THE NOUN

PROBLEMATIC

AREAS:

NUMBER: -Countable vs. Uncountable nouns -plural forms -nouns having only sg./pl. forms CASE: expression of possession GENDER: natural vs. grammatical gender PC in the use of gender

COUNTABLE vs. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS COUNTABLE NOUNS nouns referring to people or things that can be counted as separate, individual items. a manager, a job, an idea, a few ideas, two computers UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS things that cannot be divided or counted. accommodation*, advertising, advice, cash, documentation, employment, equipment, evidence, feedback, furniture, guidance, hardware, health, help, information, literature, luggage, machinery, marketing, money, paperwork, permission, progress, publicity, research, software, traffic, training, transport, travel, weather, work (Source: Cambridge Business Corpus)

UNCOUNTABLE

COUNTABLE

Do not have plural forms

Can be singular or plural

Can you arrange (some) accommodation for ten visitors?

This new job is a great opportunity for me. I have lots of opportunities to travel.

Cannot be used with indefinite articles a/an

Can be used with indefinite articles a/an

We made (some) progress in our research.

We had a meeting and we solved this problem.

Can be used without a determiner

Singular countable nouns need a determiner (e.g. a/an, my, this, one)

Research is expensive.

We paid 6,000 for this report.

Always take a singular verb

Can take a singular or a plural verb

This software is out of date and needs updating.

My boss has a PhD. My colleagues are all graduates.

 Nouns

that are

(a.) UNCOUNTABLE when they refer to SUBSTANCE / IDEA (b.) COUNTABLE when they refer to

1. CONTAINERS (for things) 2. TYPES/BRANDS 3. PARTICULAR EXAMPLES / CONCRETE THINGS 4. A PARTICULAR SITUATION

I prefer tea to coffee. Theres cheese in the fridge. She has blonde hair. The statue was made of stone.

1. Three teas and two coffees, please. (=cups of~) (colloquial English) 2. Our shop offers you dozens of cheeses to choose from. (=kinds of~) 3. Theres a hair in my soup! 4. He had a stone in hand.
(b.) COUNTABLE

(a.) UNCOUNTABLE

BUSINESS (= company)

Small businesses are our future. Going to Asia was a great experience.

BUSINESS (=activity)

EXPERIENCE (= an event)

We do business all over the world.

PAPER (= newspaper; 2. (plural only) documents)

EXPERIENCE (= practical knowledge)

Do you get the local paper? PAPER (=material) I have to file the papers of this I didnt have any paper deal. so I couldnt take notes.

I have limited experience in sales.

ROOM (= a hall)

ROOM (=space)

Were short of meeting rooms.

Our office is full. Theres no room to expand.

UNCOUNTABLE

COUNTABLE

COMPETITION (=contest)

COUNTABLE

UNCOUNTABLE

We run competitions as part of promotion.

COMPETITION (=rivalry for supremacy)

PROPERTY (= a building, a piece of land; 2. plural only) features that a substance has)

Is there much competition in the field of IT?

They sold a property to avoid going bankrupt. The physical properties of this product are outstanding.

PROPERTY (=things that somebody owns)

WORK (= books, painting/s, music produced by an artist; (plural only) activities involved in building/repairing roads and bridges)

The hotel is not responsible for any loss or damage to guests property. He is a first-year student but he is looking for parttime work.

WORK (= job, activity)

Our company intends to buy some of this artists works. This year they are investing in road works all over the country.

 Expressions

used with UNCOUNTABLE nouns.

MEASURES AND CONTAINERS:

A LITER OF OIL 15 TONNES OF CEMENT A BOTTLE OF WATER TWO TINS OF PAINT A PIECE OF / AN ITEM OF / A BIT OF ADVICE (EQUIPMENT, EVIDENCE, FURNITURE, LUGGAGE, MACHINERY, NEWS, PAPER, SOFTWARE) SOME / A BIT OF ADVERTISING (CASH, FEEDBACK, FUN, LUCK, MONEY, PROGRESS, TRAFFIC, TRAVEL)
DO NOT USE IT IN FORMAL

A BIT OF IS COLLOQUIAL, WRITING!

General rule: noun (singular) + -s road/-s, area/-s, machine/-s Variations: Noun ending in PLURAL FORM + ies +s + es EXAMPLES family families, party parties tray - trays, storey storeys watch watches, boss bosses, fox - foxes, quiz quizzes potato potatoes, hero heroes, volcano/-es, mosquito/-es, echo/-es, negro/-es, veto/-es piano/-s, casino/-s, photo/-s, kilo/-s, adagio/-s radio radios, video videos

CONSONANT + -Y VOWEL + -Y -CH*, -S, -SH, -X, -Z

CONSONANT + -O

+es

+s VOWEL + -O +s

ending in F / -FE ending in F / -FF

usually + -VES +s

leaf leaves, loaf loaves, thief thieves, shelf - shelves, half halves, elf - elves chief - chiefs, belief - beliefs, cliff cliffs child children, ox - oxen man men, woman women, tooth teeth, goose geese, foot feet, *mouse mice; ***person - people sheep sheep, craft craft, series series, means - means LATIN: stimulus stimuli, alumnusalumni, corpus-corpora; alumnaalumnae; datum data, symposium symposia, medium media, referendum/-s referenda GREEK: crisis-crises, analysisanalyses, basis-bases, ellipsis/-es; phenomenon-phenomena, criterioncriteria

Other irregulars

+ (R)EN change of vowel no change in plural

Foreign nouns

varies according to the origin of word

 In

formal written English

MD MDs, MP MPs, VIP VIPs, 1970s

Abbreviation / decade + -s

Plurals

formed with apostrophe () are common but may be considered correct in INFORMAL writing!

