2013-02-07 01:49:12 UTC

5113083eba02f 203.45.64.84 Australia

8 O A
A

B^S./
THE

PRACTICAL
DOMESTIC,

MANUAL TOILET

OP

MANUFACTUBB OTHER

OF

AND

80AP8.

1^

BY

GEOKGE
MEMBBB

R
CHBMIOAL

F.C.S. IjLURST,
INDUSTBT OF LONDON

OP

THE

800IBTY

OF AND

; HON0UB8
IN8TITUTR

MBDALUBT

OF

THE

OITT

GUILDS

ILLUSTRATED

WITH

66

ENGRAVINGS.

LONDON:

SCOTT,
M
10, 21

GKEENWOOD
PUBUSHERS
OF
THE

"

CO.,

dnb
AND

"o(6iirman^"
23

^oumoC,
HILL,

LUDGATE

ELC.

1898.

c\'

?
"

^
^
^X

^^

'*

"

"j

f^

"H'ajLilAL Q

'^"r/^

PREFACE.

has already appeared of this book substance in the form of articles in the pages of the Oil and These Colourman's Journal articles were received
with
so

The

much

favour

that it has
together

been

by the readers of that Journal desirable to collect them thought

in book form. For this reprint them purpose the articles have been thoroughly revised and to bring the new matter added up to date.

and

subject
write has

The

author
on

has

not

attempted

to

complete

treatise

Soap
in
a

Manufacture,

but

aimed
manner

at

presenting

brief but, it is hoped,

of soap

clear

the principal processes

account

manufacture,

with

au

of the

raw

materials

used

and

the scientific

principles which The

author

underlie the various operations. his indebtedness here acknowledges

firms for the loan of machinery illustrate the

to several engineering

blocks wherewith Machinery.

to

chapter

on

Soap

GEORGE
Chemical
22

H.

HURST.

Laboratory, Blackfriars

Street,
Manchester.

Salford,

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Introductory."

I.
PAOBS

Soap

"

Nature

of Soap"

Action

of Soap

1 to 5

CHAPTER

II. and Fats"

"

Soap-maker's
Manufacture

Ajukalies.
^

"

Alkalies
"

Soda

"

Soda"
Caustic

Soda of Lyes CSiustic Soda

Potash
"

Soda
"

Crystals
"

Caustic
"

Potassium
Lyes
"

Potashes Alkalimetry

"

Caustic
of

Potash

"

"Borax and Potash

Phosphate
"

Soda

Silicates
.

of
.

Soda
,

Common

Salt"

Lime

6 to 53

CHAPTER Soap
Fats
and

III.
and

Oils.
Fats of
"

"

Composition Glycerine
"

Properties
Fatty
"

of
"

Oils

and Occurrence
of Animal

Soap
and

"

Acids

Animal

Oils
"

Fats

Extraction

Occurrence Oils and Fats Oils" Oils" Extraction of Vegetable

Oils"
"

of Vegetable

Refining
"

Bleaching
"

Solvent

Extraction
"

Processes Soap Palm-nut

and low Tal"

Lard

Bone

Grease Oil"

Animal

Fats

Tallow

Oil" Lard
Oil
"

Palm

Oil"

OilLinseed Rape

Coconut
Oil
"
"

Olive

Oil" Oil"
"

Cottonseed Cacao

Oil

"

Castor

Oil" Corn
Greases

Butter"
Grease"
"

Oil

Recovered
"

Currier's
"

Yorkshire
.

Grease

Fuller's Grease

Oleic Acid

Rosin

54

to 157

CHAPTER
Perfumes.
" "

IV.
"

Bergamot
"

"

Oil

of Cloves

^Anise Caraway
"

Cassia"
"

Oil of Bitter Almonds Citronelle" Cinnamon

"

Coriander
"

Lemon

Grass
"

"

Geranium
"

"

Lavender "Musk"

Neroli

"

Orange

Sassafras
Myrbane
.

Star
.

Anise
.
.

Artificial Musk"

158

to 169

Vlli

CONTEi^TS.
CHAPTER

V.
PAGES

Water

as

Soap

Material

170 to 176

CHAPTf"R
Soap
Machinery. Blowers
"

VI.
Fat Tanks
"

"

Alkali
Pans"

Tanks" Fire-heated Soap

"

Fat
"

Soap

Soap Whirls"
Soap Soap

Pans

Steam-heated

Soap
"

Pans" Frames
"

Pressure Frames

Soap

Boilers

Soap

Wooden
Soap"

"Iron Machines
"

Soap
"

Frames Soap

Slabbing
"

Slabbing Machines
Machines

Barring

Soap
"

Stamping

Toilet

Soap Crushing
"

Machinery Machines Drying

Soap
"

Cutting

"

Soap

Crutching
Machines

Machines
.
.

"

Soap

Pumps

Soap

177 to 223

CHAPTER
Technology
Domestic
of

VII.
of SoapsMethods of Soap-

Soap-making."
"

Classification

Soaps
"

Saponification" Soap
"

making Strength Castile

Soap"

Boiling
"

Salting
"

Out

"

Boiling
Pale

on
"

Fitted
"

Soaps Soap

Common
"

Soap

Soap
Brown

Pale Soap"
"

Crown

Soap
"

"

Primrose Soaps
"

Mottled Soaps
"

Soaps
"

Curd

Paraffin

Soaps

Filled

Silicated Working

Soaps
Cold

"

Cold

Process

of Soap-making

cess"Filling Pro-

Cold-process
Pressure under Saponification Milled Toilet
"

Soaps Soap
"

"

Soap-making

Oleic
under

Acid

Hydrated
"

Soaps
Soaps
"

"

Pressure

Toilet

Soaps
"

Colouring
"

Soaps

Toilet Soaps"Cold-process Transparent Soaps Soap Colours

"
"

Industrial Soaps
"

Soaps
"

Special Soaps
"

Soaps Soap

"

Medicated
. .

Soft Soap

Dry

Powders

224

to 316

CHAPTER
Glycerine
in

VIII.
in Fats" from

Soap

Lyes.-

Glycerine

Properties Soap
Lyes
316
to 325

of Glycerine"

Recovering
Plant

Glycerine

"Glycerine

CHAPTER Laying
out
a

IX.
a

Soap

Factory."

Planning

Soap

Factory

326

to

333

CONTENTS.

IX

CHAPTER

X.
PA0B8

Soap

Soap of Soap"Sampling for Analysis" in Soap Fat in Soap Water ^Alkali in Soap Mineral Matters in Soap ^Rosin and other Fats in Soap" Soap Analyses
Analysis."

