RAOS I I T STUDY CIRCLE

VIJAYAWADA

Class : VIII

Force State of motion Contact and non - contact forces Pressure

Force and Pressure

Physics

A force is a push or a pull. We measure forces in "Newtons" (N) named after Sir Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727).
1 Newton isn't a very big force: it's about the weight of an apple. Forces are vectors, because the direction is important.

Forces can change:-

the speed of an object the direction that an object is moving in the shape of an object.

In our daily life we feel that some effort is required to put a stationary object in to motion or to stop a moving object. We ordinary experience this law as a muscular effort and say that we must push or pull on an object to change its motion. The concept of force and pressure are based on this push or pull. Force is said to be done when a push or pull is acts on an object. The strength of force is usually expressed by its magnitude. If the direction or the magnitude of the applied force changes, its effect also changes. If the two forces act in the opposite direction on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference between the two forces. An interaction of one object with another object produce a force between the two objects.

A force applied on an object may change its speed. If the force applied on the direction of its motion, the speed of the object increases. If the force is applied in the direction opposite to the direction of the motion, the speed of the object decreases. Thus a force can change the state of motion of objects. The state of the motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction of motion. The speed of rest is considered to be the state of the zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion, both its states of motion. A force can also change the shape of any object. Without force no any object can change its speed, direction and shape. A force is caused by the action of muscles in our body, is known as muscular force. As muscular force be applied only when it is in with an object, it is known as contact force. Animals also make use of muscular force. The force, which is responsible for changing the state of motion of object is said friction. The force of friction always acts on all the moving objects, and its direction of motion. The force of friction always arises due to contact between surfaces, so it is also an example of contact forces. Attraction or repulsion between the poles of magnets is known as magnetic force. Like poles of two magnets repel each other and unlike poles attract each other. A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with it. So it is known as non- contact force. The force exerted by the charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force. This force acts without being contact bodies, so it is also example of non - contact force.

Theattraction of objects towards the earth is known as force of gravity or gravity. The force of gravity acts on all objects. Every object in the universe whether small or large exerts a force on every other object. This force is known as gravitational force. The force acting on a unit area of a surface of object is called pressure i.e.

Since the pressure is depends on area. So, the smaller the area, larger the pressure on a surface for the same force. Liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls of container. The pressure exerted by air is known as atmospheric pressure.

Newton's First Law,

says that if the forces on an object are in balance, the object's speed and direction of motion won't change. (In other words, if you leave it alone, it'll carry on doing whatever it was doing already.) If we apply an unbalanced force to an object, it will accelerate. If we apply twice the force, we'd expect to get twice the acceleration. If we apply the same force to an object with twice the mass, we'd expect to get only half the acceleration.

Newton's Third Law, says that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
In other words, when you push or pull something, it pushes or pulls back at you. Forces are two-way affairs, they're about the way that objects affect each other. For example, you're pushing down on your chair with a force of, maybe, 500N, and the chair is pushing back with a force of 500N. The forces are balanced, and as you're already sat still, you stay that way.

Gravity
is a force that acts towards the centre of the Earth. This means that, wherever you are in the world, "down" is always towards the ground - even though your "down" isn't the same direction as anybody else's. The gravitational pull of the Earth is what gives objects weight. Thus weight is a force - it's how hard the Earth is pulling on an object. The Earth pulls on every kilogramme with a force of ten Newtons. We say that the Earth's gravitational field strength (at ground level) is 10 Newtons per kilogramme (10 N/kg) (Actually, it's more like 9.81, but for GCSE we usually call it 10.)

In other words, an object with a mass of 1kg

Gravity is a very weak force, you need a very large mass in order to get a noticeable gravitational pull. An odd thing about gravity - it always

attracts objects and never repels them

has a weight of 10N.

Whenever anything moves, there's usually some form of friction trying to stop it. Friction is sometimes useful, at other times it's a problem. There are two main types of friction:-

1. "Static" or "sliding" friction

This type of friction occurs when dry surfaces rub together. The frictional force depends only on:-

1. the type of surfaces

2. how hard the surfaces are pressed together. We can calculate the maximum frictional force using F=N

Where - F is the frictional force, - is the "coefficient of friction", a number we use for those particular surfaces, - N is the "Normal reaction", which is the force pressing the surfaces together.