 They

appear frequently in the plural form. These occur in a number of categories:

CLOTHING: clothes, jeans, trousers, pyjamas, overalls TOOLS/EQUIPMENT: scissors, glasses, scales, binoculars GAMES: dominoes, darts, cards, billiards SUBJECTS/ACTIVITIES: Physics, Maths, Politics, Economics, aerobics, athletics OTHER: goods, remains, thanks, congratulations, news, stairs, headquarters, outskirts, valuables, savings, surroundings, earnings, customs

 colour/-s compass/-es custom/-es

vs. vs.

only) damage/-es minute/-es only) premise/-es return/-es term/-es

colours (plural only) compasses (pl. only) vs. customs (pl. damages (pl. only) vs. minutes (pl. premises (pl. only) returns (pl. only) terms (pl. only)

vs.

vs. vs. vs.

 denote

a group

army, audience, board, committee, crew, family, jury, majority, party, staff, team *police, people When they refer to the whole group (as a unit) + verb in the SINGULAR When they refer to the members of the group (as individuals) + verb in the PLURAL * always + verb in the PLURAL

AGREEMENT

created by combining two or more words. can be written as

a single word: dressmaker, Thanksgiving, turnover two separate words: business magazine, tea cup, rocking chair two words joined by a hyphen: waste-bin, passer-by

Compounds can be formed from

nouns (business person) noun + verb (windsurfing) verb + noun (cookbook, swimsuit) adjective + noun (highway, real estate) multi-word verbs (breakdown, stand-up, *downfall) time expressions (a three-hour delay, a ten-minute drive)

 PLURAL

FORMS

The noun or the main noun gets the plural form

washing machine washing machines printer cartridge printer cartridges toothbrush - toothbrushes

The compound nouns ending in FUL and LOAD + -s (at the end)

handful handfuls workload workloads

If the compound does not contain a noun the last word gets the plural form

grown-up grown-ups, take-off take-offs, drive-in - driveins

 1.

COMPOUND SUBJECT (X and Y) + verb in the PLURAL

Writing and reading are necessary for success in college.

***

the elements of the subject function as a single unit + verb in the SINGULAR

His lawyer and business partner prepares the tax forms. ***Ice cream and cake is his favourite dessert.

 2.

A PLURAL SUBJECT DESCRIBING A SINGLE ENTITY (time, measurement, money) + verb in the SINGULAR

Twenty-four hours is a long time in politics. Five dollars is a modest fee. Five kilos of beans is about eleven pounds.

 3.

NEITHER + noun NOR + noun EITHER + noun OR + noun NOR OR the number of the noun which is closer to the verb imposes the number of the verb (PROXIMITY RULE)

Neither the students nor the teacher is correct. Either the idea or the details are wrong. Snowstorms or rain causes accidents.

4. Titles of books, movies, articles + verb in the SINGULAR

Monetary Theories is a useful book.

5. Nouns with no plural forms

CLOTHES: + verb in the PLURAL (Scissors are used to cut the jeans.) SUBJECTS:

+ verb in the SINGULAR (if we refer to the science) Statistics seems to be very difficult for students. + verb in the PLURAL (if we refer to any other aspect but the science) Statistics show a significant increase in consumer confidence over the last months.

 6.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

The United Nations has agreed to deploy a peacekeeping force. The United Nations are in disagreement on this issue. The United Nations is in disagreement on this issue.

 In

British English, if we refer to the individuals forming the group, the agreement with the verb is made in the plural. In the same context in American English a singular verb is preferred. It is common use to use a plural verb after nouns such as THE MAJORITY, A NUMBER, A COUPLE when these are followed by OF + a plural noun:

The majority of the people were pleased to see the government fall.

THE NOUN Gender Case

GRAMMATICAL vs. NATURAL GENDER

GRAMMATICAL GENDER

The gender that a word has from a linguistic point of view masculine, feminine, neuter The biological and social notion of being male or female. masculine, feminine

NATURAL GENDER

In Modern English grammatical gender is not important. Some grammarians assert that English does not have grammatical gender.

Nouns that are automatically replaced by masculine or feminine pronouns or by IT.

1.

CONTRASTING NOUNS DESCRIBING PEOPLE

boy / girl brother / sister father / mother gentleman / lady king / queen monk / nun Mr / Mrs Miss Ms nephew / niece sir / madam uncle / aunt man / woman

Replaceable by HE / SHE

 2.

CONTRASTING NOUNS DESCRIBING ANIMALS

Replaceable by IT

bull - ox / cow (cattle) rooster cock / hen (chicken, poultry) gander / goose ram / ewe (sheep) stallion / mare (horse)

 3.

ESS ENDINGS AND OTHER FORMS INDICATING GENDER

MASCULINE FORM + -ESS = FEMININE FORM

*actor / actress (talent vs. looks) god / goddess heir / heiress host / hostess prince / princess *steward / stewardess (PC term: flight attendant) waiter / waitress

Some words have gone out of use or considered pejorative (authoress, poetess, manageress).

 In

a few cases, -ESS endings are used for female animals

leopard / leopardess lion / lioness tiger / tigress

HE

/ SHE- (stressed) is used as prefix

he-goat / she-goat wolf / she-wolf

 OTHER

ENDINGS

(bride)groom / bride hero / heroine lad / lass landlord / landlady male / female usher / usherette widower / widow

 4.

IDENTIFYING MASCULINE AND FEMININE BY MAN, WOMAN

policeman / policewoman (PC term: police officer) salesman / saleswoman (PC term: sales representative, sales rep) postman / postwoman chairman / chairwoman (PC term: chair, chairperson) spokesman / spokeswoman (PC term: spokesperson)

is assumed that words like model, nurse traditionally refer to a woman and words such as judge and wrestler refer to a man. If we want to refer to a person of the opposite sex, male / female are used in front of the noun.
It

model / male model nurse / male nurse judge / female judge wrestler / female wrestler

 For

most English nouns only the use of a replacing pronoun clarifies the gender.
My accountant says he is moving his office. His doctor says she is pleased with his progress.

COMMON / DUAL NOUNS adult, artist, cook, cousin, enemy, foreigner, guest, journalist, lawyer, neighbour, orphan, owner, parent, passenger, person, relative, speaker, spouse, strange, student, etc.

HE or SHE / THEY

Traditionally, English used HE when the gender of the person was not known

If a student is ill, he must send his medical certificate to the College office.

PC!!!! Nowadays the usage above is considered sexist, therefore to be avoided. HE OR SHE is preferred.

If a student is ill, he or she must send a medical certificate to the College office.

Gradually, THEY is becoming popular in such contexts (although some grammarians still consider it as an INFORMAL construction)

If a student is ill, they must send a medical certificate to the College office. If anyone wants my ticket, they can have it.

 ANIMALS,

CARS, SHIPS

Sometimes people refer to animals (usually pets) as HE/SHE, especially when they are thought of as having personality, intelligence or feelings

Go and find the cat and put him out.

Some people use SHE for motorbikes and cars; sailors use SHE for boats and ships (an affective use)

Hows the new car? Shes running beautifully. The ship has struck a rock. Shes sinking!

Nouns do not have a grammatical gender in English. Some nouns have a natural gender, there are different terms referring to males and females (woman / man, mother / father) Most nouns for jobs do not imply a gender. To specify gender, one has to use the term man/woman (a woman doctor) Other nouns for jobs and roles do refer to males or females, often by their suffix (businessman, manageress) Some time ago it used to be common to use the man suffix to refer to people of both sexes.