Constituents

"

"

"

"

334

to 366

Appendices"

A.

Hydrometer

Table Table Table

367 367
368
369

B. Hydrometer

C. Thermometric
D. Gravities

of Oils of Caustic

E. Gravities F. Gravities

Soda
Potash

Lyes
Lyes

....

370
...

of Caustic

372
372 373

G.
H.

Fats

and Alkalies Gravities of Salt Solutions

Lime

in Milk

of Lime

374 374 376 377

K. Glycerine
L.

Solutions
Soap
Frame

Hadfield's

Index

LIST
na.

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.
I'AQK

1. Caustic 2. Lye

Lye

Apparatus

24
26

Tank

3. Tallow
4. Fat

Rendering

Chamber

69

Rendering
Boiler Fat
Fat

Plant

70 72
73

6. Fat

6. Steam

Boiler Boiler

7. Steam
8. Bone
9. Bone

74
76

Boiler Grease
Plant

78
Mill Mill
Kettle Rolls Machine
.

10. Oil Seed

Crushing Grinding

81 82 83

IL

Oil Seed

12. Oil Seed 13. Oil Seed

14. Oil Cake

Heating Crushing
Moulding

87
88
89
90

15. Hydraulic
16. Oil Cake

Oil Press
Moulds

17. Castor
18. Castor

Seed

Decorticator
,93

92

Seeds
Tank
'

19. Oil Clarifying

95

20. Oil Filter Press 21. Oil Bleaching 22. Oil Extraction 23. Oil Extraction
24. Oil Extraction

97
.

Boiler

.103

Apparatus
Apparatus

107
108
.

Apparatus

Ill

25. Lye
26. Fat

Tanks Tanks Blower Soap Pan Pan

179
180

27. Stock

181 182
183

28. Fire-heated 29. Steam-heated

Soap Pan Pan

30. Steam 31. Steam 32. Soap

Soap
Soap

186

187
188

Whirl
Soap Soap
Boiler Frame

33. Pressure

189 191
192

34. Wooden
35. Iron

Soap

Frame

Xll

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

PAGE

36. Whitaker's

Soap Soap
Soap Machine

Frame

193
194 196

37. Morgan's
38. Slabbing

Frame

39. Slabbing
40. Soap
41. 42. 43.
44.

197
.
.

Waggon
Barring Barring Cutting
Stamping

Soap
Soap Soap

Machine
Machine Machine Machine Machine Machine

.199 200
.

201

203

Soap Soap Soap

205
206

46. 46.

Stamping
Stamping

207
208 209 210
212

47. Soap
48. Soap
49.

Stamping Stamping Stamping Cutting Crushing

Machine
Machine Machine Machine
Machine

Soap

50. Soap
51.

Soap

213
.

62. Soap

Crushing Squeezing
Squeezing

Machine Machine Machine

214

^3. Soap
54. Soap

215
216

55. Crutching 56. Crutching

Machine Machine

217
218
221

57. Soap
58. Soap

Pump Drying Pan Machine for Soap Lyes

.
.

...

222 322

59. Boiling 60. Glycerine

61. Glycerine 62. Plan

Plant Plant

323
324

of Soap Works 63. Elevation of Soap Works 64. Elevation

329 330 330 333

.
. . .
.

of Soap Works 65. Plan of Soap Works 66. Hadfield's Soap Frame

.375

CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY.
SOAP.

I.

Soap

has

been

known

from

very

early times, it is several

some

times referred to in the Bible, and is also referred to by

of the ancient
434
B.C.,

Greek

writers

Aristophanes,
348

who
B.C.

lived about

and
a.d.

by Plato, who
79, states that

lived about
soap
was

Pliny, who
by
the

died in

first invented
from

Gauls, and
and

gives

an

account

of its manufacture

alkali

fat, the

caustic alkali being produced

from

the ashes of

wood,

and, he states, natural

earths, by which
was

it is presumed
from the fat of

lime
goats

is meant.
and
other

The ashes

best soap

made

the

of beechwood,

but
ashes.

it

was

also made
also gave

from
an

forms

of fat and

wood

Pliny and

account

of the manufacture The

remains

of lead

soap

its

use

in

medicine.

of

soap factory have

been found

The earlier Arabian alchemists the ruins of Pompeii. among in their writings speak of soaps being used for detergent It may be added that purposes, and for personal application.

prior to the invention

time, the ashes
as

of soap, and

even

up

to the

present

of wood,

together
appear

fuller's earth, which

with such earthy matters detergent properties, to have

were

largely used for washing and cleansing. Up to about the fourteenth century the
were

Spaniards
About

and

ItaUans

the

largest makers
1

of soap.

the thir-

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

teenth

or

fourteenth

century

soap-making

was

introduced origin who

that time
trade, for it

into France established

has

by the Phoceans,
themselves
the

people of Egyptian from soap

at Marseilles, which
a

remained

seat of

very extensive

has very many France

natural

conveniences,

the forests of Southern

giving the needful wood ash, while the seaweed of the sea yielded the barilla needful for the manufacture of hard soap, lime for the causticising was readily obtained,
France favoured the growth of while the climate of Southern ingredient, olive oil,of the olive trees, from which the main Being situated on the seathe Marseilles soap was obtained.
coast, Marseilles
was

oil from

Italy, and

able to import large supplies barilla from Spain. uncertain

when

of olive

It is somewhat

soap-making

was

first
the
the

introduced

into England,
century,
was

but it would
came

fourteenth
French patent

and

to

us

probably be about from France, and

The

method

long

practised.
was

earliest English in 1622, since the end of

or

relating to soap-making
have
no

granted

which time many the last century

the materials of making replaced of modern the work
were

been

issued.

Until about

improvements
made,

either in the process introduced

the

then Leblanc

his process
soda

soda

from

salt, and

gradually

Leblanc

the barilla soda

in soap-making.

The

foundation
upon

invention
of Chevreul

in soap-making
on

is largely based
of fats, and

th^e chemistry
that of Leblanc,

upon

this work,
upon

together

with

the practical basis

which

soap-making

is

to-day

conducted

has

been

based.
NATURE OF SOAP.