2. "Fluid" friction
This type of friction is what happens with liquids and gases (In Physics, liquids and gases are both called "fluids". They behave in similar ways.) Fluid friction is also known as "drag". On aircraft it's also called "air resistance". It depends on:-

1. how thick the fluid is

(its "viscosity")

2. the shape of the object 3. the speed of the object

A thin, runny liquid has a low viscosity. A "viscous" liquid is thick and gooey Aircraft and car designers want to reduce drag, so that the vehicle can go fast without having to waste too much fuel. To reduce drag, we need a shape that the fluid can flow past easily and smoothly, without any swirls (called "eddies"). This tends to mean using long, pointed, "streamlined" shapes

Terminal velocity
When an object falls, it accelerates. As its speed increases, the air resistance increases. Eventually, the force from the air resistance will equal the force from the weight of the object. At that point, the speed will remain constant: the object has reached its "terminal velocity" and can't fall any faster. Terminal velocity depends on the drag, so a streamlined shape will fall quickly, whilst a parachute will fall slowly. For a free-fall parachutist, before the parachute opens, terminal velocity is around 120 miles per hour. When the parachute opens, the terminal velocity decreases to only a few miles per hour - a much better way to hit the ground!

Reducing friction
Friction can be a nuisance, because it changes kinetic energy into heat which is usually wasted. Friction also tends to wear away at the surfaces, causing damage. We can reduce friction by oiling ("lubricating") the surfaces. This means that the surfaces no longer rub directly on each other, but slide past on a layer of oil. It's now much easier to move them.

Hovercraft ride on a cushion of air, which reduces the drag dramatically compared to the drag on the hull of a ship. Thus hovercraft can easily achieve much higher speeds than ships.

In winter sports, we need friction to be as low as possible so that we can achieve high speeds. Ice skaters actually move on a layer of water, and don't skate on ice at all. When ice is subjected to high pressure it melts. The narrow blades of the skates create a very high pressure and thus the skaters glide along on a layer of water they've just melted. The water refreezes as soon as they've moved on. This is called "regelation" (sounds like something that happens to a football team, but it's spelt differently!) Other methods of reducing friction include: using "ball bearings" or "roller bearings", where balls or rollers allow the surface to move easily without actually touching each other using special materials, for example, Teflon, which have a very low coefficient of friction and thus slide easily (Teflon is used in "non-stick" frying pans for this reason)

Characteristics of Force
A force is defined as a push or pull that causes an object to change its velocity. A force can be applied by a direct push on another object. But also there are forces that can push or pull on other objects from a distance. The mass of an object affects how much force is required to accelerate it.

Questions you may have include: How does a force change velocity? What what are the two classes of forces? How is force affected by mass?

Force changes velocity

A force acting on an object will cause the object to change its velocity. That means it will start moving, increase its speed, decrease its speed, stop moving, or change direction. A change in velocity is defined as acceleration (or deceleration). While velocity is measured in meters per second (m/s), acceleration is measured in meters per second per second (m/s/s) or meters per secondsquared (m/s).

Common factor in motion

In general, most things are standing still. But as you look around, you may see things that were still suddenly start to move for one reason or another. For example: to An apple falls from the tree to the ground. Some men push a stalled car down the street. You blow up balloon, and it flies away as the air rushes out. You hold a stick under water, and after you let it go, it shoots up the surface.

There is a common factor in the motion of the above examples. In every case, a force was acting on the object. The forces in the examples are respectively gravity, pushing, air pressure, and buoyancy.

Two classes of forces

Forces can be divided into two classes: 1. Those forces that act by direct contact, such as when you push on a door to open it 2. Forces that act at a distance, with no physical contact between the objects; the forces of gravity or magnetism are examples of forces at a distance

Direct forces make sense

Direct contact forces seem to make sense. It only seems natural that if a moving object smashes into another object, it will cause the second object to move in the same direction, as explained by Newton's Laws.

