to
amid the many

in
diffi-
culties that confront us while the
thought of
the
West
is
spreading
the aged East, that
the grand
if
shadowy
figures of the
mighty
Rishis of the past can look
without dis-
approval on the principles and
methods of
perusal
is
modern
old and
education.
Indeed a
that
of
these pages reminds us that truth
never
never new,
it
is
not of this
VI
INTRODUCTION.
nation,
place nor of that

is
but that
it
ever
and
is
the rewarder of those
who
diligent-
ly seek
it.
We
must not be concerned with "English"^
or "Vernacular," or "Sanskrit," or "Ajajbic"
Education, but going beyond these external

limitations,
children
possible
we must seek of modern India
to introduce
th&
to
the
widest;
experience of their
world, so that
having become heirs of the past and the

present they
the future.
may become
far
the possessors of
However
the
education
of
the present day child

ahead,
it
may
look around and
must be rooted
in the traditions
of
the past, and Mr. Mazumder's
book should
be of great assistance to the

teachers of to-day as a
High School
and a safe
guide
guard
in this respect.
In studying the history of education in

ancient India one cannot but
be
impressed
with the attention that was paid to physical

training, to music
is
and to manual
this
arts.
It
to be
hoped that
in
book may prove an

of
encouragement to
experiment
teachers
to-day
in
to
these
directions
their
INTRODUCTION.
Vll
schools SO that the
work of the boys mayupon whife

his
have
they
I
in
it
not less of abstract ideas, but

direct experience
more of that
may
base their
trust
own abstractions. Mr. Mazumder will find

enthusiastic
interest
in
reward
for his
the
subject and for his keenness to discover
an
Indian basis for the modern education of

Indian children in a wide study of the work
he
is
now
offering to his colleagues of the
teaching profession and to the reading public
generally.
Training College,
Dacca
29th August, 1916.
Evan
E. Biss.
CONTENTS.
Chapter
I.
Paok
...
1
Factors in Education
II.
The Diffeken't Periods and their ... General Characteristics
-i
III.
The Caste System and

gogical SiaXIFICANCE
its
Peda...
25
I\^
Evolution' of Vedig Religion and

ITS
Ped.agogical Aspects
...
46
6(3
V.
Different Tvpes of Educ.\tiov
...
VI,
Hindu
Education
...
General
...
Characteristics
VII.
^0
Universities
in
Ancient
...
and
...
Medleval India
Al'l'ENDlX
I.
S9
Subjects cultivated
by
the
...
ancient
...
Hindus
II.
...
101
Arts
and
accomplishments
current
among men
III.
at the time of Buddha...

...
114
116
Sixty-four arts or Kalas
IV.
Rules regulating the conduct of the

disciple towards his preceptor
...
121
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.

I
INTRODUCTION FACTORS IN EDUCATION.

:
The nature
dividual
inherited
s,
of
the
education
of an
in-
is
determined
not
only
by
his
powers and capacity but also in
great measure
by the environment
in
which he grows up.

in
Hence
shall
in
determining
the nature of the educatiou
of the
Aryans
Ancient India we
have to consider,
on the one hand, the original nature of the people who first entered it and on the other,
the nature of the country in which their
inherited capacities were called
into
active
development.
Effect of
Environment
The
Aryans
who
first
entered India were remarkable for
2
their
manly virtues and strength of intellect.. The Vedic Rishis not only composed hymns, and performed sacrifices but fought their Their wars and ploughed their fields.
martial spirit was for a long time kept alive
by the necessity of holding

the enemy.
their
own
against-
When
scope for
this
had been effected

left,
and resistance was broken, there was

very
little
tlê
development of the
fertile
of'
manly
soil
virtues.
,The mild climate and
of the
country bringing the means

within easy
subsistence
reach
made
the
struggle for existence in India an 'easy' one.

Besides, the lofty mountains
and the
the
seas,
shutting the
country
off
for a
long time
from outside influences
gave
Hindu
in
culture a unique character.
Thus while
Europe
long cold winters,
conflict of interests
barren soil and between small countries,
have developed
pitch
in
the
Aryans there
the
'the
instinct of self-preservation' to
highest
and made them comparatively more 'active,' 'combative' and enterprising, the
peculiar'
environmental conditions of India

to
have tended
make her
people
more.
FACTORS IN EDUCATION.
'passive,'
'meditative'
and
'philosophical'.
Besides, the fusion
of the
Aryan element
with
the pre-Aryan population in the two continents has brought about changes
original nature of the
in the
Aryan
people.
Hence owing
tions of the
to
differences in
the condi-
countries
the
people in the
originally
two
continents,
though
they
belonged to the same stock and possessed

similar
virtues,
now
present such marked
distinctions in the
development of the human

conditions of the
affected
character.
The
different
two continents have thus not only

their
sciences,
the nature of the people but have influenced

arts
in
and literature as well
and hence while

or
less,
Europe
the
various
sciences and arts have been developed,

to
more
meet the material needs of the people and to enable them to hold their own
in
their
politicaland economic relations, in

in
India they had had their origin

'exigencies of religion,'
Eeferenoes
:
the
1.
2.
Max
Muller
India, What can

Literature.
it
teach us
A. A. Macdonell A History of Sanskrit
II
THE DIFFERENT PERIODS AND THEIR GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

The
history of India,
like
the
history of
into
Europe, broadly divides

parts, -Ancient,
itself
three
Mediaeval
and
Modern
History. Ancient History begins from about B. c. 2000 and extends to about the middle
of the
seventh
century
a.
d.
Mediaeval
History embraces the period lying between
kingdom of Harsha (647 a.d.) and the rise of the British power in India which took place somewhere about the
the
fall
of the
middle
of
the
eighteenth
century.
The
modern period commences with the close of the media3val period and extends to the
present time.
1. The Ancient Period : Here two main epochs can be distinguished in the
history of ancient Indian literature
the one
;
extending from 2000
b. c.
to 200
b. c.
the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.
other embracing the rest of the period.
first
The
epoch produced only religious works and

in lyric
reached a high standard of merit

poetry.
in
It also saw the highest development It

is
law and philosophy.

produced
the
the period
the
which
successively
Vedic
Brahmanas with their sequels, viz. the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the Sutras?The latest development is noticed in the Sutra literature which became perfect about the time of Buddha (6th century
B.
Hymns,
c).
The Upanishads show that the Indian mind even then attained the highest pitch
of
its
marvellous
fertility.
Some
of the
solemn
speculations
in
these
works
of
remote antiquity found repetition

productions of Plato and
in later
Kant
and the
" in
philosopher Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was

so
charmed with them that he

is
writes,
the whole world there

'
no study so bene-
The whole body

is
Style
of Vedio Worka composed in the Sutra divided into six classes called Vedangas. They are (i)
Siksha or phonetibs, (ii) Chhandas or metre, (iii) Vydkarana. or grammar, (iv) Nirukta or etymology, (v) Kalpa or religious,
practioea and
(vi)
Jyotish or astronomy.
e
ficial
and so elevating
It
will
as
that
of
the
Upanishads.
has been the solace of
my
life it
century
be the solace of
my
death."
Transition
b. c.
Period
In
the
third
when
in
Buddhism
India,
principal
lanojuaoje
religion
was the the Vedic
had dwindled down to Prakrit as

the different arts
may
be seen from the inscriptions of Asoka.
and sciences received considerable development in this
However,
epoch.
The curriculum of the University its most of Taxila which was then in flourishing condition, throws some light on
the nature of the
various
subjects
It
is
current
among men of the time. many as sixteen branches

taught
vated
in
said that as
of learning
were
the
culti-
the
different
Schools
the
in
University.
in
Medicine was especially

Taxila and
in
University
there were Schools of Painting, Sculpture,
Image-making and Handicrafts.

also
Astronomy
received
the greatest attention of the
people of the time.

as
Ujjain was then famous
the
seat of the
study of astronomy.
Veterinary Science was actively cultivated
in
the time of
Asoka and there were animal
hospitals in different parts of the country/
Ancient Period begins with the time of the Sungas (185 B. c.) when the Brahraanical reaction set in. During this period the vedic language became gradually modified into 'classical' Sanskrit and those who wrote Sanskrit works had themselves to learn the language as we do now. This epoch was a time of
exceptional
intellectual activity in the diff-
The Second Epoch of the
erent
fields
of literature
and
science.
It
embraced,
âchieved
in
general, secular
in
subjects
and
distinction
different
branches
court
of literature, in
epic, in lyric
in
national as
well as
and especially didactic poetry^

tales,
the drama, in fairy
fables
and
Tomances'.
The great Kalidasa whose works have made him immortal in the history of Indian literature lived in this age. The mathematical and astronomical sciences
>
'Surat,
"The auimal hospitals, which still exist at Ahmadabad, and many other towns in Western India, may be regarded
by the
as either survivals or copies of the institutions founded
Maurya monarch"
JEd.) P. 183.
V.
A.
Smith Early History
of India (3rd

e
-

the
received
highest
development
a. d.
in
the-
hands of Aryabhatta (born

Varaharaihira (died
sculpture,
an.d
a. d.
476) and
587). Architecture,
also
painting
were
and
culti-
vated
with
great
avidity
attained
also-
considerable
perfection.
Music was
(a. d.
encouraged.
The Guptas
320-455)
and the Great Siladitya (Harsha a. d. 606647) who flourished in this epoch were great
patrons
of learning.
Under the
liberal pa-
tronage of the latter the great university of
Behar rose to the most flourishHiuen Tsang, the Chinese ing condition.
Nalanda
in
pilgrim, says
that
10,000 students resided
here and received gratis education in thevarious sciences,
Grammar, Rhetoric^ Logic, Arithmetic, Geometrj'-, Astronomy

viz..
and Music. Medicine, Philosophy and theSanskrit and Pali prose and poetical literature were also
literary
studied here.
In
fact,
the
and
scientific subjects
reached such,
a high
degree of development that, saysin
Dr. Macdonell,
the
various
some of the
subjects, viz.^
scientific literature,
phonetics,
grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine
and law,
notable
in
in
which the
their
Indians
achieved
results,
attainment was far
advance of what was accomplished by
the Greeks. the
The
nine
êms connected with

also flourished
name
of Vikraraaditya
in this
epoch which may fairly be compared with the Periclean age of Athens or the
Augustan age of Rome, or, as Vincent. Smith says, with the Elizabethan or the
Stuart Period
in Engfland.
The
ancient period
not only
field
saw the
of Indian
highest development in the

literature
and science but

life
it
was a period of
in
national
and national vigour
every
sphere of activity, and
its civilisation
was
free from the artificial restrictions of
modern
when the sacred learning had not become the monopoly of the priests and when all the Aryans-
Hindu
society.
It was a period
were united as one caste and
still
entitled
to the religious and literary heritage of the
Aryans.
Professions and trades other than,

priests
;
that of the
were not looked upon

arts
with disfavour
nor the vocations requiring
manual
exertion.
The
were not then
10
EDDCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.

divorced from
religion
a specialized study
and the men whose genius created them
were not of an
Besides,
in
inferior
calibre to the poets
and philosophers.
several
points the
Hindu
society
of the
time
showed a wonderful
resemblance to the modern institutions of

the rest of the civilized world
(i)
;
Early marriage of girls

rare.
The early
The Svay-
marriage of girls was then
ambara ceremony Hindu Epics and

that the
so
much
talked of in the
literature
shows clearly
girls
custom of giving away

is
in
marriage early
also
of later development.
girls,
It
shows that
in
ancient India as
in
in
modern Western
taking
society,
had some voice
the selection of their husbands. Examples

place after puberty are
of marriage
-also
furnished by our Sanskrit literature.

It must be Seclusion of women very outset that the absolute
:
(ii)
said at the
seclusion of
India.
women was unknown in ancient Neither the Rig Veda nor the Epics
sloka quoted from Lalita Vis-
furnish us with any example of this custom.
The following
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.'
11
tara shows that though covering: the fac6
with a veil was probably the usual custom, it was not strictly followed, for otherwise
Oopa, the pious wife of Buddha, could not have protested against the practice
:
"Rishis, noble-minded persons, those
who
can divine the secrets in the hearts of others,
the
assemblage
of
gods,
know
well
motives.
qualities,
So long as
my
behaviour,
my my
face
my
is
prudence remain undisturbed,

there for
what need
with a
me
to cover
my
veil ?"^
Our Sanskrit
-and restraint of
literature
and history also

not
siipport the view that the absolute seclusion
Hindu customs. In fact, the practice was unknown in India till the advent of the Muhamraadans, when partly in self-defence, partly in imitation
women were
of their
masters,
the upper classes of

to
the Hindu society began
seclude
their
5??n^^<!5t*jci: n^îiffl
f*
II
Lalita Vistara XII. P. 182.
12
women. That this was so is clearly proved by the complete absence of the custom in
Maharastra where the rule of the Moslems. was brief. (iii) Social position of women and their Women generally had a very education
:
high social position.^
Considered as the inse-
parable partners of their husbands,
Hindu
wives always received the honour and respect
due to their
other
position.
In fact,
among no
of the
ancient
nation
on
the face
globe, as says
Mr. Dutt, were they morein India.
honoured than
As
who
years.
to the learning of
women we
cherish
the picture of the
cultured lady
Visvavara
composed
to
hymns which have been

us
handed down
through thousands
of'
The
celebrated conversation between'
Yajnavalkya and his learned wife Maitreyi
on the eve of his retirement to the forest

dicates clearly that
in-
women were
then 'consi-
dered as the intellectual companions of their

husbands'.
Weber also supports the view by saying that women in ancient India took an;
'
Manu
III 55-60.
active
life
13
part in the very stirring intellectual
of the period
and plunged with enthusithe mysteries

of specula-
astic tion,
ardour
'into
impressing and
astonishing
men by
opinions'.''
the depth and loftiness of their

Besides,
the
following lines quoted from
show clearly that girls even at the time of Buddha were taught to read and write and became accomplished in several ways
Lalita Vistara
:
Gautama says, "I shall need the maiden who is accomplished in writing and in composing poetry, who is endowed with
good
qualities"
and "well-versed
Vatsayana's
in the rules
of the Sastras".^
In
fact, in
Kama
Sutras
we
find a list of 64 arts^

for
which were appropriate
young
ladies.
Sanskrit literature and the
history
of the later period also support the
view that the girls in ancient India received

proper education.
Lastly,
we
find the great
Vedantist
in the
Sankaracharya
who
flourished
a. d.
beginning of the 9th century
"
of Indian Literature p. 22. Lilita Vistara (Edited by R. L. Mitra) XII pp. 199-200. Ibid pp. 186-189. Also see Appendix.
Weber The History

14
EDTJUATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.
all
preparing himself with
the care to argue
with Svarasvati, the learned wife of pandit
Madana.
in ancient
All these prove conclusively that

India there was no dearth of eduin
:
cation
among women
cultured societies.
(iv)
idols
The worship of Idol-worship had not at that time been introduced.

came
into existence later in the
(a. d.
The
practice
Puranic period
in the
300
a. d.
1000)
when
absence of high ideals people found

its
the necessity of
its
introduction.
introduction indicates
that
Even so the Hindus

the
reli-
even then realised that education in

gious sphere should proceed
to the abstract.
from
the concrete
It
is
interesting
to
record
here what Abul Fazl,
the author of ^2/ eew