As ordinarily understood

soap
and

is the product

obtained by
with

boiling the various

one or

animal

vegetable

fatty matters

other of the caustic alkalies in a variety of ways, the The product being used for cleansing purposes of all kinds.

alkali reacts with

the fatty matter

and

Uberates

from

it the

SOAP.

substance

known

as

glycerine,
of
an

while

with certain fatty bodies familiar article with which

appearance alkali soda
are

alkali combines to fonn the acid nature

the

every

one

is acquainted,
to

and

the The

of which is the
as

must most

be known
commonly

all persons.

one

used, and

yields what

known

the hard

another

kind

of soap

soaps, while the alkali potash yields is known As the as soft soap. which is dealt with in detail in another fully here. It to discuss it more
compounds
as,

chemistry

of soap-making needful
out

chapter, it is not
may

be pointed

that

other bases than the alkalies, such

of the fatty acids with for instance, lime, lead,

are

alumina,
various

etc., are

known,

and

some

of them usage
compounds

of service in
term

directions, but

in

common

the

soap

is

restricted to the soda and

to.

potash

already

alluded

ACTION

OF

SOAP.

That

soap

is of very

material
and

assistance in the removal

the bodies

of
has

dirt and
long

grease from
known, known,

clothes
the

of persons

been

but

manner

in which
depends
a

it acts
upon
a

is not

equally
of
causes,

well

and

probably
are

variety
while
have

some

of which
a

of

physical

nature,

others

are

of

chemical

nature.
as

Many

investigations

been

made

by various
the

persons

to the cleansing

property.

Probably
exerts
an

simplest

explanation action upon

would
the

be that

the

soap

emulsifying
accompany

greasy

matters

which

always

the dirt in clothes, etc., and the

water

enables it to
the
soap is

become

diffused through

with

which

accompanied.
The

alkali

no

doubt

plays

an

important

gent part in the deteris; proved

action of soap, but that it is not

all-important
same

by the fact the pure

action,
nor

alkali by itself has not the

has the alkali which

or

cleansing is present in the form of the

same

silicate of soda

aluminate

of soda

action

as

the

kalali of soap.

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

There when
to
more
a

is

no

doubt

that water
a

has

some

action upon of water

soap ;

soap is boiled with

large quantity
on

itdissolves

perfectly clear solution, but

or

cooling

this becomes be noticed

less turbid.
an

Another

feature which

must

is that there is

increase in the alkalinity of the soap when

; this
can
a

it is dissolved in cold water

a

be shown
few

by dissolving
of phenol-

piece of soap

in alcohol, adding
and

drops

phthalein

solution
on

allowing
water

the

alkali solution to set

into

jar;

pouring

into the
solution

jar the
acquires

soap gradually
a

becomes

dissolved, and the production

the

reddish tint

showing

of free alkali.

Messrs.

Wright
upon

and Thompson

have

conducted

series of
upon

experiments
soap, and

this

the subject,

action

of water

they have

determined
^

the amount
;

of hydrolysis by
are

using various

quantities of water
:
"

their results

given in

the following table

The

figures in this table

are

the quantities in per cent, of that

a

the alkali in the soap. is less hydrated than a

It is to be noted

tallow soap less than hydrolysed

a

palm-oil
a

soap

and much
more

coconut-oil

soap, while

cotton-oil soap is

ACTION

OF

SOAP.

than any

other kind.

The

reaction

which

takes
:
"

place may

perhaps

be expressed
Sodium Stearate.

in the following
Water.

equations
Sodium

Caustic

Soda.

Add

Stearate.

NaC,"H"02 2NaC,8Hsa02
+

H^O

NaOH

KC^JlJ)^
upon

Now soap the

it is evident alkali that

and

that if this be the action of water

is thus set free will have

the

an

action

in

saponifying

emulsifying

grease

with

which
purposes,
away.

it is
and

broughljrftUGontact, when
therefore to enable

used

for washing
and

it to be

removed

washed

In is set

some^HWfthe
free may The

small

percentage

of fatty acid which

assist the cleansing relative hardness of

a

operation.
soap, with

which

may

be combined

its solubility in water,

as

is of very

material

importance

regards its cleansing effects ; there is a considerable variation in regard to the hardness of a soap, and naturally the harder the soap the smaller the quantity that will be rubbed
off it when
much

it is used. than
a

soap made
more

made from

from

tallow
or

is very
coconut

harder

soap

olive

from

oil, and

it takes
of water

therefore

which
average

may

Again the proportion rubbing. be left in a soap influences its

of water

hardness ; sample it may

the

quantity

in

a a

well-made

of soap may

be taken
13 to 16 30
to 36

at 20 per cent., in

toilet soap
soaps
there they

be

as

low from

as

per

cent.

In

low-grade
more

it may

reach

per cent. ; the

are

water
are

is present

the

softer they

and

the

more

easily

Again soaps vary in their solubility in water ; rubbed away. thus, for instance, while the oleate of soda is soluble in 10
parts of water,
of water

the

stearate

of soda
a

requires material
of
a

about

100 parts
on

for solution. and

This has

influence

the
the

washing

lathering

properties

soap, also upon

lasting properties, soaps from oil olive oil and cotton-seed lather better but are rather more wasteful than soaps made from tallow and

palm

oil.

CHAPTER
SOAP-MAKER'S

II.
ALKALIES.

In the manufacture the fat,

of soap

two

materials
or

are

required
are

(1)
in

(2) the
detail.
more

alkah.

The

fat

fats which

used

the preparation

of soap will be described in the next

In this chapter than
one

chapter

in

some

will be discussed the alkalies,

can

for there is
salts used

that

be used, and

the alkaline

in soap-making.
a

Whenever

highly
or

basic body potassium

like sodium

hydroxide,

caustic soda NaOH,

hydroxide,
lime

caustic potash
or even

SOH,
lead

or

calcium

hydroxide,

slaked

CaHgOg,

is boiled with a fat, the latter undergoes oxide PbO, is called saponification ; that is, there is produced a what body which is known as article of great domestic soap, an
and

commercial
In

use,

together chapter

with

another

body

known

as

glycerine.
shown that
are

the

dealing

with

the soap

fats it is

they

are

combinations
as

of sundry

acid bodies,
the base,

which

generally known
or, as

the

fatty acids with

glyceryl, of glycerine,
to show

chemists

prefer to call it,glycerol,

that

as

far

as

its chemical
Taking,
almost

relations

are

concerned
a

it

is allied to the

alcohols.

for instance,

typical oil,

olive oil, this is composed is

entirely of olein, which with glyceryl, CgHg. while

combination The latter body

a

of oleic acid, HCigHggOg, is

a

tribasic compound,
so

oleic acid is
equivalent
of
;

only

monobasic
requires

body,

that

one

chemical

glyceryl

ihree chemical

equivalents
:
"

to form

olein

the latter, therefore, has the formula

I CigHgaOg
^8
6

^18^3302

ClgHggOg

COMPOSITION

OF

FATS.