Thats the view of Sheila Davidson, chairman of the Institute of Public Relations.

A lot of people avoid such situations now, especially if referring to a woman, and prefer a form with no implicit gender (chair) or to match the suffix to the person (chairwoman).

Thats the view of Sheila Davidson, chair(woman) of the Institute of Public Relations

 refers

to the relation in which one noun / pronoun stands to some other word in the sentence Some grammarians identify two cases in English: possessive/ genitive and common Others support the idea of four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive and dative.

 The

NOMINATIVE

has the syntactic function of subject, subjective complement or apposition

Salespeople have a flexible work schedule. (who?) She is my superior. Ada, his secretary, has circulated the agenda for the next meeting. can function as a direct object, a prepositional object, etc. He saw his friend in the street. (whom?) At the meeting, he disagreed with his colleagues.

The ACCUSATIVE

 THE

DATIVE

has the function of indirect object is marked by the prepositions TO and FOR or by word-order THE PREPOSITIONAL DATIVE (to whom? For whom? Of whom?)

When the Accusative form precedes the Dative form Give the money to John. After verbs such as ANNOUNCE, BELONG, COMMUNICATE, DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, INTRODUCE, LISTEN, REPLY, SUGGEST,SPEAK Explain to Mary what it means.

 THE

DATIVE

THE DATIVE WITHOUT PREPOSITION

used when the Dative precedes the Accusative Show our guests the production line.

THE

GENITIVE / POSSESSIVE

s Genitive of Genitive POSSESSOR and POSSESSED OBJECT

(APOSTROPHE) S GENITIVE

FORM

Singular noun + s The managers decision Singular noun ending in s + s The actresss speech Irregular plural noun (plural forms not ending in -s) + s Childrens games (most) names ending in s + s ( is also accepted, esp. in literature) (N.B. no matter how it is written, the genitive is pronounced as /iz/) Charless address (Charles address) * Greek names ending in s + (Archimedes principle) Plural noun/ name + Managers meeting the Joneses house

 USE

When the possessor refers to people (animals, pets), groups, places, times

Have you seen Johns new car? Have you met the bosss new assistant? Have you seen the article in todays Observer?

Sometimes s can be added to a noun phrase which does not end with a noun

He is manager-on-the-lefts assistant. (He is the assistant of the manager on the left.)

To refer to the origin of something (where it comes from, who made it)

Oil is Saudi Arabias biggest export. The theory of human needs is Maslows most famous work.

 To

refer to a quantity or measure (duration, distance, value + worth)

There will be an hours delay. Could you give me a pounds worth of candies?

In

certain fixed expressions:

at deaths door for Gods/goodness/Petes/Christs/heavens sake

The possessed object can be omitted when reference is made TO SOMEONES HOME, SOME SHOPS, SERVICES, MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS (the grocers, the florists, the chemists, the doctors, the hairdressers, Macys, Christies)

We are going to the Lindas for the weekend. (Lindas home)

The possessed object can be omitted in REPLIES when it is clear from the context:

Whose briefcase is this? Richards.

 DOUBLE

pronoun)

POSSESSIVE (OF and s/possessive

Is used when a noun is seen both as specific and as one of several (use indefinite article with the noun!)

I have heard the story from a friend of my brothers. He is a colleague of ours.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE THE ZERO ARTICLE

in front of common nouns (or adjective + common noun) that affect (determine) the meaning of the noun. Proper nouns do not generally require identification but there are situations in which they are used with determiners. There are two classes of determiners:
Words

Words which help us to CLASSIFY or IDENTIFY; Words which enable us to indicate QUANTITY.

Words which help us to CLASSIFY or IDENTIFY:

INDEFINITE ARTICLE I bought a new briefcase yesterday. DEFINITE ARTICLE The briefcase that Im holding is new. DEMONSTRATIVES I bought this/that briefcase yesterday. POSSESSIVES Do you like my new briefcase?

Words which enable us to indicate QUANTITY

NUMBERS I bought two new briefcases yesterday. QUANTIFIERS I didnt buy many briefcases in the past years.

 A/AN

is used only in front of

A SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUN:

a letter, an invoice

THE

is used in front of:

A SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUN:

the letter the letters the water, the information, the equipment

A PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUN:

AN UNCOUNTABLE NOUN:

 ZERO

ARTICLE: we often use no article in front of

A PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUN:

letters, invoices water, information, equipment

AN UNCOUNTABLE NOUN:

A or AN? and //, /n/ or /ei/?

A is used before consonant sounds (not just consonant letters!!!). N.B. /j/ (pronounced like y in 'you) is a semi-consonant. AN is used before vowel sounds. Provide the correct indefinite article:

fire N (the letter) house umbrella year eye uniform honour union hotel B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) I.Q.

 1.

When something is mentioned for the first time:

Peter and Jane shared an office on the ground floor.

2.

To refer to an example of a certain class:

John is a Catholic. The meeting was scheduled on a Wednesday.

Religions

Names of days

Names of jobs

*** When we give someones TITLE or UNIQUE POSITION, THE or ZERO ARTICLE is used:

Mary is training to be a certified accountant. She was a company director when she retired.

*** after THE POST/POSITION/ROLE OF + job title, ZERO ARTICLE is used:

He has been appointed head of the department / the head of the department. He was promoted on the post/position/ role of Marketing Manager. English has become an international language. That is a very good (type of/kind of) coffee.

A kind of, or example of something (+ adjective)

*** if you refer to something as UNIQUE, THE or ZERO ARTICLE is used.

English has become the international language of business.

3. after WHAT and SUCH:

What a shame! Hes such an efficient professional! The trains to Brussels depart three times an hour. half an hour a quarter of an hour 50 pence a litre

4. With some units of time or measurement, to mean EACH:

5. Quantity: only one 6. + Proper nouns:

The burglar took a diamond necklace and two valuable paintings. + a famous name, to mean someone or something that has the same qualities as that person or thing:
John is a good architect, but he will never be a Gustave Eiffel. an early Rembrandt

+ the name of a famous artist, to refer to one of his/her creations:

+ the name of a person, to refer to an unknown person, the expression meaning a certain

There is a (certain) Dr. Kenneth Perch on the phone. Do you want to talk to him?

 //

is used before consonant sounds /i/ is used before vowel sounds /i:/ is used when we want to draw attention to the noun that follows (the one and only, the main one)

Do you mean the Benjamin Franklin, the inventor?

1. to refer to something that has already been mentioned and is known to both the speaker and the listener(s):

(Peter and Jane shared an office on the ground floor.) The office was small and comfortable, with two facing desks.