:
Akbari writes on the point "They (the Hindus), one and all, believe in the unity of
the God-head
;
and although
they
hold
images in high veneration, yet they are by no means idolators, as the ignorant suppose. * * * * the images are only representations of celestial beings, to
whom
they turn
themselves whilst at prayer, to prevent their
thoughts from wandering."
/GENERAL; CHARACTERISTICS.
2.
15
The Mediaeval Period:
We
have
found that the Ancient Period catne to a

close with the fall of the
kingdom of Harsha
as
(647
A.D.).
This marks the beginning of the

period
mediaeval
which,
we have
seen,
extends to the middle of the 18th century.
This period ushered in all the characteristics which now mark off Hindu society from
the modern institutions
civilized world.
of the
rest of the
(i)
The
chief
of these were
idol
the rigid caste system,
(ii)
worship,
{in) the early marriage of girls, (iv) seclusion
of
women and
(v)
want of
literacy
among
women. The Mediaeval Period,

the
first
like the
Ancient
;
Period, also divides itself into
two epochs
extends from
a.d.
647 to 1200, while
the second embraces the rest of the period.
After Harslm there remained no supreme

authority in northern
India to restrain the
disruptive forces which were ready to operate
there.
Consequently
the
different
states
assumed independence and became engaged in unceasing internecine war. Learning, however, did not sink to a low ebb. Yasovarman
16

reigned in
who
A.D.
Kanouj
in the
8th century
encourafjed Sanskrit learning.
He
was
the patron o? Bhavabhuti, the famous author

of
Malati Madhava.
that five
to
This together with the
story
Brahmins were sent from
Kanouj
-customs
Bengal to revive orthodox Hindu
shows that Kanouj was a centre of Brahmanical learning. Again, the

there,
great Vedantist scholar Sankaracharya (9th
century
Benares.
tion^
a. d.)
is
said
to
have studied at
Further, the Ghoserabau inscripthat one
states
Biradev after having

all
completed the
study of
the different
Vedas repaired (in the 9th century a. d ) to Kanishka Mahavlhara in the neighbourhood study. It thus of Peshwar for farther appears that Kanouj, Benares and Peshwar
were the seats of learning
in
those days.
But
for four centuries (9th to
12th century
of learning was in Behar where, besides the Nalanda Univereven then, sity which did not disappear arose on the Ganges the famous monastery This was founded by of Vikramasila.
A.D.) the principal seat
*
See Gauralekhamala or the Inscriptions of Gaur.
GENERAL CHAEACTERtSTICS.
17
Dharmapala and
tery
is
said
to have included
107 temples and six colleges.
This
monas-
was the centre of Tantric Buddhism and disappeared with the advent of the Muhammadans in a.d. 1200. Navadwip in Bengal became a seat of Hindu learning ^loder the Sen kings of Bengal. Jayadeva,
the famous author of the Gitagovinda^ seems
have been the court-poet of Lakshmana Sena, the last king of Bengal. Navadwip, however, survived the shock of Muharato
principal seat of
after
madan attack and is still renowned as the Hindu learning organised

the
ancient manner.
Also,
it
reference to Ayeen-Akbari,
from a appears that
Benares was a famous seat of Hindu learning even

in the
16th century.^
Thus it appears that the torch of learning was kept burning in the middle ages
in the various parts
of India.
But, says
V. A. Smith, 'literature although actively

cultivated
and
liberally patronised at
far
many
local courts,
sank
below the level attain-
ed by
1
Kalidasa.'
This epoch was, however,

F.
Ayeen Akbari translated by
Gludwin
p. 560.
18

productions
:
remarkable for the

notable commentaries
of a
fewa.d.
Kumarila (about
700)
wrote a commentary on the Karma;

Sutras of Jaimini. reformer
Mimdmsd
Hindu
brilliant
The great Sankara who gave tho

its final
Vedanta philosophy
form, wrote his
commentaries
on
the
Vedanta
written,
culti-
Sutras and the Bhdgavatgitd. Another com-
mentary on the Vedanta Sutras was

by Ramanuja (about
a.d. IIOO).
The
vation of sciences, however,
did not
cease.
Mathematics seems to have been actively
we find the great Indian astronomer and mathematician Bhaskara (born

cultivated, as
1114) flourishing in this epoch.
He
wrote
several books on Algebra and Astronomy.
The second epoch

period
(a.d.
of
the
mediaeval
1200-1764) marks the rise of

the
fall
the
Muhammadans and
of the
Hindu
in
Kinofdoms
2eal of the
in northern India.
The
the
religious
Muhammadans made them,

towards
general,
intolerant
Hindus.^
^ The emperor Akbar, however, encouraged Hindu learning and patronized, Hindu scholars. His great-grand son Dara also took an interest in the religious and philosophical works of the
Hindus.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTlCa.
19
With the withdrawal of the patronage of

the kings and the forfeiture of temple lands,
schools,
monasteries
and
priests
were
left
without income.
learning
Hence Sanskrit and Hindu

little
made very
was
progress in northern
India for a very long time.

therefore,
This period
a striking contrast to the
ancient period.
But
as the
ancient period
in
saw the highest development

literature, this
Sanskrit
for
epoch was remarkable

it
the
highest
distinction
attained
in
Vernaparts
cular literature in
India.
lyrics
in
*
the
different
of
Vidyapati wrote
many
;
beautiful
the dialect of Behar

in
Chandidas
in
wrote similar Works
Bengali
and
Raj-
putana, Mira, Bdi, a princess, wrote beautiful
songs which were extremely popular.'
.The achievements of the Hindus in the field of literature in the Middle ages thus compare very unfavourably indeed with what their ancestors had attained in this field in the past ages but they far outshone
them
in point of the perfection
they reached
This
is
in sculpture and architecture/

' Also see V. Edition p. 358.)
borne
(3rd
A.
Smith
Early
History of
India
20

fronti
out by the following quotation
Havell's
The Ideals of Indian Art
(p.
132).
"The
tury
tional.
A.D.
art of India
up
to the fourth
cen-
was purely
spirit
eclectic
and
transi-
The
of Indian
thought was
the form
struggling to find definite artistic expression

in sculpture
and
in
painting, but
of expression
was not
artistically perfected
until about the seventh or eighth centuries,
when most
ing
of
of the great sculpture and paint-
India
was produced.
From
the
seventh or eighth to the fourteenth century
was the great period of Indian Art, corresponding to the highest development of Gothic Art in Europe, and it is by the
achievements of this epoch, rather than by
those
place
of
in
Mogul Hindustan,
that
India's
the art-history of the
world will
eventually be resolved."
The
rity,
different arts, says the
same authoin
continued
to
be cultivated
India
with much vigour till the 17th century when Aurangzeb expelled all the Hindu
artists
and craftsmen
whom
his father
and
to
grandfather had the good-will
to attract
the service of the state
art of the
;
21
consequently, 'the
Moguls
in
it
India was struck with a
blight from which
never recovered'.
the
In the
field of religion
thfe
mediaeval
period marks
steady
rise of
the modern
supremacy and the corresponding decline of Buddhism which has gradually become merged in the former. The
to
Hinduism
period also saw the exaltation of the priests
and the introduction of the
caste- rules in
modern rigid form. Hinduism was largely due

their
This revival of
to the influence
of 'the foreign
immigrants into Rnjputana
and the upper Gangetic provinces' who had established their power in northern India
during the
first
epoch of the Middle Ages.

to
These foreigners yielded

assimilative
the wonderful
power
in
of
became Hinduized.
Hinduism and rapidly Those amonorst them

the
who succeeded
admitted
winning chieftainship were

into
readily
frame-work of
or
Hindu
Like
with
all
polity
as
Kshatriyas
Rajputs.
converts,
they espoused Hinduism
exceptional zeal
and
directed
their;
whole energy to the perpetuation of the
22
supremacy of the Brahmins who gave them

an exalted position
in society.
We
priestly
therefore see that besides the foreign
domination which characterized this period,
monopoly
in its closest
form was the

it
prominent feature which marked

the ancient period.
off
from
two had on the reaching. The domination of the priests added to that of the Musalman rulers serVêd to make the Hindus generally docile, gentle, peaceable and less ambitious and enterprising.
The effect that these Hindu character was far-
Hence
instead
of adding
lost
much
to
their heritaore the
Hindus
most of what
had been transmitted to them.

civilisation
The Hindu
to
during the period was therefore

progressive and education,
less
not very
great extent, became a more or

Recapitulation of the Past.
3.
formal
The Modern Period : This

aofe
period
inaugurates an
to the patient
Thanks researches of the European

of regeneration.
later researches
and Oriental Scholars who have not only

cleared
up the mists making
possible but have created
in
the people of
GENteBAL CHARACTERISTICS.
23
ancient
India an intense desire to

civilisation.
know her
Besides,
of
under the vivifying
influences
modern civiHsation and the
fostering care of the British
Crown the new

all
India
is
not only becoming conscious of her

life
national
but
is
trying to revive
that
was best in ancient India. The present age may, therefore, be called the age of Renaissance of
Hindu Education.
from Indian
The following
Policy
the retention
extract
Educational
that
(1913)
shows
clearly
and furtherance
of
instruction
rather
than the suppresindigenous systems

present
policy
sion of the ancient and
marks the
of the British Government.

"
The Government
of India attach great
importance to the cultivation and improvenient of oriental studies.

interest
There
in
is
increasing
throughout India
her ancient
civilisation,
and
it is
necessary to investigate
that civilisation with the help of the
medium
methods of research and in modern ideas. * * * While relation to making provision for scholarship on modern lines, the conference drew attention to the
of
western
24
necessity of retaining separately the ancient
and indigenous systems of instruction.

world of scholarship,
suffer
The
would
they thought,
if
irreparable
loss
the old type of
pandit and maulvi were to die out before

their profound
knowledge of their subjects

to the world;
had been made available

encouragement
needed
result.
and
rather
than
such
reform
was
to
prevent
*
an unfortunate
The Government of India
hope to see the adoption of measures that are practicable for the maintenance and furtherance of the ancient indigenous systems of
learning."
References
:
1.
A. A. Macdonell
Literature.
History of Sanskrit
2.
A.
Weber The
ture.
History of Indian Litera,
3.
4.
E
E
C.
Dutta
Civilisation in Ancient India.

of
5.
B. Havell-The Ideals of Indian Art. V, A. Smitli Early History of India.
6.
7. 8.
Max Muller The Laws

Elphinstone
E. L. Mitra
Manu.
History of India.
Lalita Vistara.
9.
Indian EJucational Policy, 1913.
Ill
AND
still
ITS
THE CASTE SYSTEM PEDAGOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE.

when the Aryans wer&
the Rishis did not
In the vedio times
in the Sutlej valley
form a separate and exclusive class. Each Rishi was a priest, a warrior and a cultivator and society was therefore then marked
by the absence of those rules and

present complex
restrictions-
which form the distinctive feature of the
Hindu
society.
But even
ways of
gift
then some families obtained pre-eminence by

their
special
knowledge of
sanrifices
;
.
the
performing religious
of composing
in
and their
hymns
others again excelled
military prowess.
In course of time the

Sutlej and
Aryans crossed the
moved down
While they were settling down here society was becoming complex and their culture material in it
the valley of the Ganges.
different phases
began to show considerable^
26
EDUCATION JN ANCIENT INDIA.
development.-
In
fact,
the religious cere-
monials which represented one of the phases

of their culture,
attained such
complexity
that certain Rishis had to devote more or

less
exclusively
all
their time
and energies
to the efficient carrying out of religious duties
and the handing down in their families. So
of the sacred tradition

to
keep pace with the
growing needs and complexity of society differentiation became a necessity. Hence

the Indo-aryans like Plato, made an
intelli-
gent application
division
of the
principle
of the
of
labour
and became gradually
-divided into
four classes or castes according
to their occupation
and innate
sloka
qualities
as
appears from
^''gigsl?!^"
si.
the
quoted
below
(Gita
iv
JTJIT
WZ
<i^**ilfWTT3!:"
13) or "the four fold division of castes
was
created by
me
according to
the
apportion-
ment of
prakriti
qualities
and
duties.'"
According to
(lTirf?l)
the
Hindu philosophers
which determines the temperament of an individual is made up of

three
constituent
principles
or gunas
viz.,
goodness or purity (^T^ Sattva), passion or
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

activity
<lity
(^gf*.
27
stoli-
Rajas) and darkness or
(rUT*.
Tamas).
quantities
These are not conjoined

but
in
in
equal
varying
in
pro-
portions,
one or other being
excess in
different individuals.
Hence the temperais
ment
to the
of an individual
determined according
predominance of goodness, passion or
darkness.
Thus
artificial
the
castes
which
now
appear as
cases by
ficance
in
and are marked

of
in nbost
the
absence of their true signi-
respect
guna
and
karma,
developed naturally
in ancient India to repre-
sent the different phases of the civilisation of
the early Indo-aryans.
For a long time caste distinctions did not become rigid and intermarriage was permitted.
this out
"wrsTwif
The
following
slokas
will
bear
'gfw ^R^
^m
<T3^
or ''inform
me
of the
maiden who
pos-
sesses these qualities,
whether she be the
28

of
Brahmin, a Kshatriya, St Vaisya or a Sudra for my son (Gautama) is not particular about family or lineage his mind delights in merit, in truth, and in
daughter
a
;
;:
virtue".
Lallta Vistara
Chap XII.
î^Kfrr TR
or
^" ^TW* ^Ts^^^

acquire
inferior
II''
"one
should
with faith good

person^
knowledge even from an
learn excellent virtues even from one of the-
lowest caste and receive a gem of a

even from a Besides,
loio
woman
family."
Manu
II. 238.
the members of the warrior and
industrial classes
had access to the literary

like
schools
class.
kept by the members of the higher

Naj',
many Kshatriyas
were
Janaka,
versed
Jaibali
and Ajatasatru^
so
in the sastras that the
Brahmins often went

in the
to
them to receive instruction wisdom (?rai^TT)- But owing

ties of
Divine
to the difficul-
the Vedic literature the Kshatriyas,

avail
in
general, did never

privileges
to
themselves of
so-
these
'
any great extent,
Upanishad by Hirendra Nath Dutta pp. 58-79.
THE CASTE STSTEM.
29
that the charge often brought against the
Brahmins
literature
as having
withheld their sacred
from any but their own caste has

foundation.
hardly
any
it,
Far from
with-
holding
Brahmins had always been make its study obligatory on all the Aryans and as the sloka quoted below
the
striving to
from
Manu
will
show,
severest
penalties
it
were threatened on those who neglected
or " that twice born,

the
who
falls,
not having studied
Veda,
the
applies
himself to other (and
worldly study) soon

to
even while living,

II. 168,
condition of a Sudra and his descen-
dants (after him)."
Manu
show clearly that in those days learning and good qualities were the
These
facts
passport to the highest honour and to the
highest caste though learning without
self-
control was depreciated as the sloka quoted
below
will
show
'30
or " a brahmin
who knows
only Gayitri, but

is
who
who
is
thoroughly self-restrained,
better
than he
is
who knows
and
sells
the three Vedas, (but)
not self-restrained,
who
eats all (sorts
of) food,
everything
118.
{i.e.
prohibited
things)".
Manu II
Hence
the Brahmins
who devoted
their
time and energies to the study of the Vedas^
gave religious instruction, presided at sacrifices and were self-controlled, were held in
the highest esteem. Again, though the study
of the
as
Vedas was enjoined on

from the
all
Aryans yet
appears
following sloka the

of each and the cor-
respective occupation
responding training were held to have been

far
more important
seniority of Brahmins is from knowledge, that of Kshatriyas from (sacred) valour, that of Vaisyas from wealth in grain
or
" the
(and other goods), but that of Sudras alone
from age."
Manu
II. 155.
The
early
Hindu philosophers impressed
THE
this because like
fiASl'E
SYSTEM.
31
the
modern philosophers
ititere'sts
they were afraid that the

the interests of the society.
spirit of the
of
the,
individual might, otherwise, be absorbed
in
one's
is
far
Thus in themodern educators who hold that own method though in itself inferior, better than an ideal borrowed, we have
(xviii.
in
the Gita
47)
'
or
" one's
duty, though defective,
is
better
than another's duty well performed.