Similarly stearin, the characteristic constituent of tallow,

glyceryl. and stearic acid, HCigHggOg, Palmitin, the characteristic body in palm oil, contains palmitic combined acid, HCigHgiOg, with glyceryl in like proportions
a

is

compound

of

to those

present
are

in olein.
boiled with the alkaline bodies named
forms

When

these fats glyceryl

above

the

splits oflfand

glycerol, while
soap,
as

the

alkali combines in the following

with the fatty acid to form

chemical

is shown

equations

:
"

The

soaps

which

are

formed
and

by

the

alkaUne

earttis

(calcium, barium,
copper,
those and

strontium,
metals
the

magnesium),

lead,

iron,
;

the

generally, are
alkali
metals

insoluble in water

formed

by

(potassium, sodium,

lithium)are
domestic
and other

soluble in water, hence these only are used in the fact that lime and industrial work, although
metals of for

will form
various

insoluble
useful

soaps

has

been

taken

advantage

purposes.

The

alkalies
here,
and

sodium although
magnesia. The

and
a

potassium
word
or

will therefore VTill be

be

dealt with
lime

two

said concerning

term

alkali

comes

down

to

us

from

Arabic it
was

times ;
used
to

its meaning
denominate

is really al kali, the salt, and

a an

saline body
efflorescence

often
on

found

in the
more

hot

Eastern

cHmes

as

the

soil, and

especially of rubbish
and
;
an

in the neighbourhood
heaps.

of stables and
was

the. drainage crude

This

alkali

of

very

composition
to its
source

varied somewhat
the

in its composition

according
was

property

which

gave

it value

that

of forming

8 with than

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

emulsion
powers

oil, and

this emulsion
or

had

either the oil

was

the alkali.

stronger cleansing There is no doubt able appreciof the

out

that this property

due

to the alkali containing

quantities alkali proper.

that
a

of the As
course
was

carbonate
of time

and
went

caustic
on

forms

it was

found

similar body
was

obtained
a

which

found

to

leave

by the combustion of wood, white ash on burning, this ash

properties
than the

possessing
alkali.
These

stronger

alkaline

original

gradually

usurped

the

name

to themselves.
an

Then alkaline

it

was

ascertained
on

that seaweeds

also left ashes of

are

character

combustion,
on

which

found from

to be different in

their action
made

oils than

the ashes
than

wood,

the soap

they

being harder in character

two

that made
came

by wood

ashes,
"

consequently

kinds

of alkali

to be

recognised

marine
and,

alkali from

seaweeds,

vegetable
began

alkali from
two

trees;

moreover,
"

the soap-makers

to produce

kinds

of soap from

hard

soap from

the first-mentioned

alkali, soft soap

the vegetable alkali.

Then

the

fact that

by treatment
be
converted

with burnt lime these alkaline bodies could into stronger bodies, the caustic alkalies, came
out,

to be

found
also

and

that these

had
use

more

action

on

the

fats Then

was

recognised
came

and

made

of in soap-making.

finally

the discovery compounds

by Sir Humphrey

Davy

that the alkalies of which

were

of two

peculiar metallic bodies, one Of

he named

sodium,

the other potassium.

these metals

it

will be sufficient to say that sodium has since become of some industrial importance ; they are soft metals, considerably fresh they lighter than water, on which they float. When
have
a

silver-white appearance,
to the

but

soon

become

oxidised

on

exposure

coated with a film of oxide ; air, becoming floats with Sodium on water they have an energetic action. the evolution of hydrogen, a hissing sound, while and causes hydroxide,
remains

caustic soda, sodium

in solution.

Po-

ALKALIES.

9
the hydrogen

tassium
which

has

rather

more

energetic action, and

on

is liberated is set of energy

fire, and

bums

owing

to

the

great amount potash

remains

is developed, while caustic which in solution. The following equations represent

metals
on

the action of these two

water

"

The

alkaline compounds
are

which
named
water,

are

of most
as

interest

to

the

soap-maker

the two

above

the

result of the

action

of the

metals which

on

viz,, sodium

hydroxide,

or

caustic soda,
potassium
of which
and

has
or

the chemical

formula

NaOH,

and

hydroxide,
is KOH,
as

caustic potash, the chemical

are

formula

these alone

capable

of acting upon

forming

with fats the various commercial

the
as

forms

of soap.

Besides

these
or

carbonate,

metals, sodium carbonates of the same it is better known sium soda, NagCOg, and potasor

carbonate,

potash,

KgCOg,

also, merit

attention

as

being the original forms forms

are

oi the alkali from

which

the caustic

manufactured.

While

it is only the caustic alkalies which have the property of saponifying fats, as has been pointed out above, yet
caustic and with
and

both

the

combine
case

soap

and alkalies will act upon carbonate the fatty acids to form soaps ; in the former formed, while in the only products water are
at the
same

the latter carbonic-acid gas is evolved

time.

The

manufacture

of soda
many

is

now

one

of the

industries known,

the alkali manufacture and

milUons of money which is carried on

greatest chemical being invested in

with great energy

skill in Great Britain.

SODA.

alkalies used in soap-making, soda occupies the firstplace, the two forms, carbonate NagCOg and caustic

Of the

two

10

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

NaOH,

being those used in soap-making,

and

these will

now

be considered. The compound

"the
term
** "

soda whose
a

which is universally understood whenever is used, is the carbonate of the metal

formula
has

sodium, virtually

chemical

justbeen

given.
or

It is

compound

cifthe dioxide of carbon

of metal

acid gas
commerce

with the oxide in five forms :

"

sodium.

carbonicinto It comes

Soda

ash,

more

or

less pure anhydrous

carbonate. anhydrous
carbonate
on

Eefined

alkali, almost,

if not

quite, pure
as

; this form

is that generally known

calcined soda

the continent.

Soda
the form

crystals, known

as

sal soda

in America

; this

is in

contains 10 molecules of water of crystallisation ; it has the formula Na^COglOHgO. Crystal carbonate or crystal soda ; this is in the form of
of water of crystallisation

of large crystals, and

small crystals, and contains one molecule NagCOgHgO. ; it has the formula
The work The forms

bicarbonate, the form

and
raw

mostly

used in ordinary culinary

medicine
material

; it has

the formula manufacture

NaHCOg.
of the

for the

different

of carbonate the

of soda

is salt, the chloride

although
the
source

of sodium of Le-

having
blanc
made.

formula

NaCl,

before the time

from whence

seaweeds

constituted

it

was

There

are

two

chief processes whereby

as

soda is made known

one

from
as

salt, that known the ammonia-soda

the

Leblanc
the

process, and that

process,

latter being

the

bids fair to be the chief process of the future. intended here to enter into a minute account of the details because, as a rule, soap-makers do not of the manufacture,
make

which It is not

their A

own

alkah, and

are

not

thereby

interested in the facture of manu-

details.

brief account

of the various

processes

will be given.