Force at a distance is strange

On the other hand, how can a force act on another object at a distance? What is "pushing" on the second object to make it move? This can be seen in the case of two magnets of like poles. Not only that, most forces at a distance seem to "pull" more than they push. What is this mystical force of gravity that pulls an object to the earth from a distance? There really isn't a good explanation, except that they are "forces" that act at a distance.

Push or pull
Most of the forces that act at a distance are pulling forces, such as the pull of gravity or the attraction of molecules to each other. Static electrical and magnetic forces have both push and pull capabilities. For example, similar magnetic poles push away from each other.

How does it work?

Now, it only seems natural that if a moving object smashes into another object, it will cause the second object to move in the same direction. How can something push or pull another object, causing it to move, when they are a distance apart? The big mystery is how do these forces work? What causes them to push or pull? If you study magnets, you can demonstrate the magnetic field or lines of force. But what do these lines of force do? Are there tiny little particles flying from one end of a magnet to another, such that it pushes against a similar or pole sucks in an opposite magnetic pole? There has never been a truly satisfactory explanation of how forces at a distance work. Maybe this could be a project for you to try to make a discovery or establish a theory to explain it.

Direction of force affects motion

If an object is moving and you push on it in a direction at an angle to what the object is traveling, the force of the push will cause the object to change its direction. Forces in a line add or subtract, according to their direction. For example, if one person pulls on a rope with a force of 10 pounds and another person pulls in the opposite direction with a force of 8 pounds, the total force will be 2 pounds in the direction of the 10 pound force. If several forces or velocities are applied at angles, it is not so easy to calculate the total force in a given direction. For example, suppose an jet plane was moving through a cross-wind. What would be the total force in the direction of motion? It would depend on the force and the angle.

Force affected by mass

The heavier an object, the more force is needed to speed it up (accelerate it) or slow it down (decelerate it). Another way of saying this is that the amount of force needed to accelerate an object is proportional to the mass of the object.

Relationship
If you wanted to measure the factors, you could use the equation or relationship that the force equals the mass of the object times the amount of resulting acceleration or F = ma where: F is the force applied to the mass m is the mass

a is the acceleration caused by the force ma is m times a

In other words, it would take twice the force to accelerate a 2-kilogram object to a given velocity than it would for a 1-kilogram object.

Accelerates until force stops

As long as the force is applied to a given object, it will to accelerate. Once the force is withdrawn, the object will continue to move at a constant velocity. Measure velocity If you wanted to measure that velocity, you could use the equation v = Ft / m where v is the velocity to be determined F is the force applied on the object t is the time interval the force is applied m is the mass of the object Ft/m is F times t divided by m

We obtained the equation by knowing that acceleration (a) equals velocity (v) divided by time (t), a = v/t. , to get F = ma = mv/t. Thus v = Ft/m. Impulse If the amount of time the force is applied is very short, that force is called an impulse. An example of an impulse is when you hit a golf ball. The force is applied for a very short time and accelerates the ball up to a high speed. The ball then continues to travel at the same velocity, being slowed down some by the force of air resistance and being pulled to the earth by the force of gravity.

Summary
A force is a push or pull that causes an object to accelerate. There are direct contact forces and those that act at a distance. Newton's Laws of Inertia state that force is required to change the motion of matter. The force require to accelerate an object is proportionate to the mass of the object.

Units of Force
A force is an entity that acts on an object to change its velocity or direction. A unit of force is an arbitrary measurement that we designate as "1" (unit), so that all other measurements of force are multiples of that unit. Most often, force is designated as a newton (N) in the metric or SI system of measurement. The newton has applications in various scientific measurements. There are other units, not used as often.

Questions you may have include: What is the definition of the newton? What are some applications of the newton? what are other units of force?

Definition of newton
A newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kilogram (1 kg) an acceleration of 1 meter per second per second (1 m/s2). It is abbreviated as N. This unit of measurement is in the metric or SI system and is used in scientific work more than other units of force. 1 N is equivalent to 1 kg-m/s2.