does not incur sin."
Per-
forming the duty prescribed by nature one

In
fact,
it
would be absurd
if in
every
ta
other thing as in teaching we
were
impose any particular duty or method on any particular individual without any consideration of
what
really suits his

;
own
tastes
and ways
of doing things
for,
without understiideni^,
valuing the worth of imitation to the

it
may
be said that the success of an indivi-
dual in anything depends mainly upon the

intelligence with
which he works.
"It
is,""
32
says
that,
skilled
EDUCATION IN ANCIENl' INDIA.
Herbert
having
artisan
Spencer,
the
will
"a
trite tools,
remark
an
un-
choicest
botch his
work;
and
best
bad teachers
methods.
will
fail
even
with the
Indeed,
in
the
goodness
of the cause of
the
method becomes
failure
;
such a case a
as,
to
continue the
tool
simile,
in
perfection
-ciplined
results."
of the
becomes
undisin
hands a source of imperfection

^
Again
vocation
itself
all,
let
us see what
may happen
may
if
an
individual belonging to one class follows the
of another which
is
be good in
First of
but for which he
ill-fitted.
such a
bj'
man may
ruin himself and his

effort
;
family
making such an
or
if
he
succeeds only partially, he will become unfit

for
the duties
-and at the
-a
which belong to same time not quite fit
his family
to
become
whose
recognized
member
of the
society
calling
duties
he has adopted.
of his
Thus giving up the own family or class of which,
with his better intelligence, he might be a

"very
useful
>
member, he not only becomes

Spencei- Education
p. 83.
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

unfit
for
33
either
but actually
becomes
burden to the family or

belongs.
soci'ety to
a which he
Gita the
Hence we have
:
in the
warning
or
"one's
own
duty,
though
well
defective, is
better than another's duty
performed.
is
Death
others
in
;
(performing) one's
own duty
preferable
is
(the performing of the) duty

in. 35.
of
dangerous."
In
fact,
an individual should not give up
the duties of his
own
class
but rather should

such
keep himself
in active
touch with them and
receive himself or
give his children
education and training that he or his family

and,
if
possible,
his
relations
may
rise to
maj''
such a position that he or his posterity

easily
take to the duties of a better class
and continue doing so without causing any

inconvenience to himself or his family
to satisfy the last
;
for,
condition the
individual
must have not only sufficient means but social and hereditary influences certain making him fit for carrying on work on the3
34

lines.
new
Again, though our philosophers

to be careful to
warned us
change our duties
for those of a better class yet the Platonic
ideal did not
remain unrealized and no
in-
separable
orders.
barrier
was
if
set
up between the
On
the other hand, as the following
slokas will show,

class
a child of the inferior

characteristic of a
:
possessed
qualities
superior class, he was admitted to that class

"'S'S ^ra
If^
ffTfT
T ^mzn^ T ^ ^Jj^
or
"0 honoured
Jaksha, hear (me), doubtless
the actions alone and
not lineage,
perusal
of sacred books and Vedic learning are the
determinants of brahminhood."
Mahdbhdrata Banaparva Chap. 312
SI.
103.
or "what
in
is
noticed in a Sudra does not exist
a Brahmin.
A Sudra
is
not necessarily
a Sudra nor a Brahmin
Brahmin,
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

Sharpa, only he
is
35
in
called
a Brahmin,
whom
such (characteristics of a Brahmin)
actions are found and
Sharpa, where these

designate
are lacking
one should
him a
180.
Sudra."
Mahdbhdrata Banaparva
Chap.
or
"if in
an individual there appears worth

class,
other than that characteristic of his
he should be designated accordingly." Srimathbhagbata Canto VII Chap. XI.

All these go to show that in India there
was in early times a much freer possibility of change among the social ranks than is
usually supposed.
This elastic
to
condition
of society answered democratic
the flexibility of a
curriculum
is
which
the
present
Western world
society,
in
so very anxious to provide
to secure the efficiency of citizens.
Hence
but
the
ancient India,
castes
was an organic
whole,
the
representing
different phases of its culture.
All that has been stated above proves
,36
conclusively that agreeing with the tendency
of the modern world
there was in
ancient
India sufficient scope for the development

of one's
own
individuality.
vxts
In
fact,
6y
the system of caste alone
self-realisation
service.
made compatible
it
with
social
Thu
those
may
well be said here that
even
in
early times the

social
efficiency,
Indo-aryans saw that, for

the individual should be
lines
allowed to develop along the

greatest power.
of his
follows
From
this
there
it is
the pedagogical principle that

tion of education to
the func-
determine the line of

individual and
in
the greatest power of each
then to prepare him for service

direction.
that
This
is
the
formulation of the
ancient Indian ideal of a liberal education.
In
fact,
in
ancient times the greatest

discover the apti-
care used to be taken to
tude and
fitness (
^rf^^fK
of an individual
to receive any particular kind of education.
The
teiachers tjien
thoroughly realized that
' 1. Lectures on Hindu Philosophy (2nd year) by Mahamohapadhaya Chandra Kanta Tarkalankara pp. 245 and 248. Also see Srimatbhagbat Canto VII. Chap. XII. 13. 2.
Also Cp, The Religions of India, by Rev. Allan Menziesp. 46.
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

disastrous results
37
if know-
were sure to ensue
ledge were to be imparted without any consideration
what suited one's tastes and ways of doing things. Thus we have
of
or "this highest mystery in the Vedanta,

delivered
in
a former age, should not be
given to one whose passions have not been

subdued, not even to the son or disciple
is
if
he
unworthy." Svatasvara Upanishad

Also, "Let no
VI 22.
man preach this most secret doctrine to any one who is not his son or his pupil or who is not of a serene mind. To him alone who is devoted to his teacher
only and endowed with all necessary may he communicate it."
qualities,
Maitrayana Brdhmana Upanishad
VL
29.
or "(the goddess
of)
learning
coming to a
am your treasure, guard me. Do not impart me to a spiteful man, then I shall be strongest." Manu II. 114.
Brahman
says
:
"I
38
z(^ g
fk^
f^ra?f fl-si-t*ir<*u*i
"But impart me
to
is
that
Brahmin who
self-
guards his treasure,
never careless, and
whom you may know

restrained
celibacy."
to be a pure and
student observing the
vow of
Manu
II. 115.
or
"Even in times of dire distress a teacher of the Veda should rather die with his
it
knowledge than sow
in
a barren
soil."^
Manu
of
II. 113.
Further, the fact that the different sons.
Pandu were made
to specialize in
the
different branches of arts
and sciences also

Again, the
bears out the view just upheld.
method^ adopted by Vishnu Sarma who had

Vishnu Sarma found that the princes had an inordinateSo he told the princes that thenceforth they would do nothing but fly pigeons, feed them and look after them in the pigeon house. The princes were naturally very glad. As the number of pigeons increased they had toname and count them. Vishnu Sarma was clever enough to put peculiar red marks on the wings of the pigeons and called
*
liking for rearing pigeons.
them ^,
19, T, etc.,
(I, 2,
3 etc.)
The princes thus learned the
THE CASTE SYSTEM.
39
the charge of the ignorant and vicious sons

of king Sudarsana of Pataliputra (Patna),
modern principle of method to the nature and needs of the child was not unknown in
also
shows that the
suiting matter and
ancient India. Lastly the sloka quoted below

clearly establishes the fact that in prescrib-
ing method our philosophers, like the educators of the present
century,
used to take
into consideration the capacity

(
and
fitness
^rf^^TR ) of the 'educand'
Gita VI.
or
*'
3.
to the sage
who
wishes to rise to devois
tion action (without attachment)

letrters of
said to be
syllables into words.
the alphabet and to join the letters into syllables and The foundation of a knowledge of Arith-
metic was laid in counting the pigeons, in telling
how many
there
were in two or three adjoining cots, how many remained in the cots after so many were on the wing. By this strange method were taught not only notation, numeration, addition, subtractioa etc. but also something of engineering and housebuilding and drawing which were required in planning and constructing the dove cots. Not only this, but even ethics and politics were taught in this fashion, as the tales of Panchatantra and Bitopodesa^
testify to this day.
40
the means and to him,
when he has
risen to
devotion serenity
Indeed,
it is
is
said to be the means."
a bad poHcy to
spend time
and energy
in
out of a citizen
excellent soldier.
making an indifferent priest who could have become an
Hence the
fact that
the
study of sacred literature was withheld from

the Sudras does not go to show the narrowmindedness of the Brahmins but argues that
even
in
those
into
early
days,
they got an
insight
one
of
the most important
modern pedagogical
"Vedas only
tradition
principles.
The Sudras
were, in general, denied
the study of the
because they had neither any

aptitude for acquiring the
nor
language and
spirit of
the Vedic literature.
Here
it
may
be said that this was not the
distinctive feature of the early
Hindus alone
in
even worse features could be traced
the
Greek
^'slaves
system.
According to Aristotle
and artisans cannot attain to citizenship and hence not to the good life, since it
is
not possible to care for the things of virtue while living the life of the artisan or
Plato's
the slave."
system also was none
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

i:he less aristocratic in this respect.
41
He
held
that the philosophers only should

rulers,
"the
be the
for
a philosopher was he
'this
who knew
for.
highest good and
longing
the
supreme good' was, according

found only in a few.
to him, to be
Again, in ancient India the struggle for

existence
was not at
all
keen and there was
very
the
little social
and economic pressure.

or
less
So
from
people
were more
free
anxiety as to the immediate future. Besides,
an individual in any class had his place, purpose and value in regard to
the society so
feel
assured that he did not at

sity of
all
the neces-
changing his own vocation.^

consequence through
racial
As
natural
habit
the occupation of each class became to a

.^reat extent hereditary.
Hence the Brah-
mins who devoted their time and energies
Vedas and the sciences and to the acquioriginating therefrom sition of a knowledge of sacrificial rites, gradually acquired a practical monopoly
to the study of the
of
'
higher learning.
Industrial Arts of India
It
by
is
urged now that
Sir George Birdwood.
42
this
has led to the rigidity of the existing^
caste system, which for a long time to

'is
come
for
likely to be the curse of India.'
But
this the
Brahmins are not much to blame.
For, besides the causes mentioned above, the

peculiar isolated and fortified position of the
country shutting out for a long time

side influences tended to
all
out-
make the vocations

more or
loss
hereditary.
less
These,
for
in
therefore, were
responsible
the
of elasticity
which existed
is
ancient
India and which
so urgently needed under the political and

India.
economic condition of modern

fact, until late
*so
In
the Brahmins did never place

caste-
strict
an interpretation' upon the
system, for though the causes
mentioned
true
above tended
spirit
to
make men
forget the
of the
it,
caste
system and to produce

always existed strong
;
rigidity in
there
reactionary forces to stop the tendency
the-
highest culmination
of these
latter
forces
eftbrt&
was manifested in Buddhism.
The
of Nanak, Kabir and Chaitanya against the

rigidity of the caste system in the mediaeval
period also bear this out.
In
fact,
it
was-

THE CASTE SYSTEM.
only
43
foreign
when the Aryans came under
influences that hygienic considerations
and
the fear of spiritual contamination through

suggestion as well as
the desire to preserve
the purity of their blood led the Brahmins
make the caste rules strict.^ Though the caste system in form has many defects it serves
to
function.
its
present
at least
one
As
a fence protects the growing

so
it
tender
child
plant,
protects
the growing
of the
individual
society from being

influences.
affected
by alienating
is
Indeed,
"the caste system
a splendid organisation.
is
Its wonderful persistence
the proof of
life
is
it."^
It saved society once though its

fled
now
it
having
lost
its
true significance with
respect to guna and karma.
Even now
checks revolution in the Hindu society which
by
its
wonderful power of assimilation grathe
dually adapts itself to
new
situations
without losing
>
its individuality.
Thus says R.
C. Dutta,
historian of Ancient India
may
"However much, therefore, thedeplore the commencement of the
caste system,
he should never forget that the worst results of
that system were
unknown
in India until after the
Mahommedan
1. p. 156.
conquest."
Civilisation in Ancient
India Vol.
44
It
must be stated here that the caste system in its natural form exists more or less everywhere in the world. The distinction that is made between the different ranks of
society sufficiently illustrates this.^
Lastly,
it
is
interesting
to
note
the
strange parallelism that existed between the

caste
system of India and the mediaeval

institutions.
European
The
clergy,
the
knighthood and the people of Europe
in the
Middle ages answered

of India.
some respects to the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the Vaisyas

in
Learning
the
clergy
it
in
Europe, as in India,
for a long time flourished

care
under the fostering
of
and so strong
was
their
hold upon
that during the deve-
lopment of the national system of education,

the State has often had to the church to secure the
fight
hard with
of the
full
control
^stem
1
of education.
Sir
Thus writes
exists,
institution,
of course,
Monier Williams" Caste, as a social in all countries, and in England
operates with no slight potency."
Hinduism
pp. I5I-I52.
THE CASTE SYSTEM.

:-l.
45
IV
EVOLUTION OF VEDIC RELIGION AND ITS PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS.