SODA.

11
was

The

Leblanc

soda

process

invented

by

Nicholas the

Leblanc

in the latter part of the last century,

Ee volution, which soda process chemical
to the

during

time of the firstFrench

else, gave
to English

if it did nothing
world. It is due

the Leblanc

skill that the process has attained the perfection it has, although in the main principles it is justthe same Leblanc firstdescribed it. as when
enterprise and
takes soda by this method of making in several stages. In the first place, salt is mixed there is evolved acid in iron pans, when sulphuric process

The

place with large of

quantities

of hydrochloric-acid

gas.

In

the

early

days

this gas was sent into the atmosphere, alkaU-making much to the detriment tricts disof the vegetation of the surrounding

by passing the gases up large towers, down whicjia current of water is continually passing. The and almost if not acid gas is very soluble in water,
quite
all of

; but now

it is absorbed

it is taken
**

up
tower

by

the

water

to form

what

is

commonly

known

as

salts," the

commercial

form

of hydrochloric

acid.

Besides
or

the hydrochloric
as

acid, there
**
".

is formed The

sodium

sulphate,

it is known

salt cake

equation representing
2NaCl
Sodiam
chloride +

the change
=

is :
+

"

H2SO4
Sulphuric acid

Na2S04
Sodium

2HC1
acid

Hydrochloric

sulphate

This stage of the process

process. The
The
next

is known

as

the

**

**

salt cake

stage of the process

is

more

complicated
now

one.

salt cake from

the last operation

is

mixed

certain proportion of ground coal and limestone, and is known the black-ash furnace ; to a red heat in what as here it is well worked about by rabbling until all chemical the product forming what are called balls action has

with a heated

ceased,
It

of black ash.

owes

in the early days

black ash," to the fact that a as black, but now of the industry it was
its name,
*'

12 rule it is of
a

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

brownish-grey
form

colour ; nevertheless

the

name

is retained.

formerly used is that known of famace as the reverberatory furnace, the working being done by hand naces and is a very laborious piece of work, but now revolving furThe
are

used, worked

mechanically,

thus

doing away

with

hand

labour.

'The furnace

chemical
are

reactions which
a

go

on

in

the

black-ash

probably of rather brieflythey may be considered lines

react
:

complicated

description, but
the following

to proceed

upon

the

sodium
one

sulphate

and

with

another

resulting

of the coal carbon in the formation of sodium

the

sulphide and
formed
reacts

carbon

monoxide.

The

sodium with

sulphide

thus

with the calcium

and

carbonate

the formation these

of sodium
are

carbonate

calcium

sulphide.

Although
are some a

the main

reactions
going

which
on,
so

occur,

yet there

subsidiary

reactions mixture
The

that

black

ash

is

complex

of compounds. process is shown

+

in the form
CaCOg
=

of
+

an

equation
400
Carbon
+

as

"

NaSO^
Sodium
sulphate

40
Carbon

Na^jCOs
Sodium carbonate

CaS
Calcium
sulphide

Calcium
carbonate

monoxide

as

well

as

simple equation

can

do.

Black
and

ash contains both soluble and insoluble constituents, the following is a complete analysis of a sample :
"

ANALYSIS
Soluble constituents.

OF

BLACK

ASH.

Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium

Sodium Sodium

carbonate, NagCOj oxide, NagO

28-144

per cent.
"

6-860 2-808
"192

chloride, NaCl sulphate, Na2S04

sulphite, NaigSOg thiosulphate, NagSgOs sulphide, NaaS Na2Al204 aluminate,
.

"

"

"151 "189 "368 "344 1-026 "186 "074

"

"

"

Sodium Sodium, Sodium Sodium

"

silicate, NagSiOj

"

cyanide,

NaCN

"

sulphocyanide,

NaSCN

"

BLACK

ASH.

13

Insoluble

constituents.

Calcium
Calcium Calcium
Ferrous

sulphide, carbonate, oxide, CaO sulphide, AL^Oj

CaS

29*504 12-667 10-048

-664 -172

per cent.
"

CaCOj

"

FeS

"

Alumina,

"

Silica, SiOg Magnesia, Sodium

1*096

"

MgO
oxide, NaaO

-266
-344

"

"

Carbon
Sand

4*263
1*237

"

"

The

next

operation consists in the extraction by

process

This of lixiviation with water of the soluble constituents. is done by an ingenious arrangement of vats whereby all the
soluble portion is completely
weak

extracted without

much

difi"culty,

being used at first and fresh water for final treatments. The insoluble portion goes to form what is called vat waste, which used to be at one time
liquors from previous

batches

the bSte noir of the alkali-maker,

a

process has been invented

but comparatively recently the sulphur it contains, whereby of it, is recovered

and

and used

this is the
for making

valuable

constituent

As which

might is given,
a

sulphuric acid. be expected from

the

the analysis

of black
as

ash

liquor which

is known

black-ash

liquor has

It usually has a specific composition. gravity of 1*26 to 1*29 (62"to 58" Tw.), and contains :"

complex

Sodium
Sodium Sodium Sodium

oarbonate, hydroxide, sulphide,

NagCO, NaOH
Naj^

68*91 per cent. 14-43 " 1*31 2-23

....

"

Sodium
Sodium
Sodium

sulphite, NagSO, thiosulphate, '^s^^'^s sulphate, NagSO^ chloride, NaCl silicate, NagSiOa
aluminate,

"

trace

7*02 3*97 1-03

'

"

"

Sodium Sodium

"

Na2^l204

102

"

vnth

traces

of sodium

sulphocyanide,
The usually
weak

ferrocyanide, sodium sodium ferrous sulphide. alumina, silica, tank hquors have a similar composition, and cyanide,

The

contain about 14 parts per 1000 of solid matter. into settling tanks to allow any tank liquor is run

14

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

alumina,
tower

silica, etc., to settle out.

which

It is then

run are

down

a"

through

carbonic-acid

gas

and

air

passing.

This brings about

of the amount

certain changes, resulting in the increase This it does of carbonate the liquor contains.
acid

by

the

carbonic

acting
and

on

the

caustic
them

soda,

sodium

sulphite and Then,

occurs

thiosulphate,
at the
same

converting
a

into carbonate.
of oxidation

time,

certain amount

; the iron, sulphur,

sulphocyanides,

cyanides, sulphites,
are

and

similar salts

are

oxidised.