Applications of the newton

The newton combined with other measurements is used in various applications.

Moment of force
The unit of torque or moment of force is the newton-meter (N-m), where m is the moment arm.

Energy, work and heat

The newton-meter (N-m) is also the definition of the joule (J), which is a unit of energy. It can be seen that the units of kinetic energy E = mv2 are in kilogram-meter2/seconds2 and kg-m2/s2 = Nm.

Power and radiant flux

Power is energy per second or N-m/s, with the unit of watt. This is also the unit for radiant flux or power from electromagnetic radiation.

Pressure
The unit of pressure is the pascal (P), which is the force per unit area (N-m2).

Other units of force

There are other units of force, not as commonly used as the newton.

Dyne
A dyne is the force required to give a mass of 1 gram (1 g) an acceleration of 1 centimeter per second per second (1 cm/s2). 1 N = 100,000 dynes. You might use the dyne, if working with small objects.

Poundal and pound

A poundal is the force required to give a mass of 1 pound (1 lb) an acceleration of 1 foot per second per second (1 ft/s2). 1 poundal equals 0.1382 newtons. A pound is the force applied on a mass of 1 pound (1 lb) by the acceleration due to gravity. It is a non-technical unit of force and is also called the weight. These units of force are in the English system and are seldom used in scientific measurements.

Summary
A force acts on an object to change its velocity or direction. In most scientific work, force is designated as a newton (N) in the metric or SI system of measurement. The newton has applications in various scientific measurements. There are other units, not used as often.

Force can cause acceleration

When a force acts on an object that is stationary or not moving, the force will cause the object to move, provided there are no other forces preventing that movement. If you throw a ball, you are pushing on it to start its movement. If you drop an object, the force of gravity causes it to move. If an object is initially stationary, it accelerates when it starts to move. Acceleration is the change in velocity over a period of time. The object is going from v = 0 to some other speed or velocity. Likewise, if an object is already moving and a force is applied in the same direction, the object will speed up or accelerate. For example, a gust of wind can speed up a saliboat.

Accelerates Until Force Stops

As long as the force is applied to a given object, it will to accelerate. Once the force is withdrawn, the object will continue to move at a constant velocity.

Force can cause deceleration

If an object is moving and there is a force in the opposite direction of the motion, the object will decelerate or accelerate in the opposite direction. If you throw a ball up at a given velocity, it will slow down as it travels upward due to the force of gravity. Likewise, an airplane will decelerate if flying into a strong headwind. A decelerating or resistive force can cause a moving object to stop. This can be seen when you apply the brakes on your car.

Force can change direction

A force applied at an angle to the direction of motion of an object can cause it to change direction. A side wind will cause an airplane to change its direction.

It is possible that the object keeps going at the same speed, if the force is applied perpendicular to the direction of motion. But the velocity of the the object changes. Speed is how fast the object is going, while velocity is speed plus direction.

Summary
A force is a push or pull on an object that affects its motion. The push can come from direct contact, like when objects collide or from a force field. The pull seems to only come from a field at a distance. The action from a force can cause an object to accelerate, to decelerate, to stop or to change direction. Since any change in velocity is considered acceleration, it can be said that a force on an object results in the acceleration of an object.

Centripetal Force
Centripetal force is a force applied perpendicular to the motion of an object over a period of time, causing the object to move in a curve path. Depending on the way centripetal force is applied, the path of the object may be a slight curve to a circle or other conic section. The Law of Inertia causes a centrifugal inertia force, which is equal and opposite to the centripetal force. Examples of applications of centripetal force include swinging a ball on a string, the motion of the Moon around the Earth and a car going around a curve. There is an equation of centripetal force as a function of the mass and velocity of an object and its radius of curvature. Questions you may have include: What direction should centripetal force be with respect to the motion? What are some examples of centripetal force? What is the centripetal force equation?

Centripetal force must be perpendicular

A centripetal force is a force that is applied perpendicular or orthogonal to the direction of motion of an object. The force is applied for a period of time, thus causing the object to move in a curved path. If it was only an instantaneous force, the object would simply change directions and continue in a straight line. This follows from the Law of Inertia or First Law of Motion defines a property of matter and space, where an object in motion will follow a straight line unless acted upon by some sideways force.