2. to refer to something that is known to both speaker and listener(s), although it has not been mentioned before:

Where is the meeting room? (we assume it is only one meeting room in that building) Its on the first floor.

3. in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object:

The man who wrote this petition is famous. Which car did you buy? The red one. My desk is the one with a silver notebook on it.

4. to refer to objects that we regard as UNIQUE:

The Earth, the sun, the moon, the sky, the weather, etc. Institutions: The World Bank, The European Central Bank, The IMF, the United Nations Public bodies: the Government, the Police, the Army Publications: The New York Review of Books, The Economist, The Times The salt, the sugar, the pepper (Pass me the salt, please!) Parts of the whole:

The human being: the brain, the head, the lungs The room: the ceiling, the door, the floor The back, the front, the centre, the inside, the outside, the top, the bottom

 5.

before superlatives and ordinal numerals:

the highest building, the first page, the last chapter

6.

+ adjective/ + plural noun, to refer to the group as a whole

the Europeans, the liberals, the Japanese, the old, the rich

7.

+ singular noun, to make a general statement

Schools should concentrate more on the student and less on exams.

THE SPECIFYING THE THE + noun + OF

8.

The freedom of the individual is worth fighting for.

THE

+ clause/ phrase (to specify a person or thing)

The Smith you are looking for no longer lives here. The letters on the shelf are for you.

9. THE in time expressions

In time sequences: the beginning, the middle, the end, the first, the last, the next, the following day, the present, the past, the future + parts of the day: in the morning/afternoon, evening + seasons (THE is optional): (the) spring / summer / autumn / winter + date (Ordinal numbers usually require THE when they are spoken, but not when they are written)

The next meeting will be on May 24th. (spoken as May the 24th)

+ ages: The Middle Ages, The Renaissance In fixed time expressions, e.g., at the moment, for the time being, in the end

In fixed expressions:

THE + comparative, THE + comparative

The sooner, the better.

do the shopping make the beds play the piano/violin/cello/flute

+ PROPER NOUNS
+ family names (to refer to the family as a whole): the Smiths, the Lincolns + somebodys name (to refer to a specific person or to make the distinction between two people having the same name):

Im afraid this is not the Tom Smith I am looking for. The Chicago of the 1920s was a terrifying place.

+ proper name (to refer to a specific situation)

THE with PLACE NAMES:

Geographical areas: the Arctic, the Middle East, the North Pole, the Balkans Oceans, seas, rivers: the Pacific (Ocean), the Caspian (Sea), the Black Sea, the Nile (or the River Nile), the Mississippi (or the Mississippi River), the Suez Canal Mountain ranges: the Alps, the Carpathians, the Himalayas Islands (only in the structure THE ISLE/ISLAND OF): the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man Groups of islands: the Azores, the Bahamas

Deserts: the Gobi (Desert), the Kalahari (Desert), the Sahara (Desert) Countries (only unions and associations): the UK (the United Kingdom), the USA (the United States of America)

*** (a few countries): the Netherlands, the Philippines, (the) Sudan, (the) Yemen

States/ counties: the Vatican *** A few cities: the Hague, the City (of London) *** A few streets: the High Street, the Strand, the Drive *** A few buildings (in compounds): the British Museum, the Library of Congress Universities (in the structure THE UNIVERSITY OF): the University of Cambridge

 The

absence of an article THE ZERO ARTICLE is used with:

PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS:

Computers are useful machines. Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen. Mr Thomson is planning to visit China in September.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS:

most PROPER NOUNS:

1. with uncountable or plural nouns to talk about a type of thing rather than specific things the reader or listener already knows about (plurals: people, places, food, occupations, nationalities, animals, insects, plants, products; uncountable nouns: food, drink, substances, collections, colours, sports, games, abstract nouns, politics, philosophy, languages)

We drank tea and ate sandwiches. We use computers at work. He understands Chinese well. Come round after lunch. Have you had breakfast? Yes, Thursday will be convenient. Ill see you on Tuesday. The AGM was on the Thursday of that week. We went skiing at the weekend. We go away at Christmas. Easter is early this year. We had a wonderful Christmas. I started work here the Easter before the last.

2. with the name of a language

3. with the name of a meal

4. with days of the week

5. with special times (holidays)

6. with years, seasons and months

He was born in 1882. We play golf in summer / in the summer. Winter always depresses me. I start the course in September. That was the year I was born. It was the winter of 1995 when things started to go wrong for the company.

7. with parts of the day and night (especially after at, by, on, before)

He cant sleep at night. I prefer to travel by day. She must get home before midnight. I hope to get there before dark. Its warmer during the day. Someone got up in/during the night. We are meeting in the morning. They arrived at the hotel in the evening. I couldnt see in the dark. The meeting is on June 29th.

8. with dates in writing

9. with words referring to institutions such as school, college, university, church, prison, hospital

School is over at half past three. (school activities) Vicky is at college. (as a student) David is in hospital (as a patient) Melanie is going to church (to a religious service) The man is in prison (as a prisoner) The school is a mile from here. (the school building) The meeting was at the college. Melanie waited in the hospital for news. We wanted to look round the church but it was locked. The young woman is in the prison. She has gone to the prison to visit a relative. the cinema, the factory, the house, the library, the office, the pub, the shop, the station at home, go home, come home, leave home BUT in the house, to the house, in the home at sea (sailing), go to sea (as a sailor) BUT on the sea, by the sea, at/to the seaside, on/to the coast In town, go into town, leave town BUT the town centre, the city, the village At work, go to work, leave work BUT the office, the factory Go to bed, in bed BUT sit on the bed, make the bed Arm in arm, come to light, face to face, from top to bottom, hand in hand, keep in mind, make friends, make fun of Day and night, father and son, light and dark, pen and ink, sun and moon

When we refer to that specific building, THE is used:

With other nouns referring to buildings, THE is used:

10. in fixed expressions

11. with means of transport

by air/ bicycle / bike / boat / bus/ car/ coach/ land / plane / sea / ship / tram / tube; on foot Elizabeth was my colleagues name. These tools are made by Jackson and Son. J. Smith is the pseudonym of a famous author.

12. with names of people (first name/surname/full name/ initials)

13. with titles (Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss, Dr)

Mr, Mrs, Ms cannot normally be used on their own as a form of address. They are followed by a surname. Ms is hardly heard in speech, but it is common in written language to apply to both married and unmarried women. Dr (doctor), abbreviated, is followed by a surname, but it can also be used on its own as a form of address (written in full)

Dr Brown/ Nice to see you, Doctor!