Some

of them
on

then

able

to form

insoluble bodies which

allowed

settle out

the liquor being

subsequently The next

to settle in tanks.

The liquor is operation is called salting down. placed in shallow tanks, usually in the flue of the furnaces, so
as

to

make The

use

of the

waste

heat

which
away

passes

away

from it contains

them.

water

gradually evaporates
are

; the salts

crystallise out, and

fished out by
are

means a

of perforated small amount completely Of this

iron ladles.
of sawdust
converted there
are

Next
and

the salts furnaced

mixed
they

with
are

when The
known

more

into carbonate.
two
a

product
as

is soda ash.

forms,

one

caustic-soda ash, because

soda,

it contains
known
as

small quantity ash.

of caustic

the

other

is

carbonate
contains

It is not

quite pure

sodium

carbonate,

variable quantities of caustic, sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, etc. It is sold of varying degrees 48 per cent., 60 per cent., 52 per cent., as of strength known
up
to

but

58

per

cent.,

which

is the

strongest

made.

These

figures refer to the proportion

of sodium

oxide

the ash may

It is somecontain in the form of either caustic or carbonate. times known the available alkali, to distinguish it from as that which

is also present in the form of sulphate, chloride, is not available or useful for any of the purposes etc., which to which soda ash is put.
The
a

following

analyses
:
"

are

of

48 per

cent, ash

and

of

68 per cent, ash

15

The samples there

great of ash

difference in the

relative purity of the

two

two

is

seen

from

these

analyses,

for while
68

is

fairly large number

yet they
are no

of impurities

in the
small the

per

cent, ash,

only

present

in very
on

amounts

which
the

can

have

practical

influence
ash

using

of

ash ; whereas

in the 48

per cent,
cannot

these

impurities
some

being in much

larger amount

fail to exert

influence

What good
matter

is known

as

refined alkali is made

in water,

from

soda

ash of

quality by
to

dissolving
then
out

allowing
down,

any

insoluble
the

settle out,
come

boiling

fishing out

crystals, which
sulphate and

first,as

these consist chiefly of the quite dry.

10 molecules

chloride, then
are

boiling down

Soda

crystals

the crystallised form, containing it.

of water sometimes
known

of crystallisation in
as

This
or

is therefore
to

the decacarbonate other

decahydrate

distinguish

it from

the

crystalline form, which

are

is described
soda

below.
ash in water,

Soda

crystals
any

made

by

dissolving

allowing
the

insoluble impurities

to settle out,
a

then evaporating
or

solution down

until it has
to

strength

56"

Tw.,

when

it is placed

in tanks

crystallise out,

which it does in large, transparent, prismatic crystals. drained from liquor, dried or These the mother are packed into bags or kegs for sale. These crystals keep very
well, but
are

their water

slightly efflorescent, that is, they tend to lose dry and powdery. of crystallisation and become

16
This is the most that it makes

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

famihar

form

its appearance

of soda, as it is in this form in our households for washing

is used in making

and domestic scouring. It is this form of soda which for which

dry soaps,

purpose advantage

is often taken

of the fact that

heated soda crystals will melt into a liquid which when when ally Generit cools will set into a brittle crystalline solid mass.
soda

crystals,

or

sal soda

as

the

Americans

call it, is

fairly pure, but it contains traces of other sodium

as

compounds, sample
:
"

will be

seen

from

the following analysis of

OF SODA

ANALYSIS Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium

carbonate, hydroxide,

CRYSTALS.
34 *22 per cent. '10 2*64

NajCOj
NaOH
......

sulphate, Na2S04 chloride, NaCl

Water,

HgO
matter

'27 62-84
'03

Insoluble

From

which

it will be

seen

that

constituent
^

of soda

crystals.

The

is the principal impurities which are

water

present are usually accidental and cannot biit it is not an uncommon circumstance

always

be avoided,

to crystallisesome

along with the crystals, as these tend to make the crystals harder, and, therefore, better able to resist handling without breaking. sodium
sulphate The
other process of making
as

carbonate

of soda from

salt

is that known
worked
Mond

the ammonia-soda
on an

process, and

in this country

extensive

which is scale by Brunner,

" Co., of North wich, the Cheshire Alkali Co., at Middle-

wich, and by other firms. The principle of this process has long been known. It carbonic-acid gas is passed into a consists in that when
strong salt solution made alkaline with ammonia, carbonate of soda is formed and precipitates out, being insoluble in the alkaline liquors, while ammonia Although so well known, many

chloride remains in solution difficultiesare met with in

AMMONIA

SODA.

17

working the process on a large scale,and there are but few of the many plants devised to take advantage of the principle involved that have been at all successful. The most so is in operation at all the principalammonia-soda works in this country. The product obtained at firstis the bicarbonate of soda,
one as

that of Solvay, which

is the

isindicatedin the equation

H,0
+

"

NH,

OOj

NaCl

NaHCO,

NH4CI

This bicarbonate is precipitatedout, then heated in a furnace, when itisconverted into the normal carbonate,which
is then sent into commerce as soda ash. This product obtained by the ammonia-soda process is remarkable for its purity, as the following analysiswill show :
"

Carbonate of soda Sodium chloride Silica Lime Magnesia

Alumina

99-0 per cent. 0*13 010

0*13
"
"

0*06
"

" "
,,

and iron

0*03 0-15

Moisture

is material refinedalkali made by dissolving in water, clarifying the solutionand evaporating down, while the other forms of carbonate,monohydrate and decahydrate
From

thisraw

in are crystals, obtained by solutionand crystallising the usual

way. The ammonia soda has the advantage over soda in being purer and thereforestronger.

the Leblauc

As regards the properties of the carbonate of soda, some idea will have been gathered from what has been said above.
to It will be sufficient say that it is fairlyeasily soluble m increasingwith increaseof temperature water, the solubility
;

thus water

at 0" C. will dissolve at 6*97 per cent, of the

anhydrous carbonate, or 21*33 per cent, of the crystallised carbonate,and at 30" C. 37'24 per cent, of dry carbonate and 273*64 per cent, of soda crystalswillbe dissolved. 2

^^^

18

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Sodium

carbonate
with

possesses

slightly alkaline properties ; producing

the

it will react sodium

may

all acids,

corresponding
gas ; thus the

salt with

the evolution of carbonic-acid

it

be used in the preparation

the

of soaps of gaseous

from

free fatty

acids, although
a

evolution it causes

disadvantage, because
It cannot

carbonic-acid gas is the soap to fob badly in the

soap

process.

be used

to make

from

the oils and

fats, because

carbonic
no

acid, being weaker

than

the fatty acid their

in the oils, has

combinations

power

to liberate those

acids from
are

with

glycerine, with
fats.

which

they

combined

in the various oils and

CAUSTIC

SODA.