Different curved paths

Centripetal force can simply cause the path of an object to curve for a short distance, or it can be continuous and cause the object to follow a circular path around some center point. There are some cases where the centripetal force can cause an object to follow an elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic path. These paths are called conic sections.

Centrifugal force

The tendency of the object to continue in a straight line results in what is called its centrifugal force. This force acts in the opposite direction of the centripetal force, pulling the object outward. Centrifugal force is not a real force but is instead an inertial force. It is also called a fictitious or pseudo force.

Examples of centripetal force

An object being swung around on a rope, the motion of the Moon around the Earth and an automobile going around a curve are examples of a centripetal force being applied.

Swing object on rope

When you swing a ball around on a rope, you must hold onto the rope and pull on it with a force. Otherwise the ball and rope will fly off according the Law of Inertia, which wants to have an object move in a straight line. The force you are pulling on the rope is the centripetal force.

Ball swung on rope requires centripetal force to keep ball from flying away

Motion of Moon around Earth

The Moon is kept in orbit around the Earth through centripetal force caused by the constant gravitational force between the Moon and the Earth. If the gravitational force would suddenly vanish, the Moon would shoot off in a straight line, tangent to its previous orbit around the Earth.

Car going around a curve

When an automobile moves along a road, it will tend to move on a straight line, due to its inertia. However, if it comes to a curve in the road, the driver turns the steering wheel to aim the front wheels in a direction following the curve in the road.

Tires provide centripetal force for car going around a curve

The friction between the front tires and the road create a force that is perpendicular to the direction of motion. That friction force is the centripetal force, causing the automobile to go on a curved path.

Force required
The equation for the centripetal force required to cause an object to follow a curved path is: F = mv2/r where F is the force m is the mass of the object v is the straight line velocity of the object r is the radius of curvature cause by the force

Inertial and Real Forces

An inertial force is an apparent force on an object that is result of inertia or a frame of reference acceleration. An inertial force is also called a fictitious or pseudo (false) force. This is as opposed to a real force, which consists of an agent acting on an object, causing the object to accelerate, decelerate or change directions. With inertial forces, you can see the movement and measure the force, but you cannot define the agent. An explanation of inertial forces is seen by examining the frame of reference or point of view of the observer. Questions you may have include: What are examples of real forces and their agents? What are some inertial forces? How does the frame of reference explain the motion?

Real forces
A real force applied to an object is caused by some agent acting on the object.

Throw a ball
For example, when you throw a ball, you are exerting a real force on the ball, causing it to accelerate. You are an outside agent applying a force on the ball.

Roll a ball
If the ball is rolling along the ground, there is the resistive force of friction slowing down that motion. In this case, the friction on the ground is an outside agent that is applying a real force on the ball.

Force at a distance
A force acting at a distance, such as magnetism or gravity, are also outside agents causing acceleration, deceleration or a change in direction. In all these cases, you can define the agent that is applying the force.

Inertial forces
With inertial forces, you can see an object move and even measure its force, but you cannot define a physical agent that is acting on the object and causing the force.

Acceleration in a straight line

The force you feel of being pushed back in your seat as the aircraft you are flying in accelerate and takes off is an example of an inertial force. You can measure the force you are being pushed back, but you cannot define a exactly what is pushing you back.
Note: In high speed jet aircraft or the space shuttle, that force is called a G-force and measured by how

much greater it is than the effect of gravity.

Centrifugal force
If you swing a ball around on a rope and then let it go, the centrifugal inertial force will send the ball outward in a straight line. However, you cannot tell what real force accelerated the ball to fly off in the way it did. It was caused by a pseudo force.

View with respect to frame of reference

The concept of an inertial or fictitious force can be explained by the relative point-of-view or frame of reference of the observer. If your frame of reference accelerates, decelerates or changes direction, you will feel a force acting on you in the opposite direction of the action. Although this force seems real, to an outside observer in a larger frame of reference, your motion is related to the law of inertia. This can be illustrated with a person in a moving bus and an outside observer.