Captain, Colonel, Major, Professor are titles that can be used both on their own or with surnames Madam and Sir are used in BrE as a form of address (Can I help you, Madam/Sir?) or in formal letters, as salutations (Dear Sir, Dear Madam) when we do not know the name of the people we are writing to. Given titles in BrE: Sir + first name (+ surname), Lord + Surname

Sir John Falstaff / Sir John, Queen Elizabeth, Lord Spencer

14. with place names

Continents: Africa, Asia, Europe Geographical areas: Central Asia, Lower Egypt, Upper Austria Lakes: Lake Constance, Lake Geneva Mountains (peaks): Mont Blanc, Everest, Ceahlau Islands: Christmas Island, Corfu Island Most countries States, counties: Bavaria, Ohio, Surrey Most cities Parks: Central Park, Hyde Park Buildings: Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey Most streets: Madison Avenue, Oxford Street Most bridges: Tower Bridge Most shops and restaurants: Marks and Spencers, Bloomingdales

DEMONSTRATIVES AND QUANTIFIERS PERSONAL PRONOUNS REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS

 THIS

/ THAT (singular) and THESE / THOSE (plural) can be used as adjectives before nouns to refer to somebody or something known to both speaker and listener:

Im not sure which photocopier to order. Well, I think this photocopier looks reliable.

They are used to distinguish between close and distant things (in both space and time) CLOSE DISTANT Ive seen that presentation before. Can you see those people over there? Do you remember that AGM? There were no smartphones in those days. Do you recognize this presentation? These negotiators are extremely proficient.

SPACE

TIME

What are you doing this weekend? Theres so much crime these days.

N.B. In very INFORMAL SPEECH we can use THIS or THESE instead of

A/AN or SOME, often to introduce a topic or start telling a story: This woman came up to me in the bank and asked if she could borrow

They can be used as pronouns to refer to a noun, a thing or an idea:

THIS can be used to talk about a situation we are experiencing:

This is a really wonderful idea. Alistair says hes giving up his job to travel the world. I think thats stupid.

They are used as a more formal alternative to THE ONE(S):

This is the worst recession we have seen for more than ten years.

Some residents turned out to welcome the official to their neighbourhood. Those who had bothered were invited to a cocktail party afterwards. Ive never seen a winter this cold before. So you think youre that clever, do you?

In certain expressions, THIS or THAT is used instead of SO to intensify an adjective:

 are

determiners which describe the quantity of something.

+ PL. NOUN Ive got no coins. none of the details neither of the briefs either of the two semesters any (of the) documents both (of the) awards (a) few (of the) projects half (of) the tasks + UNCOUNT NOUN Ive got no money. none of the information ------------any (of the) information -----(a) little (of the) water half (of) the work ------------neither brief either semester any document ----------half (of) the task

QUANTIFIER +SG. NOUN no none of the neither either any both few/little half

QUANTIFIER some several a lot of many/much most each every (one of) all

+ SG. NOUN --------a lot of the conference ----most of the holiday each applicant every page all (of) the problem

+ PL. NOUN some (of the) projects several (of the) issues a lot of (the) ideas many (of the) managers most (of the) projects each of the applicants every one of the pages

+ UNCOUNT NOUN some (of the) money ----a lot of (the) time much (of the) furniture most (of the) fruit ---------

all (of) the problems all (of) the trouble

Often quantifiers (except NONE and A LOT) are used directly before a noun:

Its impossible to nominate both candidates for the Vicepresidency.

With most quantifiers, using of THE before a plural or an uncountable noun changes the meaning of the noun from general to specific:
Id like some information. (general, we do not specify which information) Id like some of the information. (specific information)

With BOTH, OF can be omitted before THE:

Both (of) the candidates believed they had won.

Note the difference between EACH and EVERY! Both quantifiers describe more than one; we can use EACH to refer to two things, but not EVERY.
They had many exams each semester. They must come to classes every day.

SOME and ANY SOME is usually used in affirmative sentences, ANY in negative or interrogative sentences:

Youve got some interesting ideas but do you have any money to back them?

ANY used in affirmative sentences means it does not matter which:

It is possible to use SOME in questions where the speaker has some expectation that the answer will be positive:

You cant negotiate with them. Any business person will tell you that.

Is some of the information useful? (I expect that part of it is.) Is any of the information useful? (I have no idea if it is useful or not.)

Quantifiers (except NO and EVERY) can be used without a noun as subject of the clause:

The vote was split: half were in favour of the motion, half were against it.

When used as subjects, some quantifiers take a singular verb, and some take a plural verb. Others are used with a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun they substitute or modify. The quantifiers NEITHER and NONE take a singular verb with plural nouns, though a plural verb is now accepted in speech and informal writing:

None of the students is willing to accept the increase in coursework. None of the students are willing to accept the increase in coursework. (spoken or informal written English)

are words which are substituted for nouns in order to avoid repetition.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS S I you he she it we they me you him her it us them my your his her its our their mine yours his hers --ours theirs

myself yourself/yourselves himself herself itself ourselves themselves

After we mention a person or an object once, or if the context makes it clear who or what we are referring to, we usually use pronouns to refer to them:

Paul Allen plans to set up a museum. He was a founder of Microsoft.

Object pronouns are used instead of a noun as a direct or indirect object:

D.O.: I met the CEO yesterday. I really appreciate him, dont you? I.O.: Those books belong to Jeremy. Can you give them to him, please?

Possessive adjectives are used before a noun to express belonging:

ADJ.: Did the neighbours leave that here? It looks like their deckchair. PRON.: No, its not their deckchair. Its ours! Dont you recognize it?

Possessive pronouns are used instead of a possessive adjective + noun:

 English

does not usually omit pronouns, especially subject pronouns:

We can expect new regulations; they are often voted in the AGM.

Object

pronouns are not used in infinitive phrases or relative clauses if the object has already appeared in the same sentence:

Those plastic cards look safe enough to use (them). Thats the folder I told you about (it).

There are some cases where either an object pronoun or a subject pronoun can be used. After AS and THAN in comparative patterns, we use the subject pronoun only in very formal English; the object pronoun is more common:
FML.: The line manager didnt know the procedure any better than I. INFML: The line manager didnt actually know the procedure any better than me.

After AS and THAN we can use a subject pronoun with an auxiliary or modal verb:

The line manager didnt speak English as well as I do/did/can. Whos there? Its us.

The object pronoun is usually used in short responses:

After IT IS the subject pronoun is used in formal language and the object pronoun in informal:
FML.: It is they who asked for the project to be voted. INFML.: It is them who asked for the project to be voted.