Caustic
maker's

soda,

or

sodium

hydroxide,
In
was

NaOH,
early
an

is the days

soap-

alkaU

par

excellence.

the
not to

of the
merce, comown

alkali manufacture
and
every

caustic soda
soap-maker the soda
to make

article of his

had
ash

causticise

alkali, making alkali-maker

of
commerce,

it from
soon

of that

time ; but
as
an

the

began

and

caustic soda become the process has now

can

article

so

perfected
article

that

caustic

soda

be

bought

as

commercial

almost

chemically

pure, at all events

containing

something

like 99*5 per cent, of the pure On

chemical. the large scale caustic soda is obtained

ash
"

either from

the finished soda

this is not often done

the soap-maker

by the causticmakes

maker,
own

but
"

it is what
or

does if he

his

caustic

from

the liquor obtained the

red

in lixiviation of the
The
latter yields

black-ash
what
cream

balls, or
as

from
**

liquors.

is known

cream
a

caustic," because
good many

it has

pale

colour; it contains

impurities.

Whatever

may

be the
same

source

of the alkali, the

case.

the

in each

causticising operation is liquor is made, if from the refined

to
a

soda ash, by simply from 20" to 22" Tw.

;
some

dissolving in water
makers
use

strength

of

the liquor weaker

than

CAUSTIC

SODA.

19

this,from
in
so

14" to 15"" Tw.,

but there is
can

no

material

advantage
much
ease

doing ; the

operation
as

be

done

with

as

with 22" Tw.

hquors

with 14" Tw.

Hquors,

and

it is much

cheaper to boil down

the strong hand

than

liquors than

it is the weak
use

liquors ;
much

on

the other
stronger
on so

it is not
22*^ Tw.,

advisable to
as

liquors

if any

then

the causticising

does not go

well. from the

The

liquors

made

black-ash

balls

are

allowed

to settle to get all insoluble matter

out of them,

and this must

them

be done
so
as

thoroughly
some

; it

is best to blow

air through

first
mass

to oxidise

of the impurities contained

out in
an

in the

whereby
The

they

are

thrown

insoluble form.
form

red liquors are used in the obtained in the first instance.

The

in which

they

are

causticising
apparatus

can

be carried out in almost

some

any

kind of

convenient
on

makers
The

use are

any

old boilers set

end for the operation.

an

liquors

heated

by steam of
a

to nearly the boil, then

iron cage filled with quick-lime

good quality is lowered

in, the steaming

is carried

on

until

portion of the liquor taken out, filtered and treated with a little dilute hydrochloric acid shows trace of effervescence. no The reaction is shown in the following on goes which equation
:
"

CaHgOa
Calcium hydroxide

Na^CO,,
Sodium
carbonate

2Na0H
Sodium hydroxide

CaCOg
Calcium carbonate a

It takes about soda liquor.

an

hour

and

half to causticise

batch

of

During

the

process

of causticising
altered and
are

many

impurities
out

in
an

the soda liquors become insoluble form, thus any

thrown

in

sulphide

of sodium

is oxidised

to

sulphate and this reacting with the lime forms sulphate of lime, which passes into the insoluble residue which is formed;
any aluminate'

and
and

silicate is similarly silica thrown

down.

decomposed

and

insoluble

alumina

20

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

When carbonate
and

the causticising operation is completed,

the calcium
to settle out,

and insoluble impurities

are

are

allowed

the clear caustic liquors

to the

run

into boiling pots to be

boiled down
thrown
new

away,

but

is not The lime mud solidifying point. in, and a fresh tank liquor is run some

from The lime mud causticising operation carried out. to settle out, the this is treated with water and allowed
some

liquors contain

alkali, and

are

used for dissolving

any

some

fresh balls, finally the

used

lime is 61tered from

furnaces.
are

Uquor, and

in the black-ash

The pans
run or

caustic liquors
pots to
a

first boiled down of about

in wrought-iron
then
they
are

strength

34" Tw.,

into cast-iron pans, where the concentration is continued From until a strength of from 70" to 80" Tw. is obtained.
these, after allowing
any

insoluble

matter

to settle out, the

hquor
down.
any

is

run

into

When

^cast-iron pot, nearly finished, some

so
ensure

in which

it is concentrated
to oxidise

nitre is added
from
are

bodies, and
nearly

their removal

the caustic.
tested for
as

When

finished, the contents

the

of the pot
so

their alkali strength, and

make

working
of

arranged

to

the

finished

caustic

the

required

degree

of

strength.

finished caustic is then run into wrought-iron drums, in which it is allowed to sohdify, and in which it is sold. Commercial having or white mass, caustic soda is a cream
The
a

shght

fibrous structure.

It is very

hygroscopic,

readily-

from the air and passing into a highlyabsorbing water caustic liquor. It also readily absorbs carbonic acid from the air passing into carbonate, so that it is not desirable that

caustic soda should

It is sold
cent., 64
as

be exposed
60 per

too

much

to the air.

cream

per cent, caustic, white

cent.,

60 per These

per

cent., 74

and

77

per

cent.

figures refer to the proportion of sodium oxide, T^b^O, contained in the caustic, irrespective of it being in the form of

CAUSTIC

SODA.

21

caustic brands

The carbonate. actual composition of various in the following analyses : of caustic is shown
or
"

These

may

be taken
grades

to be fairly representative

analyses
seen

of the various

of caustic, from
a

which

it will be

that the lower grades contain These have

a

large proportion of impurities.

They pass effect in soap-making. into the lyes, being all soluble in water, and act by retarding the saponification of the oils and fats. This they do in

material

virtue of soap being

and
so

insoluble in solutions of alkaline salts, they tend to throw the soap out of solution as fast as
and the soapthis is justthe opposite of what To ensure perfect and rapid saponification,
as

it is formed,
maker

requires.

it is necessary
of the

that the soap

it is formed
pass
a

by the combination It is

fat and

alkali should
use
as

into solution.

therefore desirable to

good

and consequently
a

better to purchase
no
case

caustic soda as possible, a 74 per cent, caustic than

a

70 per cent., while in

should

weaker

per cent, be used, although the writer knows .70 The 77 per cent, caustic is not done by some soap-makers. The soap-makers. good soap by some considered to make

caustic than that such is

caustics contain a variable proportion of carbonate, due to imperfect causticising. This carbonate has very little action, if any, in saponifying fats and oils,but it helps the weaker other

impurities

in retarding

the

formation

of soap.