The
religious
thought of the
Hindus,
in
ancient times, passed through different phases

-which
may be
age.
in
styled its childhood,
and old
settled
manhood The primitive Aryans who
the Indus valley were deeply im-
pressed with the most imposing manifestations
of nature.
These they
their
praise.
in those
deified
and
worshipped,
performing sacrifices and comin
posing
hymns
Thus the
days were
activities of the
Aryans
largely
perceptual or concerned with that
which affected their
immediate
stage
interests.
But during the next
of development
of their thought the mind of the great rishis

passed beyond the natural
phenomena
to
the consideration of their cause and purpose.
The
distinctive feature of the period
was the
importance
attached
to
in
sacrifice.
The
Brahmins
were busy
elaborating cere-
EVOLUTION OF VKDIC RKLIGION.
47
of
monials
worship.
and
supplementing
in the
manuals
But
next stage of develop-
ment of the
religious
thought of the Hindus,

to
which may be called the old age of thought
some impatience appears

with the elaborate
the thinking
rites
have been
sacrifices
felt
and
which
men
regarded
as
useless.
Hence they began

of
the
universe
to speculate on the origin
and the nature of the
Supreme Being.
incorporated
in
The thought
the
that
was
find
thus set upj ended in the belief that

teachings
we
of
the
Upanishad.^
ness of
They show the

its
utter useless-
all ritual
performances and condemn
every act which has for

only Universal Being
their beginning,
life
motive a desire or
is
hope of reward and preach that God

;
the
all
things else have

in
and end
Hira^
and
hence to realise the existence of the Infinite
srerft^ i7^l u" ^ftftrm: fî ^Qc)<lg or " Is Brahman the cause ? Whence are we born ? Whereby do we live, and whither do we go ? 0, ye who know Brahman,
(tell
^Tf
us) at
pleasure."
whose command we abide, whether Svatasvatara Upanishad I. 1.

is
in pain or in
or " All this universe indeed
Brahma
from
Him
does it
48

unity between the
in the finite, to see the
individual self and the eternal self and

to attain
one's
eternal
thus
bliss^ by the extinction of
own
desires and
actions
became with
of
life.
the Hindus, the
Summum honum
It has been mentioned above that in the

last stage in the evolution
of the
is
religious
thought of the early Hindus

belief that
found the
by
total extinction
of one's
own
think
desires
and
bliss.
actions
alone
can
one attain
of
eternal
This
may
lead one to
that the early Hindus emphasised a

inaction.
laid
life
On
in
the contrary,
we
find distinctly
down
our sastras that when a

desires)
man
abandons actions (hence
merely as
of
being troublesome, through fear of bodily

affliction,
he does not obtain the
fruit
abandonment
proceed
;
by making such passionate

;
into
every one adore
Him is it dissolved in Him it breathes. So Him calmly " Chhandogya Upanishad.
let
" who is eternal in the non-eternal, who is life of the living, who though one, fulfils the desires of many. The wise who perceive Him within their self, to them belongs eternal peace,
not to others " Kathapanishad Fifth Valli
13.
EVOLUTION OF VEDIC RELIGION.
49^
abandonment.^
a
life
Thus
far
from encouraging
quoted below will
in order to
of
inaction
our philosophers em-
phasised,
as the
slokas
show, that the individual

to
be able
fit
give up
all
desires
and thus become
for the last stage must pass through a stage
of active
life
or "a man does not attain freedom from

action merely by abstaining from action, nor
does
he
rise
to perfection
by mere renuncia4.
I
tion (of activity)."
Gita III.
Îtow f% ^fwfi^feffT
5R^^:
II
or
^t^^fSr^sftrûaiiJT ^Hwl% "by action (without attachment) alone

also to the protection of
did Janaka and the rest attain to perfection
and having an eye
the masses (to the duties) thou shouldst perr
form
action."
Gita III 20,
Gita III. 22:
lic^T V^M
4
an^"
^^
ani'BSIil
^=T
II
Gita XVIII.
8.
^0
Gita III. 23.

or "there
to do in
is
nothing,
son of Prithi
worlds,
for
me
(all)
the three
nothing to
Still
acquire
I
which has not been acquired.

in
do engage
action, for should I at
any
time not engage without sloth in action,
men
would follow
in
my
path from
all sides."
Gita VI.
or "to the sage
tion
3.
,
who
wishes to rise
to
is
devosaid to
action
(without attachment)
be the means, and to him, when he has risen

to devotion, serenity
is
said to be the means."
Besides,
it is
it is
said that in the early stages
impossible for an individual
to
remain
"nobody ever remains even for an instant without performing some action
inactive, as
for
;,
helplessly
is
every one driven to action

of
by the energies (gunas) born

(PrakritiV'
nature
Gita
VL
3.
In the above slokas we find an emphasisI-
EyOLTJTION OF VEDIC RELIGION.
^1
on doing actions
actions are
for their
.
ing 'attachment' and hence

characterized
own sake abandon'fruit.' Such

not only by
self-
control but by love and sacrifice for
beings.
Hence according
stage in
the
to the
Hindu
desires
philosophers
is
cessation of one's
own
the last
process of development which
can be attained by the identification of one's
own
one
will
ie.,
and
interests with the
life
around
by love and
that the
sacrifice for beings
and
not by separation from them.

therefore,
It appears,
Hindus
thoroughly
understood that self-realisation of the individual depends entirely
on self-expression and
on the assimilation of the spiritual forces

that are about him.
With the Hindu

were originally pure
contracted by their
;
pihilosophers
all
souls
but they have become

acts.
own
Hence by
free.
doing good deeds and through the mercy of
God
they
will
expand and become

like the
self-realisation
The
Hindus, therefore,
saw that complete

sible
modern educators, was pos-
only through finding one's

to
own
rela-
tions
the
world around one and
thus
52
KDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.
realising that all things

life
have their beginning,
and end
final
the
So according to them emancipation was possible only

in
God.
through an active and harmonious
lite.
i.e.
"from communion with one's fellow men and

with the beauty and truth of the universe."
From what
has been said above
it
follows
that the stage of final emancipation
presup-
poses a stage of self-active and self-controll-
ed
is
life
of action.
Now
since the
individual
born with good as well as bad impulses, the second stage should be preceded by a
should go through a training enabling him to discharge
in
stage
which the individual
successfully the duties of a
householder
in
first and second phases of Hindu religious thought were antagonistic to the teachings of the
manhood.
Hence,
though the
Upanishad, the early Hindus did not reject them. On the other hand, they made it a
general rule that to attain the last stage the individual must pass through the other two
each stage preparing for the next higher. Accordingly, it has been laid down that
"let a
man become
a householder after he
53
has completed the studentship,
let
him be
after
a dweller in the forest after he has been a householder and

let hira
wander away
he has been a dweller in the forest" (Jabala Upanishad, 4).^ Similar ideas also occur
in
Manu "He who

:
after
passing from
order to
order,
after
offering sacrifices
ascetic
and subduing
being tired
his senses,
becomes an
death."
with (giving) alms and offerings of food,

gains
bliss after
VI.
34.
let
of)
"when he has paid the three debts, him apply his mind to (the attainment final liberation he who seeks it without
Also,
;
having paid
(his
debts) sinks downwards."
VI.
'
35.
The Hindus from

held that each
a very early time
have
man
first
is
born a debtor
that he
has obligations
the gods
to the sages
who were the

:
founders and fathers of his religion

ly, to
first
:
second-
thirdly, to his parents.
The
debt he repays as a student by a careful
study of the vedas.
The second he repays
54
as a householder through the performance of
a number of sacrifices.
The
third
debt he
repays by offerings to the Manes and by
becoming himself the
father of childreti. paid

all
When
for
final
man
is
has thus
the three
fife
debts he
considered free
and becomes
applying himself to the attainment of

liberation.^
What
the early
Hindus
e.
meant was that one should not

the freedom
forest
life
anticipate
i.
of the third stage

fulfilled
of the
without having
the duties
of the student and the
householder.
They
were afraid that

satisfied
if
the desires remained un-
and uncontrolled, the mind miijht

In
fact,
become contaminated.
''the
they say,
;
hermitage
virtue
is
not the cause of virtue

only
the
'
arises
when
practised".'^
This principle corresponds to the modern theory which

to the society in
:
makes the child responsible

reasons
it
which he
child
is
puts forward are
(1)
The modern
lives. The what he is
potentially because of the culture of his ancestors, and (2) he realizes his own nature in and through the society in which he is
brought up.
society
Hence the individual, as he receives freelyfrom the must add to it something for its conservation and
progress.
^ Laws of Yajnavalka III, 65. Herein the Hindus anticipated Aristotle who holds, 'Virtue does not consist in the, knowledge of the good, but in the functioning of the knowledge'.
EVOLUTION OP VEDIC RELIGION.

1
5S
-Similar sentiments occur in the

also
:
Mahdbhdrata
"
Bharata, what need has a self-con-
trolled
forest
man
of the forest, and
to an uncontrolled
man
what use is the ? Wherever a

is
self-controlled
man
dwells, that
forest,
that
is
an hermitage" {Santiparva).
fact,
In
what, according to the early

realise one's
Hindus, was required was to

identity
only
with the Self
in
the universe not

practically.
intellectually,
but
So
in-
the Hindus have laid down that the

dividual
go through a training ^nd then through a life of trials and action* Here by overcoming passions and desires and becoming pure in mind and body, the
should
first
individual
forest
life
should prepare himself for the
where perfect freedom and eternal

considered
different-
bliss reign.
The
early Hindus, therefore,
education
as a
life
process
and
duties were assigned to each stage in such a
way
that their due performance in any stage

for
might prepare the individual

higher.
the next
dis.
In order to prepare himself for
56
EDUCATION IN ANCJlENT INDIA.

self-actively the duties of
first
"barging
manhood^
life
the individual must in the
stage of
chant the hymns and study the
vedas to
become acquainted with the moral precepts and life's duties and must learn self-control by subjecting his mind and body to a course of discipline.^ Again, to make
himself
fit
for
the
third
stage,
as
has
been shewn before, he had to perform

fices
life
sacri-
and to participate
of
fully in the active
manhood being self-controlled and self-active. During this period his whole life was controlled by the rules laid down in
the Dharma-Sastras.
These rules regulated

;
every sphere of his activity

social life
hence not only
was regulated by his domestic and them but his studies, enjoyments, trades and the political life as well. The Hindus thoroughly recognised the categorical nature of
their social laws
tarily
and regulations and volunfirst
submitted to their fetters in the
and second stages of

'
their life in order they
The
early Hindus emphasised not asceticism but a life ot
self-control
and an avoidance
of extremes.
See Gita VI. 16-17 and XVII 16-19, Vishnu Part XII, 17. Also Manu H. 100 and 224.
Purana Third.
57"
might in the third stage trammels of society and

perfect spiritual freedom.^
rise
above
a
life
the
of
live
To sum up
early
then,
it
appears that the
Hindus held that the individual should take the steps ivhich their ancestors had taken
reach
the
to
highest pinnacle
life
of
religious
thought.
Accordingly the
of the indivi-
dual was divided into three
broad stages
corresponding to the three stages in the evolution of the vedic religion

;
in the first stage,
the mind was opened and disciplined and the
body made
fit
to carry out the orders of the
mind
in
the second, the individual put the
principles he
had learnt
into
practice
and
realized their true nature
and that of the

its
things of the world and
round of duties
and thus becoming pure in mind and body, in the third, he turned his attention inward to recognize the true and intimate relation between the individual and the eternal self
' Slokaa 26 and 29 (Gita III) as well as the dififerent Upanishads show that instruction in the early Hindu system was far from being dogmatic. It has been shewn in the last chapter that the system afforded sufficient scope for the
development of individuality.
58
in
origin and the
which was found the explanation of the meaning of existence. Hence

of education
individual
with the early Hindu philosophers as with

Froebel " the purpose
expand the
life
was to
until it
of the
should comprehend this

participation in
activity."
existence through
the all-pervading spiritual
26), " Let no wise
Hence we have in the Gita (III. man unsettle the mind of

i.e.
ignorant people attached to action "
the the
Oita forbids the wise to thrust

individual
on
the divine
wisdom
it.
before
he
becomes
he
his
fit
for receiving
It urges that
the individual should perform action so that
may learn by own self This
doing the true nature of
goes to show that the

in
Hindu system was not

instruction
favour of dogmatic
and aimed at the development of
the personality of the individual.'
The
ideal
of the
is
Hindus,
as has been
stated before,
to find out
the relation
of
the individual self to
God, as
this is "the
1st Frasna. 2 Vrigu Valli. Also Clihandogya Upanishad Satyakama Jabala.

Also op. The Giba III 29. Prasna Upanishad
Taittiriya Upaniahad
EVOLUTION OP VEDIO RELIGION^

only
59
way
satisfaction of
pletion
fication
which we can conceive the human aspirations, the comof human knowledge, the sanctiof human life." In fact, to know onein
and the universe was the problem of the Hindu educational theorists. This implies and necessitates the fullest development of personality. The complete realisation of this ideal was, as we have seen, possible to the individual in the
self la relation to society
third after
stage of
life
only when he reached

fulfilled
it
having conscientiously
of the
the
duties
student
and
from
householder.
In this stage, according to the Hindus, the

individual
becomes
free
all fetters
of
law, of custom and of tradition
and enjoys
life
of perfect spiritual freedom and eternal
bliss.^
We
rather
thus see that the Hindu System

than at his suppression.
aims at the perfect freedom of the individual

clear that
Now, it is Hindu philosophers instead the

an 'expression to the hostility to
of giving
individuality' as has been suggested

'
by some
p',
Max MuUer Lectures ou
the origin of Religion
365.

60
writers^
aim at a greater development of

In
fact,
individuality.
instead of suppress-
ing their individuality,

real
"they attain their
individuality,
infinitely
beyond
so
will
these
little selves v^rhich
we now think of
individuality
much
be-
importance.
No
be lost
will
an
infinite
and eternal individuality

Pleasure
in little
realized.
things will cease.

little
We
in
are finding pleasure in this

this
little
body,
individuality,
but
be
how much
when
thia
?
greater the pleasure will
whole universe appears as our own body
If there be pleasure in these separate bodies,
how much more when all bodies are one ? The man who has realized this, has attained
to
freedom, has gone beyond the dream and

in his real nature.""
known himself
So not
and
in-
only does identity with

the cessation of
all
God which demandsinterests
selfish
motives 'not imply the
loss
of individuality
but
it
is
the
only means
by which
dividuality can be conserved and developed.'

1
"
Swami
Monroe A Brief Course in the History of Education, p. Vivekananda The Science and Philosophy
21.
of
Keligion pp. 183-89.
EVOLUTION OF VEDIO BELIGION.
61
it
From
not a
life
what
has
been
said
above
appears that the ideal of the Hindus was

of inaction and
contemplation but
the attainment of divine
wisdom through
like
self-controlled
and
self-active life of action.

ideal,
Hence the Hindu

Greeks of
''the
that
of the
old, included the two-fold ideal
of
man
is
of action' and 'the
man
of wisdom.'
This
seen also from
the slokas quoted
below.
or
" all
who
(i. e.
;
worship what
is
not real
knowledge
darkness
work only) enter into blind
those
{i.e.
who
delight
in
real
it
9.
knowledge
without work) enter, as
were, into greater darkness." Isopanishad,
*'but
he who knows at the sametime both knowledge and not-knowledge (i.e. action)
immortality
overcomes death through not-knowledge and

obtains
through knowledge."
Ibid 11.
63
It
is

interesting
to
note
the
how an
emphasis
has heen laid here on

knowledge
icith action
combination
of
and on
the corresponding'
'pedagogical 'principle that no real abstraction

is possible unless in
and through
be
the
concrete
experiences.
Lastly,
it
may
noted that though

on, given
the old religious ideas have, later
place to a complicated system of polytheistic

doctrines,
the teaching underlying
all
of
them
is still
expressed in the formula ekam
eva advitiyain (one only without a second).
PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OP
RELIGION.
It
may
be noted here that from what
has been said before,

pedagogical
may
be inferred
a few
value.
principles
of no
mean
By
prescribing that the
individual
must
pass through the different stages or asramas,
the Hindus hold that every individual will
have to take the steps which their ancestors
have taken to come to the highest pinnacle

of religious thought. This corresponds almost
PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF RELIGION.

to
the
63
what
is
called
the Parallelism between
Individual and ihe

as
Race Development.
Again,
assigned to
we have seen, the Hindus have each asrama the culture material
This principle sounds
of the corresponding stage of development of their ancestors.

like the
modern Culture Epochs Theory which
demands that the arrangement of the matter of instruction must be determined by the
historical stages of
human
culture as well as
by the stages of development of the race. Again, by holding that only by active participation was one able to attain selfrealisation
they anticipated another imporviz.
Learn btf Thirdly, the Hindus have held that doing. duties must be done for their own sake without any hope of a reward in this or
tant pedagogical principle
future
life.'
Now
their
the
activities
that are
pursued
for
own sake .become
the
'self-active
representation of the
inner
^r" aiWT ^^ ^^
or,
?taitn: gvfT^*t=IcT:
II
Gita
xviii. 9,
("when
prescribed
action
ia
performed,
aban^pnjng attachment and to be^performed, that

ia
fruit also, merely because
it
Aryuna ought
!'
4eemed
to be a great aba,iidonment."
64
representation of the inner from inner necessity
and impulse.'
In
fact,
the
training
the Hindu boy received during his pupilage
was intended to develop

attitude of
in
him such an
mind and habit that he might perform self-actively, successfully and easily
life.
the duties of manhood in the second stasfe
of
Thus from the emphasis the Hindus on doing one's duty for
must
always
be self-initiated.
laid
its
by
own
it
sake emerges the principle that one's action
Hence
appears that the early Hindus had, like

Froebel, for their motto self-control and selfactivity.
Lastly in holding that each stage
of
life
was preparatory
of
continuity
to the next higher
one, the
principle
Hindus had given expression

that
is
to the
so
much
emphasised by the modern educators. Again it will not be out of place here to mention
that Kapila, the founder of the
first
Sankhya
phi-
propounded the doctrine losophy of evolution which now plays such an imof
all
portant part
in
the
pedagogical
world.
He
says,
"there
cannot be production of
;
something out
of nothing
that which is

PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF RELIGION.
not cannot be developed into that which
65
is.
The production
exist (potentially)
of
is
what does not already

impossible, like a horn
on a raan."^
cal ideas
Thus the principal philosophiunderlying modern pedagogy are

the religion and philosophy of the
found
in
Hindus.
And inasmuch
as different systems
of pedagogy correspond to different systems

of philosophy, the history of
Hindu pedagogy
field to
presents
explored.
to
our enquiry a vast
be
Eeferences : 1.
2.
3. 4. 5.
The Gita. The Upanishads. The Laws of Manu. What do we mean by Education
Lectures
Welton.
on
the
origin
of
Eeligion
Max
6.
Muller.
Hinduism
Sir
Monier Williams.
A Brief Course in the History of Education
Monroe.
Vishnu Purana.
Education of
'
Man by
Froebel.
Sir Monier Williams
Hinduism.
V DIFFERENT TYPES OF EDUCATION.