When we have a noun and a pronoun, or two pronouns together, we tend to put the speaker first (out of politeness):

You and I are both invited to that presentation.

If we have a noun and a pronoun where the pronoun does not refer to the speaker, we usually put the pronoun first:

Dont you think we should let him and his lawyer decide about going to court?

We should use object pronouns after a preposition, although in informal English it is possible to use the subject pronoun:

They are sending the new consignment over for Tom and me to check. INFML.: They are sending the new consignment over for Tom and I to check.

 In

some exclamations we modify object pronouns, usually with an adjective:

Look what Ive done! Silly me! Lucky old him/her!

We

can use a noun after a pronoun to clarify who or what we are referring to:
I want you people to see the Department head immediately. Then she, Ms Stein, got up and asked everyone to leave at once.

ONE or ONES are used to avoid repeating countable nouns:

Do you prefer the blue folders or the black ones?

ONE/ONES can be used after THE and adjectives but not immediately after A/AN:
Id like a folder. Can you pass me one from the top shelf? There are interesting exhibits here. This is an amazing one.

ONE/ONES is not used when we refer to an item that has previously been described:
I need a box. A large one. (= any box) Where is my box? Oh, here it is. (my box a definite one)

Reflexive pronouns are formed with SELF/SELVES and are used when the subject and the object are the same person or thing:

Quick! The worker has burnt himself!

After prepositions an object pronoun is used to refer to the subject when it is clear who or what it refers to; otherwise a reflexive pronoun is used:
Jim emerged from the underground station and looked around him. (him = Jim) Jane was upset. Her supervisor was really annoyed with her. (her = Jane) Jane was upset. Her supervisor was really annoyed with herself. (herself = supervisor)

Reflexive pronouns are used to refer to the subject after verbs with dependent prepositions:

Politicians have to believe in themselves if they expect the people to believe in them.

Either the object pronoun or the reflexive one can be used to refer to the subject after AS (FOR), LIKE, BUT (FOR) and EXCEPT (FOR):

IDIOMATIC USES Some verbs take the reflexive in English idiomatically: e.g. enjoy oneself, help oneself, behave oneself, etc.

Howard made sure that everyone except him/himself had the agenda of the meeting.

Help yourself with the food, wont you?

The phrase by oneself (one = myself/yourself/himself/herself/ourselves/yourselves, themselves) means alone or without help:

Weve decided to make the presentation by ourselves.

EMPHATIC USE OF REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS Reflexive pronouns can be used to emphasize the subject or object of a sentence. The pronoun can come after the subject, after the auxiliary (if there is one) or verb, after the object or at the end of the sentence.
I myself have used this technique on a number of occasions. I have myself used this technique on a number of occasions. I have used this technique myself on a number of occasions. I have used this technique on a number of occasions myself.

The reflexive pronoun used at the beginning or the end of a sentence and separated by a comma means as far as Im concerned.
Myself, I dont like the communicative approach in language learning. I dont like the communicative approach in language learning, myself.

ALWAYS SINGULAR ALWAYS PLURAL

each, either, much both, several, a few, many

Much of the research has already been completed. Some visitors to the new plant are enthusiastic but many have expressed their disappointment. Some of the information is considered top secret. Some of us are hiring a motor home to go on holiday. We cant get many books to the schools in the outback. Dont worry! Any (books) are better than none.

SINGULAR OR PLURAL any, half, some, a lot, all

Steve and Elaine blame only themselves for the failure of the project. (they both blamed the two of them and nobody else)
Vs.

Steve and Elaine blame each other for the failure of the product. (Steve blamed Elaine and Elaine blamed Steve)

EACH

OTHER usually refers to two subjects, ONE ANOTHER to more than two, though we tend to use the two forms interchangeably in informal English:

He spoke fast and his words tripped over each other/one another.

When we wish to express general feelings and opinions (i.e. not necessarily those of the speaker), we can use YOU, WE or THEY:

You can wear whatever you like to go to work these days.

If we wish to include ourselves, it is better to use WE:

We can wear whatever we like to go to work these days.

If we wish to exclude ourselves, it is better to use THEY:

They behave really badly at football matches nowadays. Did you know theyve introduced a new safety procedure? (= the management)

THEY is also used to refer to people in authority:

 ONE is

used in formal language to mean people generally including ourselves:

One can empathize with the demands of the strikers.

It

is used as a subject or object pronoun, and as a reflexive pronoun (oneself):

One tends to learn to fend for oneself if one lives alone.

PERSON someone/somebody anyone/anybody

OBJECT something anything

PLACE somewhere anywhere

MANNER somehow anyhow (informal equivalent of anyway)

everyone/everybody no one/nobody

everything nothing

everywhere nowhere

 They

do not refer to a specific person, place, object, etc. SOME compounds are used when we are thinking of a particular unspecified person, place or thing ANY compounds are used when we are thinking of people, places or things in general:

What would you like for your birthday? oh, anything. (no particular present) Well, theres something I would like (a particular present)

ANY + one/thing/where is not negative and it means it doesnt matter who/what/where:

Anyone would understand that the promotional campaign is a flop.

If we use these pronouns and adverbs as subjects, they take a singular verb:

Everything is going smoothly and NASA expects to launch the shuttle as scheduled.

We can use these pronouns with modifiers, e.g. adjectives or ELSE:

The manager decided to do something active about the problems of the company. Something else you become aware of in this company is its organic structure.

USED FOR PRONOUNS who whom which which that whose no pronoun ADVERBS where when why NOMINAL PRONOUN what objects, ideas (means the thing that) places times reasons people, animals people objects, animals ideas people, objects, animals relationships, possessions people, things, animals

USED AS SUBJECT X X OBJECT

WHOM is formal and we rarely use it in speech. It is mainly used after prepositions:

WHICH is used (not WHO) to refer to inanimate objects:

Im referring to the person with whom you were seen. When he left the office, he carried a heavy bag, which made her suspicious.

THAT is used to refer to people and objects but WHO is usually preferred for a person when the pronoun is the subject of the relative clause.

WHOSE can be used to refer to objects:

Mr Harrison is the lawyer who/that has been chosen to represent you.

It would only be possible to colonize planets whose atmosphere contained enough oxygen to sustain human life. (the atmosphere of which)

The relative pronoun that refers to the object of a relative clause can be omitted:

The man (who) I met at the conference was in the negotiating team. I met the man who was in the negotiating team at a conference. I remember it was the day when/that the company went bankrupt. Sometimes he thought that money was the reason why/that he accepted the job. High taxation is often the main reason for which governments fall.