Constant velocity
If you are wearing roller skates and standing in a bus that is moving at a constant velocity and you cannot see out the windows, you will be unaware of its motion. (Doesn't everyone wear roller skates in a bus?) However, an outside observer will see you and the bus moving along at that given velocity, with respect to the ground.

Deceleration and acceleration

If the bus driver suddenly slammed on the brakes, decelerating the vehicle, you would experience a force on you that causes you to roll forward. However, the outside observer would see the bus slow down and see you continue at the former velocity. Likewise, if the bus accelerated, you would roll backwards.

Going around a corner

Now, if the bus rapidly went around a corner, you would be thrown toward the side. To the outside observer, you would be continuing in a straight line, while the bus turned.

Greater scheme of things

The frame of reference in the bus is but a subset of a greater frame of reference, such as that of the person observing the bus. However, there are multiple frame of references. Someone on the Moon could see the person watching the bus (through some very, very powerful binoculars) moving along with the rotation of the Earth. The concept of these different frame of references was a basis for Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity.

Centrifugal is an inertial force

The Law of Inertia or First Law of Motion states that a moving object tends to follow a straight line unless acted upon by some sideways force. That force must be a real force, meaning that it is a push or pull coming from some agent acting on the object. If that push or pull occurs over a period of time and comes from a center point, the object will follow a curved path. This force is called the centripetal force. However, inertia "wants" the object to follow a straight line and applies an inertia force on the object, called the centrifugal force. This force is also called a fictitious or pseudo (false) force, since it is not real or created directly from some agent acting on the object. It is also called the centrifugal effect to distinguish it from a force.
Note: One cute way to remember the difference between centripetal and centrifugal is to note that centrifugal is the "f-word" and is thus not a real force.

Examples of centrifugal force

There are various examples of applications of centrifugal inertial force.

Spinning disk
If you place an object on a disk and start it spinning, the friction holding the object on the disk is the centripetal force causing the object to move in a curved path. Once the disk spins fast enough, the centrifugal inertial force can become greater than the centripetal friction force holding the object in place. The object will then fly off in a straight line.

Ball flies off spinning disk in straight line due to centrifugal force overcoming friction

Round-Up ride
A related example is the amusement park ride, Round-Up, which consists of a circular platform that has a vertical cage-like wall around the edge.

Centrifugal force holds people on walls in Round Up ride

When the platform spins at a high enough rate, the centrifugal inertial force pushes the riders against the wall, holding them in place as the platform changes directions. Although the riders feel a force pushing them against the wall, there is no real force or agent that is doing the pushing. It is simply an effect of inertia.

Water stays in swinging bucket

There is also a trick where you take a pail half-full of water and swing it on a rope in a vertical circle, such that the water stays in the bucket, even when directly above you by centrifugal force. In these examples, you or some object is made to move in a curved path, working against the Law of Inertia.

Amount of centrifugal inertial force

The equation for the centripetal force that causes an object to follow a curved path is: F = mv2/r where F is the force m is the mass of the object v is the straight line velocity of the object r is the radius of curvature cause by the force

This is also the amount of the outward force or centrifugal force caused by inertia on the object.

Centrifugal force is in the opposite direction of centripetal force Thus, if the centripetal force causing an object to go in a circular path is 25 newtons, the centrifugal force felt will be 25 newtons.

Fundamental Forces
There are several fundamental forces that affect the way that objects or particles of matter interact with each other at a distance. These forces do not require motion and direct contact, such as when a

moving object collides with another. These forces apply to all matter from sub-atomic particles to galaxies of stars. The fundamental forces are gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear. Some classify the two nuclear forcesstrong and weakas individual fundamental forces. They vary in strength and distance at which they are effective. Questions you may have include: What are the properties of the gravitational force? What are the properties of the electromagnetic force? What are the properties of the nuclear forces?