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
Elementary Education
that a child
in
We
India
have seen
generally
ancient
followed the occupation of his father.

in
Now
a system
where the child followed the
occupation of the parent, his training was

necessarily
provided by a universal system
of apprenticeship.
Hence
in
every respect
that were
the training of boys was secured by actual

participation in
those
activities
life.
required of thera in adult
So primary
schools, in the modern sense, probably did
not exist in the earliest times.
But we
schools
find
from
of
Laiita
Vistara
that
for
elementary education did exist at the time
Buddha
(6th century
b. c.)
who
follow-
ing the usual custom of the

'the
world went to
well
all
writing
school'
to
practise
figures, writings, calculation
and everything
'
ELEMBNTART EDUOATlbif.
'to tifain
6f'
he had already learnt and

children in
numerous
the foremost path, and to bring
other millions to the path of truth.'

it
Thus
appears that such schools furnished the
rudiments of the arts of reading, writing
and arithmetic together with moral precepts

and besides
these, since the early centuries
of the Christian era the pupils had been;

taugfht fables and the niti-sastras
the most
under the
note
important of which
is
the Pancha-tantra.
The
in
schools
for
elementary education,
be
held
general,
in
used
to
trees
in
the open air or during bad vveather,

It
is
covered shedsi
that
interesting
to
hei"e'
a modern
system of teaching
the letters of the alphabet

knowi),
as
in
was also then

each
a
sentence
the teacher
association
letter.,'
then' taught
of
them
with
'
beginning with the
In later times we find that

schools the older students
in
elementary
were often used:
by the teacher to teach the younger pupils

and
it
was from India that
thi^
cheap system
the
of raianaging a school known as
moni-.
Lalita Vistara (B, L. liitra) p. 184.
6.8
torial system
was introduced
into
England by
Andrew
Bell.
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
In the earliest times there was no school
The head of each who performed sacrifices and composed hymns which he transmitted to his son. But later on, when the religious
to
impart education.
family was a rishi
ceremonials were
beginnings
to
increase in
complexity
and
it
the
literal
sense
of the
people^
hymns was becoming

in
foreign to the
became necessary to take and establishing their sense. "To attain these objects" saya Weber, "those most conversant with the
general,
precautions for securing
were obliged to give instruction to the ignorant, and circles were formed around
subject
them of
travelling
scholars,
who made
to
pil-
grimages from
one
teacher
another
according as they were attracted by the
fame of
1
special
learning".^
Some
of the.
WeberThe
History of Indian Literature p. 21.
SJlCONDARy EDUCATION.
69
centres
of
learning
were established by
retired to
forests
in
learned Brahmins
their
who
old
age.
Besides such institutions,
higher schools for the study of religious
works and practices were held at the courts

of enlightened and learned kings like those
of the Videhas,
the Panchalas.
the Kasis, the Kurus and
The
In the
subjects
taught
in
these
schools
included both secular and

earliest stage
spiritual subjects.^
both the branches were
taught by the Diksha Guru or the boy's

spiritual guide.
later on,
But
the
office
of the tutor,
became
differentiated into those
of
the Diksha
Guru and Siksha Guru.

in
The
all
former initiated the pupil

religion,
The
the secrets of
while the latter took charge of

different
'
(i)
Vedas, Itihasa, Furana, Grammar, the

logic,
rules for sacrifices for aacestors, the Science of numbers, the
Science of portents, the Science of time,

logy, the
ethics,
etymo-
Brahma Vidya,
the different angas, the Science of
weapons, the Science of demons, astronomy, the Science of Serpents or Poisons. Chhandogya Upanishad (The tale of Narad and Sanat Kumar). (ii) Vedas with their Angas and Upanishads, archery, various religions, ethics, dialectics, politics and the 64 arts (See appenThese were attributed to Baladev and Krishna Srimat -dix)
Bhagavata.
Also see Vishnu Purana Part III Chap.
VI
28-29.
70
EDUCATION JN ANCIENT INDIA.
the secular subjects.

also
The sacred laws which

precepts for
also the
formed a part of the curriculum of these
schools included 'not only the
the moral duties of
all
Aryas but
special rules regarding the conduct of kings
and the administration of justice'.
As
long as the various angas^ consisted
of short simple treatises there existed only
one type of schools called the Vedic Schools.
But
jects
as the materials for each of these
sub-
accumulated and the method of their
treatment was perfected, the Vedic Schools
became differentiated into the Vedic Schools and the Special Schools of Science. The
members
of the former devoted their energy

full
only to get a
and accurate knowledge of

little
the sacred texts but took very
care
to
understand the subject-matter, so that they
became 'living libraries' but without any power to make any real use of their learning while their rivals, though they restricted
their learning
to
only a few branches of
' These are, Siksha or phonetics, Chhandas or Metre, Vyakarana or Grammar, Nirukta or etymology, Kalpa or religious,
practices and Jyotish or astronomy.
SECONDARY EDUCATION.
science,
71
taught their curriculum thoroughly
and
tual,
intelligently.
So
in time,
the Vedie
schools ceased to be the centres of intellect
and were supplanted by the
special,
schools of science.
The curriculdm
astronomy.
of these
schools included the science of the sacrifice,
grammar,
law
or
Again, in
course of time there developed by the side of

these a class of institutions called Special
Law
Schools which gave a thorough training
in the different duties of
men.
seats
The most important
of learning,
however, were the Parishads or Brahmanic

Colleges^ answering to the Residential Universities of Europe.
These were originally

Brahmins,^ but the
till it
conducted
by
three
number gradually increased

Brahmins
was
settl-
ed that a Parishad ought to consist of 21

well versed in Philosophy,
TheOr
logy and Law.^
Unlike the later Buddhist
or modern European Universities they were

situated in places far
"
away from the din and

2.
'
'
Brihat Aranyaka Upanishad VI. Manu XII, 111.

'
Civilisation in Ancient India Vol.
(p.
163)T-by R. 0.
Dutta.
72
hustle

of the town.
The students were not

board and
only given free tuition but free
lodging as well, the expenses under various
heads being met from the endowments made by the kings, princes and the rich of the
land,
who considered
it
a sacred duty to help
liberally those interested in education.
ORGANIZATION.
According to the Hindus the period from birth to the fifth year of a child was regarded as the time for play.^ After which'^
or at any rate from the 8th
for study
year the time

child
commenced.
The
as
had
to be
initiated before
he began to study.
it
the initiation ceremony
Hence marked the

was
consilife.
beginning of a boy's spiritual
life,
dered as the momentous event in his
The time
for
initiation
was generally
fixed
Vishnu Purana Part

*
I,
XII,
18.
Manu
II 37.
ORGANIZATION.
7?
the
at the 8 th, 11th and the

case of a Brahmin,
12th year in
Kshatriya or a Vaisya
boy
might take place between 8 and 16 in the case of a Brahmin, between 11 and 22 in the case of a Kshatriya and between 12 and 24 in the case of a
respectively.^
it
But
Vaisya.^
The
initiated
house of his
boy was then sent to the spiritual teacher or Diksha

fostering care he
Guru
lectual
so
that under his
might receive
his spiritual, moral
and
intel-
training.
Here he
lived as a religi-
ous student for

or four vedas.
12, 24,
36 or 48 years accordthree,
in
ing as he wished to master one, two,
The
training he received
the house of his guru was intended to open
mind by making him acquainted with moral precepts and life's duties and to develop in him such an attitude of mind and habit that he might become fit intellectually,; morally and physically for the life to come or in other words, the whole course was
his
intended
to
train the
will.
Hence, he spent
the evening*
lli;
a few hours
'
daily, generally in
Mann
II 36.
Ibid 38.
Vishnu Parana Part
XI, 96.
74
in receiving lessons in the secrets of religion;
and
in the various sciences
and
arts.
While
to hira
in
the proper ideals
which form the second

will,
phase of training the
came
from the moral and pure
atmosphere
which he was brought up.

in
But to develop
him habits of action i.e. to enable him to act Up to the knowledge of right and ideals
he possessed (which
will-training),
is
the
third
phase of
very-
the
teacher
from the
beginning
taught
him
purity of habits,
sacri-
customary conduct, attendance on the ficial fire and sandhya devotions (69).
The
sun-rise
religious student
had
to rise
before
in
and engage himself every day

in a
duly
muttering
pure place the Gayitri during
both the twilights with fixed attention after
having made his ablution and become pure

(222).
Also he had to
fire,
collect
wood
for
the
holy
beg food of his
relations, sleep
offices as
on
a low bed and perform such

please
his
(108). Besides,
might
preceptor until his return
home
In
he had to wear simple clothes

(57).
(44)
fact,
and avoid eating to excess

in
order to be able to form habits of
ORGANIZATION.
self-abnegation and
live
75
self-control
he had to
life
of Brahmachari. Accordingly, the
religious student
was advised to avoid taking
honey, meat,
sweet scents, garlands, sweet
all
and pungent drinks, intercourse with woman, sour gruel or acid liquid, and the killing
or injuring of animals (177)
;
and to refrain
painting the
from smearing the body with

la,
oil,
eyes with collyrium, using shoes or an umbreldesire for enjoyment, anger, covetousness,
dancing,
singing and playing
on
musical
instruments (178). He was further enjoined to forbear from gambling, petty quarrels
calumniating people, speaking

wistfully at
lies,
looking
doing harm to others.
women, embracing them, and Besides, he had to lie

and should always
(180).^
down
alone
in all places
remain physically pure
Thus the
life
of the student in the house of the preceptor
was one of
and to reside
discipline,
and
the fact that

drill
the student had to go through this,

in the
house of the preceptor
shows that the Hindus even then understood that "religiqu and morality are not matters
Manu.
II.
76
of the intellect merely
that they cannot be

;
so
much
learnt as practised
and that the
atmosphere or environment to which a child is accustomed in early years is the most

powerful agent in shaping and forming his
religion
and moral
beliefs."
When
ticeship
the pupil thus finished his appren-
he was allowed to return to his
paternal home.
his
He
l.
then married and began
household
life.
Method
found
in the
The
following description
15th chapter of the Pratisakhya
of Rig Veda, gives in brief the method of

teaching that was in vogue in the schools of
ancient India.
The
pupils then used to embrace the feet
of their teacher at the

of a lecture.
beginning and end
This practice corresponds to
the modern practice of rising and saluting a

teacher
when he
enters and leaves the class.
It appears
from the
description
that
the different words
of a question (prasna)
were
sary,
first
pronounced
by the teacher and

These,
repeated
by the
pupil.
when
neces-
were explained by the teacher.
The
ORGANIZATION.
77
students then had to repeat the question once
more it by
after
which they went on learning
heart, pronouncing every syllable with
the high accent.
Thus the
recital
was not
mechanical
as
attention was constantly re-
quired for the modification of the accents.
The
lectures continued during about half
the year, the term beginning generally with

the rainy season.^
There were, however,
many
given.
2.
holidays
on
which no lectures were
According to Bachaspatimisra, ^n^RIT (hearing of words) ^p^ (apprehension of

meaning), g;^ (reasoning leading to generalisation) ^-gdmfH (confirmation by a friend
or teacher)
and
"^jn
(application)
are
the
five steps for the realisation of the
meaning
Curiously
of a religious
truth
(?rx^î?n)-^
enough
'
from the teacher's point of view these

when the
correspond almost to the Dewey's steps.*

se.ssion in
Curiously enough this corresponds to the time our colleges begins now.
' Mahamahopadhaya K. Tarkalankara Lectures on C. Hindu Philosophy (1st year) pp. 299-301. ' Dewey How we think. The following sloka gives steps
similar to those of the Herbartians.
7'8'
EDUCATION IN ANCIKNT INDIA.
Dewey's
V ;
steps.
its location.
^rsranl
j^
(2) (3)
(4)
ai^
âf^
^
2.
problem and ^
\
J
Suggested solutions aud

selection of a solution
^^ciMlfH
(5)
^TT
3.
Action (application)
:
Teachers' course^
In the
Hindu
sys-
tem an individual before he was allowed to become a teacher, had to pass through the recognised curriculum and to fulfil all the duties of a Brahmanical student (brahma<;harin).
Discipline
Discipline
system was generally mild.