The relative pronoun cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the relative clause:

THAT can be used as an alternative to WHEN in relative clauses:

The only noun that takes WHY as a relative pronoun is reason:

Instead of WHY we can also use OF + WHICH:

 Modifiers

such as ALL OF, MANY OF may be used before WHICH or WHOM in a relative clause to refer to the subject or object of the clause:

The supermarket removed from the shelves all of its jars of tomato puree, several of which were found to contain fragments of glass. The college entered over a hundred students for the exam, all of whom passed. We interviewed fourteen applicants for the post, none of whom we thought suitable.

 In

relative clauses we can modify the pronoun or adverb with ever to give the meaning of ANYTHING, ANYONE, ANYWHERE, etc.:

Use whichever phone you want they all have outside lines. Id like to meet whoever wrote this report. You can put the billboard wherever you think it looks best. I dont mind.

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES THE ORDER OF THE ADJECTIVES ADVERBS DEGREES OF COMPARISON SOFTENERS AND INTENSIFIERS

Three business partners are having lunch in a quiet restaurant. Its a warm day. The food is delicious. They feel talkative.

An

adjective can be used attributively (before a noun) or predicatively (after a linking verb i.e., be, seem, appear, become, get, look, feel, taste, touch, smell, stay, etc.)

Most adjectives can be used in both positions:

This is good coffee. Vs. This coffee tastes good.

Some adjectives are restricted to one position

MAIN / CHIEF / PRINICIPAL Be careful crossing the main road. ONLY The only problem is that the company is running out of money. INDOOR / OUTDOOR Chess is an indoor game. INNER / OUTER FORMER The former sales agent now trains young professionals. UPPER ELDER / ELDEST Adjectives ending in al e.g. general, industrial, local, national, social

 Adjectives

beginning with the prefix a- are usually predicative, e.g.,

Ablaze, afraid, aglow, alike, alive, alone, asleep, aware, ashamed

The products look very alike.

Pleased Ill / unwell Content (= happy) Fine (in good health) / well Glad

 In

descriptions, we often use a sequence of adjectives to refer to a noun, being ordered according to their meaning. Determiners (articles, quantifiers, numerals, demonstrative and possessive adjectives) usually precede the sequence of adjectives. GENERAL DESCRIPTION + PHYSICAL STATE + PROPER ADJECTIVE + noun

1. OPINION (HOW GOOD?) 2. SIZE (HOW BIG?) 3. MOST OTHER QUALITIES 4. AGE (HOW OLD?) 5. COLOUR 7. MATERIAL (MADE OF?) 8. TYPE (WHAT KIND?) 9. PURPOSE (WHAT FOR?)

wonderful, nice, great, awful, terrible large, small, long, short, tall quiet, famous, important, soft, wet, difficult, fast, angry, warm new, old red, blue, green, black stone, plastic, steel, paper an electric kettle, political matters, road transport a bread knife, a bath towel

6. ORIGIN (WHERE FROM?) American, British, French

 Examples

Japanese industrial designers (origin, type) A long boring train journey (size, quality, type) some nice easy quiz questions (opinion, quality, purpose) a beautiful wooden picture frame (opinion, material, purpose)

Sometimes

, commas are used between adjectives referring to opinion, size and quality.

a horrible, ugly building a busy, lively, exciting city

There are some adjectives that we can use to talk about groups of people in society:

- to do with social or economic position:

the disadvantaged, the homeless, the hungry, the poor, the privileged, the rich, the starving, the strong, the underprivileged, the unemployed, the weak the blind, the deaf, the disabled, the handicapped, the living, the sick, the healthy the elderly, the middle-aged, the old, the over-sixties, the under-fives, the young The very poor are left without hope. The severely disabled need full-time care. The less fortunate cannot afford to go on holiday. Should the mentally ill be allowed to live in the community?

- to do with physical condition or health:

- to do with age:

We can sometimes use an adverb before such an adjective:

THE + ADJECTIVE refers to that group in general. When we mean a specific person or a specific group of people, the words MAN, WOMAN, PEOPLE are used.

The young have their lives in front of them. None of the young people in the village can find jobs here.

Most adjectives from this group are derived from verbs. COMMON ING ADJECTIVES

amazing, boring, corresponding, encouraging, exciting, existing, following, increasing, interesting, leading, missing, outstanding, promising, remaining, threatening, underlying, willing, working advanced, alleged, armed, ashamed, bored, complicated, determined, disabled, disappointed, educated, excited, exhausted, frightened, interested, pleased, surprised, tired, unemployed, unexpected, worried

COMMON ED ADJECTIVES

 Many

adjectives are formed by adding an adjective prefix or suffix to a verb or noun. PREFIXES

NEGATIVE MEANING: un-, in-, non-, dis-, mis-, i(l)

uninteresting, insensitive, non-standard, disrespectful, misleading, illiterate, illegitimate, irregular

SUFFIXES

-less, -ful, -ous, -ive, -al, -ent, -y, -ish

cordless, careless, careful,beautiful, continuous, monotonous, serious, effective, instinctive, active, central, final, technical, different, persistent, sunny, funny, stylish, greenish

 Are

made from a combination of more than one word, resulting in a compact expression of information. They take many forms, including:
greyish-blue full-time, cutting-edge, large-scale butterfly-blue, age-old, life-long ill-suited, newly-restored, so-called free-spending, slow-moving highly-sensitive wishy-washy, roly-poly, goody-goody church-owned, classroom-based, horsedrawn eye-catching, law-abiding, nervewracking

ADJECTIVE + ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE + NOUN NOUN + ADJECTIVE ADVERB + -ED PARTICIPLE ADVERB + -ING PARTICIPLE ADVERB + ADJECTIVE REDUPLICATIVE NOUN + -ED PARTICIPLE NOUN + -ING PARTICIPLE

The ending LY is the normal adverb ending, but a few adjectives also end in ly.

friendly, lively, lovely, elderly, likely, lonely, silly, ugly

The interviewer was very friendly. This is a silly question. She spoke to us in a friendly way / manner.

HARD, EARLY, HIGH, LATE, DEEP, NEAR, STRAIGHT, LONG, WRONG, FAST, LOW, RIGHT can be used both as adjectives and as adverbs

I came on the fast train. The train went quite fast. We did some hard work. We worked hard. They sell cheap clothes in the market. They sell things cheap / cheaply there. Come here as quick / quickly as you can.

In informal English, the adjectives CHEAP, LOUD, QUICK, SLOW can be used as adverbs.