Gravitational force
Gravitation is the force of attraction between particles or objects of matter. It has the greatest reach or range but is also the weakest of the fundamental forces. The gravitational strength is only 6*1039 of the strength of the strongest nuclear forces.
Note: 1039 equals 1/1039, where 1039 is 1 followed by 39 zeros. That is a very small number.

The strength of the gravitational force decreases as the square of the distance between two objects. This means that if you triple the distance, the gravitation will be reduced by 1/9. The force of gravitation is most apparent in objects of large mass, such as planets and stars. Gravitation is what keeps the Earth and other planets in orbit around the Sun.
Note: Gravity is defined as gravitation near the surface of the Earth.

The Theory of General Relativity explains the force due to gravitation as a result of the curvature of space caused by matter. The newer Theory of Quantum Mechanics explains gravitation as caused by the exchange of graviton particles between the masses.
Note: Although the concept of explaining forces that act at a distance as the exchange of particles is generally accepted in Quantum Mechanics, I find it hard to believe. It seems counterintuitive.

Although gravitation is only an attractive force, some scientists speculate that there may be a sort of anti-gravitation that causes objects to repel away from each other. Perhaps it is related to what is called "dark matter".

Electromagnetic force
Electromagnetic force consists of the attraction and repulsion of materials consisting of electric charges, as well as magnetic materials.

Electric force
Electric charges can be positive (+) or negative (), where like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Protons have a positive (+) charge and electrons have a negative () charge. Electric forces are what hold atoms and molecules together.

The strength of an electric force and a magnetic force drops off as the square of the distance between the charged particles.

Magnetic force
Magnetic poles can be north (or north-seeking) and south (or south-seeking). Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Moving and spinning electrical charges create a magnetic field, depending on their direction o motion. The strength of a magnetic force drops off as the square of the distance between the magnetic poles.

Strength and cause

The relative strength of the electromagnetic force is 1/137 of the strong nuclear force. At one time electromagnetic forces were explained as a property of space that consisted material called aether. The present explanation is the exchange of photon particles.

Nuclear forces
Nuclear forces are divided into what they call strong and weak forces.

Strong force
The strong force is the attraction that holds the nucleus of an atom together, overcoming the repulsive electrical force of the positive (+) charged protons. The relative strength of the strong force is designated as 1. The range of this force is small, approximately the diameter of a medium-sized nucleus (1015 m). Apparently, this force does not decrease by the inverse square as do the gravitational and electromagnetic forces. Instead, it just stops at its given distance. The Theory of Exchange Forces designates the gluon as the "glue" that holds the nucleus together, through some sort of exchange between nuclear particles.

Weak force
The weak force in a nucleus involves an exchange of W and Z vector boson particles. The strength of the weak force is 106 that of the strong force. Its range is only 1018 m, which is about 0.1% of the diameter of a proton. The purpose of the weak nuclear force apparently is to allow deuterium fusion to take place. This is necessary for our Sun and the stars to burn. Deuterium is a hydrogen isotope. It is also necessary for the creation of heavy nuclei and causes phenomena such as beta decay.

Pressure is Force per Unit Area

Pressure is the force on an object that is spread over a surface area. The equation for pressure is the force divided by the area where the force is applied. Although this measurement is straightforward when a solid is pushing on a solid, the case of a solid pushing on a liquid or gas requires that the fluid be confined in a container. The force can also be created by the weight of an object.

Questions you may have include: What is the pressure when a solid pushes on another solid? What happens when a solid pushes on a confined fluid? What happens when the force comes from gravity?

Pressure of solid on a solid

When you apply a force to a solid object, the pressure is defined as the force applied divided by the area of application. The equation for pressure is: P = F/A where P is the pressure F is the applied force A is the surface area where the force is applied F/A is F divided by A

For example, if you push on an object with your hand with a force of 20 pounds, and the area of your hand is 10 square inches, then the pressure you are exerting is 20 / 10 = 2 pounds per square inch.

Pressure equals Force divided by Area

You can see that for a given force, if the surface area is smaller, the pressure will be greater. If you use a larger area, you are spreading out the force, and the pressure (or force per unit area) becomes smaller.