II)
lays
Hindu Sloka 159 (Manu

in
the
down
that a teacher should give
instruction for
the benefit of his students,
without doing injury (by way of punishment)

to them, and
But when a
pupil
by using sweet and mild words. committed grave faults
he was beaten with a rope or split bamboo -on the back part of his body only, and never on the noble part.
It
He who would strike him

thief.^
otherwise would incur the guilt of a

is
interesting to
note here that the
'
Pratisakhya of Rig Veda Chap. XV. Manu VIII299-300.
OKGANIZATION.
rules laid
79
more or modern educators
down by Chanakya^ correspond less to those laid down by the

:
"^ra^c[ ij^^^Tfw (âicmlt^
?nf^
up
till
or
"the son
is
to be brought
the 5th
year,
he should be governed the next ten

friend."
years; as soon as he attains the 16th year,
he should be treated as a
References
:
1.
2.
HINDU EDUCATION.
1.
The modern educators recognize two

in
factors
education
(i)
internal
all
and
in
(ii)
external.
The
first
includes
the congeni-
tal tendencies
and innate capacities or

child.
one
the
is
word, the potentialities of the
These
for,
determine his future possibilities;

not there
is
teacher cannot develop in him that which

in
the child potentially.
The second
the child's environment.
This includes not
which through the forces of suggestion and imitation operates

only his social heritage
on him and unconciously tends to shape his language, manners, customs and beliefs, but
also
those influences which are consciously
and designedly brought to bear upon him by the adult portion of the community. These
external influences, therefore, chiefly
deter-
mine the amount and direction of his develop-
:
8
ins-
inenfc.
We
have seen that
in
imparting
truction the early

oonsiderrttion
Hindu
tastes
teachers took into
the
and innate
ten-
dencies of the individual.
They, also, clearly
saw the
lias
far-reachingf effect the second factor
on the child in his education.

form,
Hence
as
soon as mind began to

translated from his
the child was
home to an atmosphere where he could breathe freely moral health and strength and which was, therefore, most
favourable to the development of a spiritual
life
which concerned the Hindus more than

else.
anything
Indeed the cheerfulness and
calmness of the school environment, the peace

that reigned there and the orderly and pure
life
lived
by every one there, were stimulating
to a healthy
fact,
.
and pure
life in
the student.
In
the
principle
underlying the system

the same as
that was
thus inaugurated by the Hindus

is
about 3000 years ago
that
which urges the modern educators

the system of Residential
to advocate
Universities.
But
pre-
as the student lived in the house of his
ceptor as one of his family and breathed there
the atmosphere of hip

6
own home,
the ancient;
82
EDDCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.
Residential system was free from
most of
the defects and
artificialities
which take from

to the credit
the value of modern
Boarding Schools and
Residential Universities.
Hence
of the early Hindus
it
must be
said that the
idea of the Residential system in its

less perfect form,
more or
in the
was conceived and realized was conceived
in India long before it
outside world.
our
tols.
The system still survives in The pandit or teacher keeping a tol

teaches
free
not only
allows
2.
the students gratis but
them
board and lodging.
Social efficiency has from time
immebeen
morial been set up as the aim of education.
The
term, however, has
not always
used in the same sense.

point of view
a
socially
From
the modern
efficient
man
is
he who
is
not a drag on his society and

efforts of
who
far
from interfering with the
others, contributes to the progress and development of the society from which he has freely received nourishment for his body and
Thus this aim now includes not only the bread and butter aim but the moral one as well. Let us see how far the ancient Hindu
soul.
83
system of education
realized this aim.

first
To
understand this we need
to
know what
the daily duties of a householder then were
They were
the Vedas,
(i)
the study and teaching of
(ii)
offering oblations to the

(iii)
manes
or spirits of his ancestors,
offering oblato living
tions to the gods, (iv) offering food
creatures and (v) receiving guests.
We have
seen that the
Hindu
religious student receiv-
ed at school a thorough and practical training

in
the study of the Vedas, in performing
sacrifices
and
in
every other duty connected

education
therewith.
Besides, he received
and training in the various sciences and fine and mechanical arts. Thus in the Hindu
system the
life
outside
was reproduced
a fact
in
miniature in the school
emphasized
modern educators, specially by Prof, Dewey of Chicago and it may be said that the pupil was made fit for 'a practical, successful, efficient, useful and happy life of
;
by
action'.
3.
Again, as the development of the

concerned, the
else,
spiritual side
than.'
Hindus more
anything
the moral purpose com-
84
pletely
EDUCATION IN ANGIENT INDIA.
dominated the
student.
school
life
of the
also,
Hindu
The Hindu teacher

of his disciple.
to
therefore,
took the greatest possible care
to train the will
Hence the
Hindu boy had

and to make
orders.
his
go through a course of
to
discipline which helped to form his mind
body
fit
carry out its
Through abstinence and forbearance
the student developed in himself the virtues
of fortitude and control of temper and passions

;
through attendance on the preceptor
and doing everything that contributed to his happiness, he was taught self-abnegation,
patience,
endurance, loyalty and devotion.
In short, the system helped the boys to form
temperance in thought and of giving expression by deed to the ideas of harmonious and virtuous
habits, of courtesy, of
arid action,
conduct
in life.
Further,
\ye
have seen that the Hindu
boy received at school the preliminary training in religious practices and principles.
this respect his training
In
was
in
accordance
with the principles laid down by modern
GENERAL CHARACTKBISTICS.
thinkers.
a.s
85
said tha|;
A
is
modern
writer^ has
the child
incapable of forming abstract
religious
conceptions,
the
training
during
rather
this period "should be of the heart
than of the head and perhaps even more of

the hand
i.e.
a training in doing,
or, in
other
words, taking part in religious forms".

in
So
initiating
the
child
early
to
religious
forms and practices the Hindu system met

the demands of the nature of the child
this direction
in
most effectively. Again during the adolescent period when

manifest
the sex and other allied instincts
themselves and
instinct
when the dawning parental impels the youth to act not merely
good of the world, the
self-sacrifice.
for self but for the
Hindu student
in self-control
received a thorottgh training

It
is
and
this
marked contrast with the secular education given in most of our modern^ Indian schools and which enabled
training which stands in
.
the
^
Hindu
in ancient times to lead a

life
purer and
mor,e self-cputrplled
Kirkpatriok
course
than hjs brethren of

that
Fundamentals of Child Study.

is
'Of
it
in just this training
the ''tublie
>
,
School" in England excels.

86
EDUCATlbN IN ANCIENT INDIA.

Besides, this training
the present day. a
made
Hindu
feel,
quite
unhke
his
modern succesIndeed, the

its
sor, that a day without a few guests in the
house was a day spent in vain.
Hindu system
ing to the
life
fulfilled
most successfully
at a
all
mission in giving a religious and moral train-
Hindu student
'is
period of his others for
which
the time of
the
development of genuine
4.
religion'.
The
peculiar
merit of the Hindu

precepts
system
was that the
were not
This
elFective.
taught only but reduced
to practice.
made the system more

'authenticated'
life
practical
and
Further, the teacher in the
and
all
'illustrated'
Hindu System in his own
the theme of
the sacred writings, and
thus used to hold up before his disciple a

living
model which he could easily imitate

or unconsciously through cons,*
consciously
tant association.
This fact made the teacher
a prominent figure in the
Hindu System
The
teacher's
a feature greatly emphasised but not always

realized in the present system.
influence on
the disciple
was enhanced a
thousand-fold
by the
fact that the
Hindu
student and his
preceptor
ties,
87-^
were bound not

the
by any economic
ship
but by those of friend-
and
affection.
Hence
Hindu
teacher's personality influence

his
exerted a far-reaching
in
upon his disciple mind and character.

Again,
it
moulding
that
5.
must be
said
the
Hindu System presented one more aspect

which
is
emphasised by
in
the
upholders of
that
education
a Democratic
Society viz.
education should be
as far as practicable free

p. 29).
and compulsory (vide

6.
Further,
the
it
may
be said that like

religion,
Froebel
Hindus urged that
industry and temperance should mark their
system of Education.
must be said that the condition of things has since changed so considerably
Lastly,
it
that to pursue the system at present in detail

will
be neither possible nor desirable, though

shall surely
by embracing its spirit we our life and character.^

'
exalt
It is good sign that in certain quarters e.g. at the Owrukut Hardwar) and Satyabddi (in Orissa) some attempt is being made to combine the traditions of the ancient Rishis with modern scientific methods. Sir James Mestoa the mo3t
(in
88

The
Institutes of
References : 1.
2.
Manu.
Vishnu Purana.
Srimat Bhagvatgita.
C.
3.
4.
K. Tarkalankara
Philosophy
Lectures on Hin,du
5. 6.
7.
W. B. Pillsbury Essentials of Psychology. Max Muller India, what can it teach us ? Max Muller Lectures on the Origin of
:
:
Religion.
8.
Kirkpatrick
Study.
Fundamentals
of
Child
9.
Froebel
10.
W.
C. Bagley
The Education of Man. The Educative process

:
Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces thus remarks about the Gurukul School "I have been more than rewarded by visiting one of the most wonderful, interesting and stimulating institutions. Here we have a band of ascetics, devoted to their dutj', and working in the wilderness following the traditions of the Ancient Rishis, combined with the most modern scientific methods, and working practically for nothing, and a, set of students of strong physique and obedient, loyal, faithful and devoted, extraordinarily happy and
:
extraordinarily well.
* I
will
not talk of the political aspect of the question where
politics are
unknown."
VII
UNIVERSITIES IN ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL INDIA.
ANCIENT PERIOD.
We
it
have seen that north-west India was ^

earl}'
the cradle of
Hindu
long
civilisation.
Hence
of
had been
for a
tinne
the
centre
Hindu learning. Kashmere and Badarikasram long enjoyed the reputation of having
controlled
it.
:
In the 6th century b. c, Takshasila however, the chief centre of learning seenned
to
have
been
It
transferred
to
Takshasila
quarters
of
{Taxila).
was the
learning.
head
It
is
Brahmanical
in
said
that
sixteen branches of learning were taught here
the different schools
each of which was

professor.
presided over by a special
There
image-
were schools of painting, sculpture,
making great grammarian
and handicrafts
at Takshasila.
Panini
The and Chanakya
{Kautilya), the minister of Chandra Gupta,
90

education in the
to
are said to have had their

university.
The student here had
pay
for his education.
The
university was specially reputed for

it
the success
physician
attained in medicine.
The
royal
Jivaka
who had cured
the king-
Bimbisara of Magadha and also the great
Buddha
studied
himself of some painful diseases, had
medicine
here
under
the
great
Rishi professor, Atreya.
He had
been in the
university for seven years after which he had

to undergo an examination in which he
was
the
,
asked to describe the medicinal use of
all
vegetables, plants, creepers, grass^ roots etc
that could be found within a radius of fifteen

miles
round
the
city
for
of Taxila.
Jivaka
examined
them
four
days
and then
"submitted the results informing his professor

that there was hardly a single
did not
possess
plant
which
form
some medicinal property."

us
to
The above some idea

the time.
description enables
of the
system of examination of
Universities in Ancient India by
Bahadur.
(Tlie
Rai Sarat Chandra DasHindustan Review, Maroh, 1908).
THE
USIV'BRSITIES.
its
91
The
university maintained
reputation
for several centuries
and
was
in
the
most
flvurishing condition even in the 3rd century
when Asoka the Great, was the reigningEmperor of India. In describing the condiB. c.
tion of India during
Asoka's reign Vincent

sons of people of
all
Smith
writes,
"the
the upper classes, chiefs,
Brahmans,
as
and
to
merchants
of
flocked
to
Taxila,
University town, in order to study the

Indian
arts
circle
and
sciences,
especially
medicine."
As
learning
the
wave of
east and
civilisation
travelled
towards the
south, the seat

to
of
was
transferred
the
various
vlharas which had arisen in the different parts

of the
country since
the time of Buddha.
These viharas developed from the groves called Aroma where under the shelter of trees spiritual training was publicly imparted and where the Buddhist monks then called Anogarika resided. In fact, education in those days was spread at hotrie and abroad
by the Buddhist monks.

cltistered together in
Wherever they
monasteries or viharas
92
EDUCATION IN
university
ANCIEN'i' INDIA.
grew
up and each of these

principal o? a. modern
viharas
was presided over by a Kulapati

th.Q
corresponding to
college.
The university of Sridhanya Katak Sridhanya Katak which was situated on the
:
banks of the Krishna in both Brahinanical and

great
Vidarbha (modern
Buddhist
learning
Amaraoti) attained celebrity as the seat of

during the time of siddha Nagarjuna.
monastery of
The Du-pong near Lhasa

siS colleges
which contains a university with
was erected
after its model.

:
Nalanda
The
university
which long
the most
enjoyed the reputation of being
renowned seat of learning

of Asia,
in
ancient India
and attracted students from different parts
was
that
located
in
the
great
all
Vihara of Nalanda.
over
It was then
known
glory
Magadha by
it
the
name
of
Dharmaganja.
its
When
}vas
was at the height of

resort
and
wg.s
the
of foreign
students and
scholars numbering
in
10,000
thê
Europe
the
darkest
watch of
long night pf
schools
the
middle ages.
The
Saracenic
THE UNIVEBSITIKS.
93
and Arabic learning

founded.
It
also
had not yet been

existence
for
had
been
in
seven
centuries
when the Chinese

it (in
traveller
Hiuen
It is
Tsang
Gupta,
to
visited
the 7th century).
said that four kings viz. Sakraditya,
Buddha
efforts
Tathagatagupta
great
and
Baladitya
successively had devoted their

this
pious
architectural
work^
Its
genuinely historical period, however, begins
with the time of Baladitya who flourished

in the
middle of the 5th century
a.d.^
The great
college stood in the middle and
was surrounded by eight other halls. The resided in the courts which laj^ bejônd priests
these.
The
observatories
stood
within
the premises.
Its three grandest buildings
were called Rdtnasagara, Ratnadadhi and

Ratndranjaku.
nine storeyed
Of
and
these
in
it
Ratnadadhi was was located the
library then considered the largest in India.^

'
Civilisation
in Ancient India
R. C.
Dutta : Vol. II pp.
148-49.
;Daoea Review Vol,

S. Datta),
2 No. 7 Oct., 1912 (University of

.
Nalanda by
S. C. Das's Universities in
Ancient India.
94
EDOCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.

principal of the
The
monastery when Hiuen
renowned
Tsang resided there was Silabhadra, the disciple of Dharmapala/

Curriculum
;
The
education
imparted
s,t
Nalanda was both religious and secular. Again, not only the Buddhist canonical
books,
but the doctrines of
all
the eighteen
sects of
Buddhism and even the Vedas and

;
other works were studied
and no attempt
discourage
was even made to
stifle
or
the
literature or learning of the rival sects. The subjects taught here were (i) Grammar, (ii)
Logic,
(iii)
the
(iv)
Science!
Tantric),
of Medicine {specially Philosophy and Metaphysics^
and other miscellaneous subjects

poetical literature.^
which
in-
cluded probably Sanskrit and Pali prose and
It
is
not too
much
to suppose that in a
university like Nalanda where
the utmost
freedom of intellectual exercise was allowed,

all
the subjects should
have attained con-
siderable dovelopment.
'
However, its greatest

I,
Daooa Review Vol.

Ibid Vol.
I.
No
9 Deo. 1911.
No. No.
4,
July 1911 'and Vol.
No.
5.
August,
1911.
"
The University
Ibid Vol.
1,
o
9,
Nalanda by
Deo., I91I.
S. liutta.
THE UNIVERSITIES.
95
in
and most
field
brilliant
;
achievements were
the
of Logic
'schools' of
and it is said that of the Nalanda the most difficult were

Logic.
:
the
Schools of Discussion or
The
biographer of Hiuen Tsang says
"Of those
Schools
from abroad
who wished
the
to enter the
of Discussion,
difficulties
majority beaten by the

;
of the problems withdrew
and
those
who were deeply versed in old and modern learning were admitted only two or
Organisation
\
three out of ten succeeding."
The
University of NaUniversities
landa like the modern
Tibetan
was a monastic university.

rule,
it
Hence, as
China,
admitted those who embraced molife.
nastic
Monks
from
Tibet,
Central Asia,
Bokhara, Corea found free

subjects
board, Iqdgiug and instruction here.^
Each of the
the
six
was taught and

of
discussed by a sep'arate professor in one

.
colleges
comprising the university.
Those a,mong the venerable

*
monks
who
it
."
Th^ laud
in
the possession of the Nalanda monastery

,
contained mpr^ than 200 villages.
by kings of many Aprili.1915. Page
generationfe."
11.
They were ]bestowed upon Dacca Review Vol. 5, Nd.
1,
96
mia^ht
have
distinguished
abilities,
themselves by
old
eminent intellectual
noble
age and
character were Like the professors of modern universities

selected as professors.
each professor in the Nalanda University-
had charge of one subject

also
only.
The students
one or more
attached
themselves to
as
professors
specialize
according
in
they wanted to
one or more subjects.
But a
in
general average knowledge was required

all
the principal subjects.