HARD / HARDLY; NEAR / NEARLY; LATE/ LATELY; HIGH / HIGHLY; FREE / FREELY These pairs of adverbs have different meanings:

I tried hard, but I didnt succeed. Vs. Ive got hardly any money left. (very little, almost none) Luckily I found a phone box quite near. Vs. I nearly fell asleep in the meeting. (almost) Rachel arrived late, as usual. Vs. Ive been very busy lately. (in the last few days/weeks) The plane flew high above the clouds. Vs. The material is highly radioactive. (very) We got into the concert free. (without paying) vs. The animals are allowed to wander freely. (uncontrolled)

 WELL

may be

the adverb of GOOD

We all did well in the test. (Our results were good.)

An adjective meaning in good health, the opposite of ILL

The manager was very ill, but he is quite well again now. How are you? Very well, thank you.

The comparative and superlative forms of short and long adjectives are different. SHORT and LONG ADJECTIVES

One-syllable adjectives (small, nice) usually have the endings er (than) (for the comparative) and est (for the superlative)

The secretary needs a bigger computer. This is the nicest colour.

For adjectives ending in ed, the more/less, the most / the least forms are used.

Everyone was pleased with the results of the negotiation, but the Sales Manager was the most pleased.

For three-syllable adjectives and with longer ones, the more/less, the most / the least forms are used

The film is more exciting than the book. This machine is the most reliable.

Some two-syllable adjectives have er, -est, and some have more, most. 1. words ending in a consonant + Y have er, -est

happy happier, the happiest

2. words ending in ful or less have more, most

careful more careful, the most careful helpful, useful, hopeless

3. words ending in ing and ed have more, most

boring more boring than, the most boring willing, annoyed, surprised

4. other adjectives that have more, most:

afraid, certain, correct, eager, exact, famous, foolish, frequent, modern, nervous, normal, recent clever, common, cruel, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid, tired

5. adjectives that have both er and est and more and most

 Final

e of the positive form is dropped before er and est:

nice nicer, nicest

Consonant

+ -Y, Y shifts into I before adding -er and -est.

lucky luckier, luckiest

Adjectives

ending in a single vowel + single consonant double the consonant before adding er and est

hot hotter, hottest, thin thinner, thinnest

The short adverbs that have the same form as an adjective form the comparative and superlative with er, -est.

Can you type faster than that?

Many adverbs formed by ADJECTIVE + -LY (carefully, easily, slowly) form the comparative and superlative with more and most.

We could do this more easily with a computer.

Note the forms sooner, soonest and more often, most often.

Try to come to the office sooner.

good/ well bad/ badly far

better worse farther/further

best worst farthest/furthest

We

can use elder, eldest + noun instead of older, oldest, but only for people in the same family (elder than is NEVER used)

My elder sister is the CEO of that company.

 AS

AS is used to say that things are equal or unequal.

It isnt as cold as yesterday. Thy dont earn as much money as theyd like.

THE

SAME AS

The result of the contest was the same as last year.

He is twenty years older than me. He is twenty years older than I am.

After THAN or AS, a personal pronoun on its own has the object form (me), but if the pronoun has a verb after it, then we use the subject form (I)

SOFTENERS and INTENSIFIERS We an put a word or phrase (much, a lot, rather, far, a bit, quite, a little, slightly) before a comparative to intensify or soften the meaning of the adjective.
Its much faster by tube. This chair is a bit more comfortable. This months figures are slightly less good.

Used to express a gradual change

The queue was getting longer and longer. Everything is getting more and more expensive. The country is rapidly losing its workers, as more and more people are emigrating.

Used to imply that a change in one thing goes with a change in another

The higher the price, the more reliable the product.

COMPARATIVE + COMPARATIVE

THE + COMPARATIVE, THE + COMPARATIVE

 An

adverb can be found in three places in a sentence: FRONT POSITION (at the beginning of a sentence), MID POSITION (close to the verb) and END POSITION (at the end of the sentence).

Outside (front position) it was obviously (mid position) raining hard (end position).

The adverb comes after the first auxiliary:

The visitors are just leaving. The briefs have definitely been stolen.

If there is no auxiliary, the adverb comes before the main verb.

I really enjoy negotiations.

When the verb TO BE is on its own, the adverb usually comes after it.
The boss is usually in a bad temper. Youre certainly a lot better today.

When there is stress on the verb TO BE or on the auxiliary, then the adverb usually comes before it:
You certainly are a lot better today. I really have made a mistake, havent I?

Use of adverbs in mid position in questions after the subject:

Has Andrew always liked Statistics? Do you often go out to business lunches?

 An

adverb does not usually go between the verb and the direct object; it is put in end position, after the object.

Tom proofread his report quickly. We played volleyball yesterday. I like classical music very much.

Nevertheless,

object:

an adverb can go before a long

Detectives examined carefully the contents of the dead mans pockets.

ADVERBS OF MANNER

tell us how something happens. They usually go in end position, but an adverb which ends in LY can sometimes go in mid position as well.

We asked permission politely. We politely asked permission.

ADVERBS OF PLACE AND TIME

Adverbs and adverbial phrases of place and time usually go in end position:

Is there a phone box nearby? Were meeting by the entrance. Ill see you before very long. Did you have a nice time in New York?

Sometimes they can go in front position:

We are really busy this week. Last week we had nothing to do. Ill soon find out. The train is now approaching Swindon.

Some short adverbs of time can also go in mid position:

YET means that we are expecting something; STILL means going on longer than expected; ALREADY means sooner than expected usually goes at the end of a negative statement or a question:

YET

Vicky has got a letter but she hasnt opened it yet. Wait a minute! Im not ready yet. I have two more lines to write. Have they sent you your cheque yet? No, not yet. I should get it next week.

STILL and ALREADY

In a positive statement, STILL and ALREADY usually go in mid position:

Sarah isnt home yet. Shes still at work. We wrote a month ago and were still waiting for a reply. Ive only been at work an hour, and Im already exhausted. Its nearly lunch time and you still havent opened your e-mail.

In negative statements, STILL is used before the auxiliary:

STILL is stronger than YET, often expressing surprise that the situation has gone on for so long.

Rita hasnt bought her plane ticket yet. Rita still hasnt bought her plane ticket. Are you still waiting after all this time? Has Tom already been on holiday?

In questions STILL and ALREADY usually go after the subject:

NO LONGER means that something is finished. It goes in mid position.

You cant buy these items now. They no longer make them. I used to belong to the golf club but Im no longer a member.

NO LONGER can be a little formal. In informal speech NOT ANY LONGER or NOT ANYMORE is used. ANY LONGER/ANY MORE comes at the end of the sentence.

They dont make these items any longer / any more. Rita has resigned. She doesnt work here any longer/ any more.