Solid pressing on confined fluid

When a liquid or gas is confined in a container or cylinder, you can create a pressure by applying a force with a solid piston. The pressure created in the cylinder equals the force applied divided by the area of the piston: P = F/A. In a confined fluidneglecting the effect of gravity on the fluidthe pressure is the same throughout the container, pressing equally on all the walls. In the case of a bicycle pump, the pressure created

inside the pump will be transmitted through the hose into the bicycle tire. But the air is still all confined.

Pressure is in all directions in a fluid Increasing

the force will increase the pressure inside the cylinder.

Caused by gravity
Since the weight of an object is a force caused by gravity, we can substitute weight in the pressure equation. Thus the pressure (P) caused by the weight (W) of an object is that weight divided by the area (A) where the weight is applied. P = W/A If you place a solid object on the floor, the pressure on the floor over the area of contact is the weight of the object divided by the area on the floor.

Pressure equals Weight divided by Area

Example with shoes

A good example of how a force on small area can result in a very high pressure is seen in women's shoes with high spiked heels. These types of shoes can cause damage to some floors due to the very high pressure on the floor at the heel. An average shoe distributes the weight of the person over 20 square inches. Thus, a 100-pound person applies 100/20 = 5 pounds per square inch on the floor. Since a spike-heel is only 0.25 square inches, the 100-pound person would be applying 100/0.25 = 400 pounds per square inch on the floor at the heel! In some cases, that is sufficient to damage the floor.

Fluid weight
If you put a liquid in a container, the weight of that liquid would be pressing on the bottom of the container similar to that of the weight of a solid object. The pressure on the bottom of the container would be the same as if the weight was from a solid: P = W/A. The only difference is that pressure in a fluid goes in all directions. So the pressure on the sides at the bottom would be the same. Gases and liquids exhibit pressure due to their weight at every point in the fluid.

Using Pressure
When the area is small, a moderate force can create a very large pressure. This is why a sharp knife is good at cutting things: when you push the very small area of the sharp blade against something, it creates a really large pressure. Ice skates have sharp edges, and thus a small area in contact with the ice. This means that your weight creates a very large pressure on the ice, far more than if you were standing in ordinary shoes. Ice has an unusual property: it can melt under pressure, even if it's below 0C. When you're ice skating, you're actually skating on a layer of water that you've just melted, which quickly re-freezes when you move on (you're not skating on ice at all!) This is called regelation, and means that there's very little friction as you skate along. Even a slender supermodel can damage floors by walking on then in high-heeled shoes. This is because the area of the heel is small, so you can easily create enough pressure to cause a dent in the floor. The pressure can be greater than if an elephant was standing there, even though the force is much less. So you should be able to figure out why elephants and camels have large feet

As you go deeper into a liquid, the pressure increases. You can feel this on your ears as you swim down to the bottom of a swimming pool. We need to remember this when designing the walls of pools and dams: the wall must be thicker at the bottom, to withstand the increased pressure down there.

We can use pressure in liquids to move a piston and do useful work. This is how the hydraulic systems in diggers, car brakes and fairground rides work: a pump creates pressure in an incompressible liquid, which acts on a piston. By adjusting the area of the piston, we can adjust the force we get.

The pressure of the atmosphere on you right now is around 100,000 Pa. OK, that's just a number, so think of it this way: - you probably have a skin area of around 2 square metres, - Pressure = force area, so force = pressure x area thus the force on you = 100,000 x 2 = 200,000 Newtons. That's about the same force as having over a dozen cars piled on top of you! Otto von Guericke, (1602-1686), a German physicist, born in Magdeburg, performed a famous experiment: the "Magdeburg Hemispheres". These were two halves of a large, hollow metal ball. When all the air was sucked out of the ball, two teams of eight horses couldn't pull them apart, because the pressure of the Earth's atmosphere created a very large force on the ball. You may have seen a smaller version of this experiment in school.

Summary
Pressure is the force on an object that is spread over a surface area. The equation for pressure is P = F/A. Pressure can be measured for a solid is pushing on a solid, but the case of a solid pushing on a liquid or gas requires that the fluid be confined in a container. The force can also be created by the weight of an object.