It will be noticed here that the curriculum
of Nalanda excludes
all
technical sciences.
It therefore was a deterioration from Taxila
where the curriculum was more

this
varied.
But
was in appearance only, for the greatness of Nalanda lay not so much in the variety
as in the depth of learning
scholars.
acquired by
its
Again, there
is
nothing strange in
the fact that the technical arts should have
been excluded from the curriculum in the
in
Nalanda University considering that a monk it had no care about food, lodging or
gratis.
clothing which were supplied to him
In fact the monks of the great monastery
THE XTNIVBRSITIBS:
97
had hardly any secular care and their whole endeavour was given to intellectual and
spiritual
>
improvement.
university
rose to
The
eminence under
exist
Siladityd's patronage, but after his death it
began to decline and continued to about the end of the 9th century.
till
MEDIEVAL PERIOD.
Odantapuri
During
the
declining
period of the University of Nalanda another
monastic college was erected at

{Bihar) by oneGopala orLokapala
to
Odantapuri
who
is
said
have ascended the throne of Bengal about

A.D.
730
It
contained a
splendid
library
of Brahraanical and Buddhist works,
which
was destroyed at the sack of the raonastry ^nd the massacre of its monks by the Muham-
madans
(in a.d.
1197)
who
dealt a death-blow
to .the Buddhists, and their religion^^
Sakya.:
\yhich
^The
great monasljery of Sakya

,s6at
,
became the
of the first grand
Jieirarbhy
''\
of .Xib^t
(aboiit
1202,
a. D.)
and
"
y.
A'.
3mith.the.Early History
of Ipdia (3rd Editfon).
^8
followed Odantapuri in the details of monastic

discipline
and education, was built after
its
model,
Vikramasila
(a.d.
Gopala's son Dharraapala

monastery
at
800)
erected another
Vikramasila in Bihar. With this monastery the University of Nalanda is said to have had intercourse for some time. The monastery
of Vikramasila was for
long the renowned
centre of Tantric Buddhism and attracted numerous students from abroad. Like Nalanda the monastery of Vikramasila
possessed a
university with six colleges.
These were placed under the supervision of

six
door or dvara pandits during
the reign
colleges,
of king
Bhaya
Pala.
Four of these
stood at the four gates of the monastery

to
which pupils had free access

of
study.
for
the
purpose
called
The
central
building^
'the
House
The
of Science' was used
by
the monks for studying the Pragna Paramita

Scriptures.
theology
in
two pandits who taught the Central College were called
the Ist and 2ndi 'pillars of the University. The resident pupils received their food gratia
THE UNIVEKSITIES.
99
from the {our Satras
(free
boarding hostels)
which were established inside the monastery at the four gates and were endowed by the
princes and nobles of the country.
The University worked

four
successfully for
centuries
and
disappeared
with
the
advent of the Muhammadans.
During the period of the revival of vedic Hinduism the principal seats of Hindu
learning
were at Kanouj and Benares in
northern India.
Under
first
the Sen Kings of
Bengal
(a. d.
1119-1200), Sanskrit learning

in Mithila
was carried on
Navadwip.
survived the
and then
in
The
latter
place
fortunately
shock
of the
Muhammadan
attack and during the mediaeval period gave

birth to a long succession of great scholars,
like
Raghunath,
Raghunandan
and
civil
Sri
Chaitanya.
(i)
The
subjects taught here were
Logic,
(ii)
Smriti or works on
and
religious' usage, (iii)
Jyotishov Astronomy, (iv)
Grammar^ (v) Kavya or Literature and (vi) Tantra, But the greatest achievements of the
university were in the field of logic.
In the Deccan Vijayanagar waa for a
100

a. d.)
long time (14th century
the refuge and

it
centre of literary activity; and
appears from
Ayeen Akhari that even at the time of Akbar Benares was a centre of Hindu learning and
was
in its flourishing condition.
Both Benares and Navadwip are still renowned as the principal seats of Sanskrit
learning organized after the ancient manner.
References
:
1.
Universities in Ancient India
by Eai
(The
Sarat
Chandra
Das
Bahadur
1906).
Hindustan Review, March,

2.
Civilisation
in Ancient India
II.
by R.
C.
DuttaVol.
3
Nalanda University by Sukumar Dutta.

Dacca
Review July,
1911,
August,
1912.
1911. December, 1911

4.
5. 6.
and October
Seal's life of
Hiuen Tsang
and
Painting
Takakasu
Indian
Sculpture
by
E. B.
7
8.
Ha veil
9.
Ayeen Akbari translated by . Gladwin. Visha Kosh (Bengali) edited by Nogendra Nath Basu ^ The Early History of India by V. A.
Smith.
APPENDIX
The
following
is
list
of the subjects
that w.ere cultivated by the ancient Hindus.
VEDIC LITERATURE.
I.
The Vedas including (i) The Samhitas. The Brahmanas. (ii) (iii) The Upanishads. (iv) The Sutras.
;
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
1.
Belles- Lettres
(i)
Epic Poetry
a.
b.
c.
Itihdsa.
Purdnas.
Kdvyas.
(ii)
(iii)
Dramatic Poetry,
Lyrical Poetry.
(iv)
Ethico-Didactic Poetry,
(v)
History and Geography.

102
2.

Science and
(i)
Art
Science of Language.
a.
b.
c.
Grammar.
Lexicography.
Metric,
Poetics
and
Rhetoric.
(ii)
(iii)
Philosophy including Logic.
Astronomy, Geometry,
Arithmetic,
Algebra, Tri-
gonometry.
(iv)
Medical Science.
(v)
Art of war, Music, Forma

tive
and Technical
arts.
3.
Works
worship.
of
Law, Custom and Religious
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOME OF THE SUBJECTS CULTIVATED BY THE ANCIENT HINDUS.
In modern times material needs more
than spiritual absorb
the
interests of the
people and the various sciences and arts also
have been developed, more or

their
to
less,
material
needs and
to
meet enable them

to
hold their
own
in
their
political
and
a
of
economic
relations.
But
for
in ancient
India,
where the struggle
existence
was
comparatively easy one
the
energies
the people were directed into
a diflferent
an}'^
channel and religion more than

else
thing
became
also
their
all
absorbing
interest.
It embraced
not only worship and prayer

subjects
as
but
such
philosophy,
morality,
law
and
government.
all
Hence
literature, science
and art
originated from
the exigencies of religion and served religious

purposes.
The Science of Phonetics : It

in India
arose
ib
when
the Brahmins
thought
104
EDTJCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.
necessary to preserve the accurate pronunciation
of their hymns.
it
It as
is
so perfect that
as
though
century
had
its rise
it
early
the
fifth
b. c.
has not as yet, says

its
Max
Muller, been surpassed in
analysis of the
elements of language by any representative

of phonetics.
Grammar
the vedie
It
grew
up
in
India
in
connexion with the study and recitation of

texts.
The
subject
made such
eminent
Panini's
wonderful
authorities
progress
like
here
that
Max
Muller and Weber are

of
it.
eloquent in
their
praise
work
joyed
is
the magnificient edifice of the Indian
science of language.
it
Max
Muller has ensays,
so
much
that he
" In
grammar, I challenge any scholar to produce from any language a more comprehensive collection and classification of all the facts
of a language
than
we
find
in
Panini's
Sutras."
In metre, the success of the Metre Hindus was great. According to Max the observations made by the ancient Muller,
:
Indian authors and their use of the technical
MATHEMATICS.
105
terms give a clear confirmation of the latest

theories
of
modern
metricians.
The same
authority says that metres
were connected
with music and dancing which originally

subserved
religious
purposes
and
sub-
sequently helped the development of

in India.
Drama
Story-telling
About story-tellingMax
of the
fables
Muller
says,
''
some
of the
Panchatantra or Httopadesa are excellent specimens of what story-telling ought to be."
Arithmetic
The decimal
.
notation with-
out which Arithmetic as a science would
have been impossible, was the wonderful

invention
of
it
the
Hindus.
The
Arabs
borrowed
it
from the Hindus and introduced
into Europe.-'
Algebra : In
Algebra
the
Hindus
attained to a high degree of proficiency quite
independently. Aryabhatta (476 A. D.) was
the
first
writer on Algebra.
He
was succeed-
ed by
Bh^skarfi,charja (1114).
There are
solutions of remarkable problems in

'
Bh^skara
Dutt
Maodonell A History of Sanskrit Civilisation in Ancient India.
Literature and R. C.
106
EDCCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.

in
which were not achieved

17th
Europe
till
the
and
18th
centuries.
Besides,
the
Hindus were the first to make an application of Algebra to astronomical investigations

and to geometrical demonstrations
;
and the
manner of
able that
it
their conducting
it, is
so remark-
has received the admiration of
many a modern European mathematiciani^. Geometry took its rise in Geometry

;
India from
the construction
It,
of
the altars
and their enclosures.
however, did not
make much progress

sented by Algebra,
here.
As
soon as
it
was
found that geo^netrical truths could be repre-
Geometry gradually fell out of use. The elementary laws of Geometry that the Hindus had discovered were introduced into Europe where the science has
received
its
highest development.
:
Trigonometry
was the
first
This
in
subject
peculiar invention of the Hindus.
man
India
to
was the Bh^skara write on
Spherical Trigonometry.
Astronomy ;-Astronomy,
metry, received
its
like
Geowas
inspiration from religion.
The
subject
in
its
elementary
form
ASTRONOMY.
cultivated
107
vedic
even
in
the
times
distinct advance, however,
was made through
the discovery of the planets.
The
earliest
Hindu astronomer
bhatta (476
a.
of eminence
d.)
was Aryaits
who
boldly maintained
axis
the rotation of the earth round
and
explained the true cause of eclipses of the
sun and moon.

Zodiac.
In his Golnpada he gives; us

calculation
is
the names of the twelve divisions of the Solar
His
of
the
earth's
circumference
not wide of the mark.
He
was succeeded by Varahamihira (505 a. d.), the author of Brihat Samhita. He, again,
was followed by Brahma Gupta, the writer
di Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta.
He
described
the calculations of lunar and solar eclipses,, the

positions
of the
moon's cusps and the

stars;
conjunctions of the planets and
After
the
Brahma Gupta came Bhaskara

last star of
(1114),
Indian astronomy. His Siddhanta
Siromoni has enjoyed
more
authority in
India than any other astronomical work ex-
cept the Surja Siddhdnta.
A.ttev Bhdakara^^
Hindu astronomy ceased to make any further progress and became merged in astrology.
108
EDUCATION. IN ANCIENT INDIA.
During the eighth and ninth centuries the Arabs were disciples of the Hindus, They translated Aryabhatta's Surja Siddhanta and afterwards made
in the Science.
much
art
progress
Medicine
illnesses
The
healing
had
in
its
beginning in the vedic times.
Reference of
the
and healing herbs are found
Atharva Veda. Not only did the Hindus thoroughly understand animal anatomy but, they showed wonderful skill in the treat-
ment
of snake-bite.
They gathered
the
of plants
valuable
pro-
information regarding
perties of minerals,
medicinal
and animal
deter-
substances and their chemical analysis and
decomposition.
Their
method of
mining the origin and nature of diseases was remarkable and bespeaks a very keen
observation.
In Surgery the
attained a special
to
Indians seem
proficiency.
to
have
"the
'According
Susruta,
says
Dr
P.
is
C.
Roy,
sine
dissection of dead bodies
qua non
to the
student of Surgery and this high
authority lays particular stress on knowledge
ABTHA-SASTBA.
109
gained from
experiment and observation."^

present day
the
.
Even
at
the
European
surgeons have borrowed from the Hindus

the operation of rhinoplasty or the formation
There were many writers on the subject of medicine but the most
of
artificial noses.
;
important were Charaka and Susruia.
Their
works were translated into Arabic at the close of the eighth century and were introduced by the Arabs into Europe where they
continued to exert their influence down to
the 17th century.
Music
numerous
This science may
be
traced to
the vedic times.
Vedic literature contains
allusions to musical instruments.
The
the
earliest
mention of the names of the

is
seven notes of the musical scale
found in
Chhandas and the
Sikshot.
Here only
the scholia
fragments of the writings cited
in
of the dramatic literature have been preserved.
Some
of these writings
were rendered
the Hindus
into Persian
and Arabic;
:
Artha-Sastra
attained
'
-In this also
great achievements.a..
Chanakya's
p.^
P. C.
Roy
fiiBtoiJy
oJ'Hiddu Ohfem'istry,
106
110

is
book
the most remarkable of the books on
the subject.
Technical Arts
the Hindus
in the first centuries
The
b. c.
achievements of
were great. Even
a.d.
in this direction
and
technology
{Varta) was amply patronised and the Government had a special department to see to it.
The Indians from

enjoyed
licate in
the earliest times had of de-
celebrity in the production
woven fabrics, in the mixing of colours, the working of metals and precious stones,
of
essences and
in
all
in the preparation
manner
of technical arts.
rules
laid
Law: The
down
in
the
Grihya and Dharma Suiras show clearly that the Hindus attained^^distinct achieve-
ments
in this
branch of science.
Painting,
:
Indian art, ture geometry, received

religion.
Sculpture
like
its
and Architecastronomy
inspiration
and
from
the
It w?is used, says
Ha veil,
'for
interpretation of the
esoteric
teachings of
philosophy and
early times,j as
,
religion'i^
it is
It was not in the no w, a specialised study
fOJbe
IdeaU ofjndian Art p. J76.
NATURE STUDY.
divorced from religion and ignored
universities.
Ill
by the
part
It
was an
integral
of
national
life
and thought.
in
In portrait-painting the Hindus seemed

to have
excelled
the olden times.
In
sculpture, they
reliefs
attained such celebrity that
carved upon stone depicting various

still
scenes are
able
regarded as the most admirof the
monuments
greater.
Hindu intellect. The

in architecture
achievements attained
still
were
Nature
Study
^The
of
Hindus
nature.
were
pre-eminently
observers
But
while the modern scientist studies her ways
and means to make her serve the material needs of mankind, the Hindus dived deep
into her secrets for the
intimation she gave

life.^
them
of a higher spiritual
The whole
in
of the Yoga system had
its
origin
the
study of nature.
It arose from the study of
the habits of frogs, serpents and tortoises.
The 'Hindus emphasised the study df

nature so thkt' the individual might be -led
'
Ibid
pp 107-108
f 58-163
'
,
M ,.8rimat; bhagvftt
Canto <yll,; 32^ Markehdeo Furan chap. XXV'II
112

in
to" believe
the
existence
of
all
God by
things.
realising the spiritual nature
of
In fact, his deep religious
instinct
inspired
the Hindu to seek in every aspect of nature

a symbol of worship
and an attribute of the

found expression in
Literature.
Divine.
His intense feeling of reverence and

all
a.biding love of nature
and developed
Thus,
those
says
Hindu Art and

" It
to recognise
Havell,
refuse
seems to
the
me
that
who
intense
is
(^f
love of nature with which
Hindu thought
of
penetrated must miss entirely the beauty

the
great
Hindu
as
poets,
Valmiki and
Kalidasa,
well
as
the beauty of
Hinda
Art."
The Vaisesika system of Physics was the first attempt made iu India Kanada
:
to inquire into the laws of matter and force,
of combination and disintegration.

says Dr. P. C.
self,
Kanada,
of,
Roy,
'chiefly
occupied him-
with the study of the properties
The atomic theory, as propounded by him, has many points in common wi|;h that of philosopher, Democritus. "the Greek His
matter.
theory of the propa&a4;ioh of sound canliot
PHTSICS.
ffiil
113
to excite our
wonder and admiration even
at this distant date.

his statement that
d%fferent forms of the
No
light
less
remarkable
is
and heat are

as
only
same essential substance".

the cause
of
He
also speaks of gravity
falling.
Eeferences
:
The History
of Indian Literature Weber.
2.
A History
A
of Sanskrit
Literature
A.
A.
Macdonell.
3.
Civilisation in Ancient
India E.
C. Dutta.
4. 5.
6.
History of Hindu Chemistry- P. C. Eoy. The Ideals of Indian Art E. B. Havell.
The
Positive
Sciences
of
the
Ancient
Hindus Dr.
7.
B. N. Seal.
Srimatbhagvat.
8.
Markendeopuran.
II
The
followingr list ofives us a fair idea of
the arts and occomplishmeuts current
among
men
B.C.)'
at
the time of
Buddha (567 B.C. 487

:
Leaping, running, Physical Exercise wrestling, archery, quick walking, jumping,
swimming, riding and boxing.
General Sciences and Arts
Writing,
book-writing, arithmetic, poetry, grammar,
knowledge of vedic glossary, Nigamas, Puranas, Itihds, Vedas, Nirukta (lexicography),

Sikshd (phonetics) Chhanda (metre), yajna
ritual
and ceremonial, Sankbya, Yoga and Veishashika doctrines, logic {Heiuvidya)

political
economy
(.4rÂaw/(iâ) ethics, surgery

cries of animals
{Âsura),
knowledge of the
and
birds, guessing,
divining others'
thoughts,
explaining enigmas, explaining dreams,know-
ledge of the characteristics of women, men,

horses, cattle
and
'
story-telling,
Laliia Vistara.
AESTHKTICS.
115
Aesthetics
songs,
Playing
;
on
the
Vina,
music, dancing, dramatic exhibition, reciting
symphony.
Hand- work
ineedle-work,
Lac-ornaments, wax-work
leaf-cutting,
basket-work,
dyeing
cloth, tinting jewels.
Other
sing, art
accomplishments: Hair of decoration, pantomime,
dresraas-
querade.
ITT.
The
Siitra
following
list
of sixty-four
Arts or
Kalds,^ which appears in Vatsyayana's
Kama
enables us
to
form some idea of the
accomplishments
appropriate for
centuries
I.
which
were
ladies
in
considered
young
a-d.
the
first
b.c.
and
Literary accomplishments. Reading and elocution. 1.

2.
Lexicography and
Filling
Versification.
3.
4.
Exercises in enigmatic poetry.
up of stanzas of which a
is told.
portion
5.
Guessing unseen
held in a closed
letters
fist.
and things
6.
7.
Use of secret language. Knowledge of languages.

Solution of riddles.
8.
9.
Solution of verbal puzzles.
10,
'
Mimicry.
ladies alono were reootnmended to practise them. S'ridhara makes Baladeva and Krishna learn these accomplishments from their tutor S'andipani, but many of them are
Young
obviously feminine and would not suit a man.
SIXTT-FOUR ARTS,
II.
117
A.
Domestic Arts.
(i)
(ii)
Tailoring or sewing.
Making bows,
thread.
sticks etc.
with
(iii)
Bed making.
Prestidigitation,
B.
Culinary Art.
(i)
(ii)
Ornamental Cookery,
Preparation of beverages,
(iii)
Arts relating to Toilet, Dress, Luxuries or Comforts,

C.
(i)
Marking the cheeks

the
ears
before
with
sandal
and
other pastes.
(ii)
Display of jewellery on the

person.
(iii)
Perfumery,
(vi)
Making
Making
of
ornaments
of
flower for the head,

(v)
of necklaces and gar-
lands etc.
(vi) Staining,
dyeing and colourcloth and
ing of the teeth,
the body.
118

(vii)
Making
pomades
Coiffure,
use
etc.
of
unguents^
(viii)
(ix)
Changing the appearance of

fabrics.
III.
Manual work and occupations.

(i)
Drawing,
Pictorial Art.
(ii)
(iii)
Scenic representation.
(iv)
ModelHng.
(y)
(vi)
Wood
carving.
Making ornamental
the flour
flowers.
designs
on
with
rice-meal
and
(vii)
(viii)
Making beds of flowers. Making artificial flowers

threads.
with
(ix)
Making of flower
carriages.
IV.
Recreative arts.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Making
Making
fountains.
Jugglery.
twist
with
spindle
(Tarku).
SIXTY-FOUR
AR:v8.
J..19
(iv)
Cock-fighting, quail- fighting, rannfighting etc.
(v)
(vi)
Teaching of parrots to talk, Devising different expedients
for
making the'same
(vii)
(viii)
thing.
Tricks,
Dice-playing,
(ix)
Incantations to
attract
per&ons
and things,
(x)
(xi)
Assuming various
Kuchumara.
forms,
Tricks as taught by
Scientific arts.
(i)
(ii)
Setting Jewels.
Decoration of houses.
Testing of silver and
jev?els.
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Knowledge of metals. Colouring of gems and

Ascertaining the
beads.
existence
of
mines from external appearances.

(vii)
Gardening, botany
etc.
(viii)
(ix)
monograms, logographs and diagrams. Lapidary art.

of
Making
120
VI, A.
Music
(i)
(ii)
Vocal music.
Instrumental music.
(iii)
Jaltaranga
or
'playing
on
china cups containing varying quantities of water to

regulate the tone.'
(iv) Tattooing,
B.
C.
Drama Acting
Etiquette
Physical Exercises.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
VII.
Juvenile sports.
Physical Exercise, Dancing,
(iv)
Eeferences
Art of Warfare.
Lalita Vistara
: (1)
(2)
by R. L. Mitra.
Srimatblidgvata.
IV
Rules regulating the conduct of the

disciple
1.
towards his preceptor.

controlled his body,
Having
speech,
organs (of sense) and mind he
(the disciple)
should stand with joined hands looking at the

face of his preceptor.
2.
(Manu
II. 192)
Let him always keep

his
his right
arm
out of his upper garment,
behave decently
sit
and keep
body well covered and
down
down.
facing his teacher
when asked
to sit
(Ibid II. 193>

3.
In
the presence of his preceptor he

less,
should always eat
wear a
less valuable
dress and ornament.
He
should rise earlier

(Ibid
and
lie
down
later (than the former).
II. 194).
4.
He
should
not
receive
orders ôr
converse with (his preceptor) reclining on a
bed or sitting or while eating or standing

or with an averted faee^
(Ibid II. 195)
122
5
KDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA.
He
should do (that)
is
standing up, if
his preceptor
seated on a seat, advancing

is
towards him
when he
standing,
going
up to him it' he is walking and running after him when he runs. (Ibid 11 196) 6. Going round to face him if his face is turned away, going up to him when he is at a distance' but bending towards him while (he is) lying down or standing in a lower
place.
7.
(Ibid II 197)
When
of his
his preceptor
is
nigh,
his
bed
or seat should always be

sight
low.
And
within
sit
preceptor
he should not
carelessly.
8.
(Ibid II. 198)
He
should not utter the
mere name
back,
of his preceptor
(without any
behind
his
even
epithet
of honour)
gait,
and he
should not
mimic
his
speech and
deportment.
9.
(Ibid II. 199)
A disciple should
from
cover his ears or
depart elsewhere
the
place
where
(people) censure or defame his preceptor.

(Ibid 11. 200)
'
10.
He
should not serve the preceptor

another) ^while he
(by the, intervention of
RULES OF CONDUCT.
stands aloof, nor
123
is
when he
is
(himself)
angry,
nor
when
woman
near
if
he
is
seated in a carriage or on a (raised) seat, he
should get down and salute his preceptor.

(Ibid II. 202)
11.
The
disciple should not sit
with his
preceptor to the leeward or to the windward

(of him).
And
he should not say anything

behind his back.
(Ibid II 203)
(regarding his preceptor)
INDEX.
Abul Fazl
;
14
;
Adolescent period
Aesthetics ; 115 Ajatasatrn 28 Algebra 105 Aniiiraoti 92
; ; ;
85
Caste System 25 44 Central College 98 Chaitanya 42, 99 Chanakya 79

; ; ;
;
70 Anogai'ika 91 Arabs 109 Architecture 110 Aristotle ; 40, 54 Arithmetic 105

:
Angas
Chandidas ; 19 Charaka 109 Chhandas; 109

;
Clergy; 44
Coniiiination action ; 62
of
knowledge with
;
Aroma ; 91 Arts, sixty-four ; 116-120 Artha sAstra ; 79, 109 Aryabhatta ; 8, 107 Asuka ; 91 AstroHoniy ; 106 Artha Viilya ; 114 Aiharva Veda ; 108
Atomic Theory ; 112 Atreya; 90 August an age 9 Aurangzeb 20 Ayeen Akbari ; 14, 17, 100
; ;
Continuity, Principle of 64 Curriculum, democratic ; 35 at NaJanda ), 94 Culture Epochs Theory 63

; ;
Dacca Review
Das.
S. C.
;
93-95
93
Debts ; 53 Democritus ; 112 Development of personality Dewey ; 77, 83 Dharniaganja ; 92

pala ; 17 Sastras ; 56 Discipline 75, 78 Division of labour 26 Drama ; 105
; ;
59
DhHrma Dharma
Bachaspatimisra ; 77 Baladitya ; 93 Benares ; 16, 100
Dupong
Bhababhuti ; 16 Bhagavatgita ; 18 Bhaskara ; 18, 105 Bimbisara ; 90

Biradeb ; 16 Birdwood, Sir George j 41 Boarding Schools ; 82
92 Dutta, Hirendra Nath ; 28 R. C. ; 12, 43, 71, 93 Dvara Pandit ; 98

;
Brahma Gupta
Brahinachari
;
107
;
75
;
Bhahma Sphuta Siddhanta

Brihat Samhita 107 Buddhism, Tantric 17
;
Education, compulsory ; 29, 87 not dogmatic 58 ,, Elementary ; 66 ,, liberal ; 36 ,, Secondary 68 ., 9 107, Elizabethan Enviroument, effect of 1-2
; ; ; ;
Biihler
79
Flexibility
35
126
Forest life 55 Froebel 58, 87
;
INDKX.
Karma Mimamsa Sutra
Kasis 69 Kirkpatriok
; ; ;
18
Gayitri
30, 74
;
Knight-hood
; ;
85 44
Gautama
13
; ;
Geometry 106 16 Ghoserabau

Gita, quoted
50. 58, 63
;
Kshatriyas 21, 28 Kulapati 92
26, 31, 33, 39, 49.
Kumarila ; 18 Kurus 69
;
Gitagovinda
l7
Lakshmana Sena
Lalita
Vis-tara
;
17
11, 28,
Golanada
10"
66.
67,
Gopa;
11
INDEX.
Painting ; 20, 110 Panchalas 69 Panehatantra 67, 105
; ;
127
;
Self-realisation
51
;
Pandu
;
;
38
;
Sidhanta Siromoni Siksha; 109 Silabhadra 94

;
107
Panini 89, 104 > Parishad 71 Periclean ago 9

;
Siladiiya
8
;
Smith, Srmiti
V A
;
17, 19, 91, 97.
99
;
Peahwar
;
16
; 1 1
Phonetics 10.3 Physics '2 Physical Exercise ; 114 Plato 5, 26, 40 Platonic Ideal 34 Pragna Paramita Scriptures Prakrit; 6 Pralsriti 26, 50 Pratisukliya 76, 78 Punishment 78
; ; ; ; ;
Special Law Schools ; 71 Spencer, Htrbert, quoted
32
Sridhanya Katak ; 92 Srimatbhagbata 35, 69

;
Slory-telliiig
;
105
Surgery 108 Surya Siddhaiita ; 107 Susruta 108, 109

;
Svaraavati
Svayambara
14 10
Tamas
QuestioD (Prasna)
;
76
Raghunath 99 Raghunandan 99
; ;
Rajas
27
;
Ramanuja
IS
;
27 Tarkalaukara, C. K 36, 77 Taxila 6, 89 Teacher's personality ; 87 Technical Arts ; 110 Tol; 82 Trigonometry ; 106
; ;
;
Ratnadadhi ; 93 Ratnaranjaku 93 Katnasagara ; 93

Religion (Mediaeval Period) ; 21 Renaissance, age of 23 Residential Universities ;|8I Rhinoplasty 109 Roy, P. C. ; 108, 112
; ;
Universities
89-100
Upanishad
Brihat Aranyaka ; 71 Chhaiidogya ; 48; 58

Isa; 61
Jabala
53
Katha; 48
Maitrayana Brah-
Sakya
Satraa Sattva
97
;
mana; 37
Prasna ; 58 Svatasvara ;
Taittiriya
;
Sankaracharya ; 13, 16 Sankhya Philosophy 64

; ;
,37,
47
99 26
;
58
Schools, of Discussion ; 95 of Science ; 70 ,,
70 Sohopenhaiier ; 5 Sciences and Arts (general) Sculpture ; 20, 110 Seal, B. N Il3 Seclusion of women ; 10 Self-preservation ; 2
;
;
Vedio
H4
Vaisyas ; "44 Vaisesika 112 Valmiki; 112 Varaharaihira ; Varta; 110
8,
107
Vatsayana ; 13 Vedas ; 30 Study of ,, Vedanta Sutras
40
18
128
Vidarbha ; 92 Vjdehas ; 69 Vidyapiti 19
;
INDEX.
Visvavara
;
12
Vijayanagar
Vikramasila
99
;
Vikramaditya
;
68 Williams, Sir Monier Writing School 66

;
Weber
12,
44
16,
98
72, 73
Vina; Il5 Vishnu Parana 56, Vishnu Sarma 38

; ;
Yajnavalkya
12,
54
Yasovarman
15
;
Zodiac, Solar
107
v^^Kfff^'i^f^:,.
âÛtaMiaWIHBiHMMHHIHil

Ancient India - Education

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ASIA

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

Cornell University Library

3 1924 022 940 773

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

NOGENDRA NATH MAZUMDER,

Principal, Dacca Training College

CO., Ltd. CALCUTTA, BOMBAY, MADRAS, LONDON

THE AUTHOR'S NOTE.

subsequently developed into

should have been

undertaken by abler hands.

The main object of meet the demand for

that will give a clear and systematic account

and also to remove some

grave misapprehension that seems to exist

about the Hindu ideals of education in the

minds of some eminent foreign

such a remark should have come from such

THE AUTHORS NOTE.

ed his remarks are.

due for writing

the Introduction and for helping

valuable criticisms and suggestions.

Satyendra Nath Bhadra,

portions of the book which

the various authorities

consulted and quoted from.

by the remark of an and supported by the

feeling that the

India should at least be acknowledged, the

book has done good

service to the cause of education by

forth in a compact form

and practices of the ancient Hindus

immature portion of their

reading of the ancient authors to

cannot pretend to judge, but

amid the many

culties that confront us while the

the aged East, that

Rishis of the past can look

approval on the principles and

these pages reminds us that truth

place nor of that

the rewarder of those

must not be concerned with "English"^

or "Vernacular," or "Sanskrit," or "Ajajbic"

Education, but going beyond these external

we must seek of modern India

having become heirs of the past and the

the present day child

look around and

the past, and Mr. Mazumder's

be of great assistance to the

In studying the history of education in

with the attention that was paid to physical

book may prove an

schools SO that the

work of the boys mayupon whife