This in

and salts will be effect of alkaline carbonates full in another place in these pages.

discussed

22 It used make

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

to be the custom
own

at

one

time

for soap-makers
many

to
now,

their

caustic from
more

soda

ash, and for them

do

so

arguing
own

that it is
to buy

economical

to make

their

than

it in the soUd

form, while

the soap-maker

has also to bear the expense

of the labour attending

can

its being doubt

dissolved into lye again.

that than

There

scarcely
own

be

any

for

soap-maker

to make
;
on

to buy

it ready-made

caustic is cheaper the other hand, and this is a his

some

consideration

which

weighs
are

with

soap-makers,

homemade
containing

caustic liquors
undecomposed

apt to be defective, either by

or

carbonate
used

by
;

containing

traces

of

lime which
carbonate
and how again

has been

in

excess

then

the residual lime

source

sludge

which

is obtained
who

is

of anxiety
a

trouble to the soap-maker,

to

would

often be at
can use

loss it up

get rid of it, while

some

the

caustic-maker

in

other

branch
to

of his business. the method

may,

It may,

ever, how-

be worth detail by means

make

while

describe

somewhat

in

of which caustic, and

the soap-maker

if he chooses,

his

own

this description will apply equally

or

well for either caustic soda First Method

:

caustic potash. An iron tank Gold Process,

"

is provided
On
the

which

may

be made

out

of
a

an

old steam-boiler. of 5 cwt.

bottom

of this is placed
and
on

layer

of fresh

lime, quickSix

this is poured
soda ash
are

sufficient water
then evenly

to slake it.
over

cwt. of good

spread

the layer

of lime.
and
now

Above above
on,

the soda

is placed
another
a

another

layer of quicklime,

this again
or

layer of soda.

Water

is

poured

weak

lye from

be used, and
hours, when
the bottom
water

the

mass

is allowed

may previous treatment to stand for fifteen to sixteen

all the lye which

has been formed

as

is run

off from
More

; this is generally known

run

first runnings.

is

now

on

to the materials

in the

tank

and

again
the lye

allowed

to work
run

for fifteen to sixteen hours, after which

second

is again

off,constituting

runnings

; these

will be

CAUSTIC

SODA.

23
a

weaker

than

the first. Afterwards

fresh quantity the

of water is
run

is

run

in, and

after allowing

it to stand
to
use
a

Hquor

off. This

liquor is too weak

for soap-making,
new

and

is

used in place of water

in making
now

batch

of lye. method
to

The

residue in the tank

rather

is

thrown

away.

This

is

faulty in many

respects ; the of soda

or

lye is apt
some

contain it is

either unchanged

carbonate
these

lime, and
process

difficultto remedy

defects.

The

next

is preferable.

Second

Method

Boiling

Process,
case

"

As

before

an an

iron
open
heat.

tank is provided, which

in this
to

is fitted with
the

steam-pipe

which

is used
are

supply

necessary

Besides
and

this, tanks
the

required
Five
;

for slaking
cwt.

the quick-lime
soda ash
are

dissolving
in 50

alkali.

of good

dissolved
are are

cwt.

of water

2J

cwt.

of good

quick-lime

slaked
ready
a

by adding
they
are

sufficient water.

"When

these materials and heated

transferred

to the boiling tank

by
To

current
see

of steam the

for

some

hours, has

say from

four to five.
done
a

whether

operation

been

properly

small portion allowed little litmus, hydrochloric

take

is taken

out of the boiler, and to

the lime it contains

a

to settle out,
or

the

clear liquor is added

and then

better, methyl
the

orange, colour

sufficient
no

acid to turn
place
no

red.

Should

vescence effermade,

the

operation
present. has
now

has

been

properly there added

and

there

is

carbonate

Should
not

be effervescence, in the
the mixture

then

sufficient lime
more

been

firstinstance, and

should

be sent in and
the

again boiled for two

can

hours,
see

after which
no

settled lye

be again
The

tested

to

that

carbonate

remains

unchanged.

lye should
a

also be tested

for hme,

which

is

portion of the clear lye and a solution of soda ash, when, if any lime be present, happening In this event precipitate will fall down.
small

done by taking

adding
a

white
more

soda a^h should

be added

to

the contents

of the boiler, and

24 the
mass

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

again boiled up.

not

When

the tests have

shown

that

the lye does soda

or

carbonate of contain either undecomposed is allowed to stand for the carbonate lime, the mass
has been formed

of Ume
The

which

in the

process

to settle out.

clear liquor is drawn

off into the

lye tanks.
and

The

lime

residue is then stirred up with clean water,

to settle.

again allowed
for dissolving
away.

The

clear liquor is drawn

off and

used

up fresh soda

ash, while the lime mud

:

is thrown
"

Third

Method

Strunz
a

Lye

Apparatus,

Mr.

S.

M.

Strunz

has

invented

very

convenient

form

of apparatus

for making

caustic lye, which

is shown

in the accompany-

FlQ.

1.

ing drawing portions,

one

(fig. ). Strunz*s lye apparatus 1

for making

consists of two
other
for filtering

the

caustic In the

lye, the top

the lime
made

from

the

lye.

vessel, which

is

boiler shape and provided with an open steam-pipe, are In the upper portion is a perforated placed 800 lb. of soda ash. lumps iron plate on are of quick-hme placed. which
The The boiler is
now

filled with
slakes
soda

water

and

steam

turned

on.

lime gradually

and

dissolves, and
lower stated

passing portion
to

downwards

causticises the

lye in the

of the

boiler.
After
a

About
few

650

lb. of

lime
mass

are

hours' boiling, the

in the

required. boiler is allowed

be

CAUSTIC

SODA.

25
to
run

to settle ; the clear solution of caustic soda is allowed

out of the pipe, which

is arranged

at the side of the boiler for

that purpose,

into the
some

lye store-tank.

The
run

residual

lime,

still containing

unseparated

lye, is
a

into the lye apparatus

below. between

This

consists of

filtering material placed

iron plates ; the lye drains through them into the lye store-tank. The lime mud or refuse is thrown
perforated
away.

From

the

quantities
a

of material

given

possible to produce
strong, such
as

solution of caustic-soda be made

from 600

above it is lye 26" Tw.

cent,

would

lb. of 77 per

caustic soda. It is not possible to make

25" Tw., because

lyes of greater
properly

strength

than

the lime will not

causticise such
to

strong

soda-ash

hquors

as

must

be

used

make

strong

caustic lyes. It should be borne in mind that the quahty of caustic lyes* ent of these processes is not only dependmade by any one
upon

the

care

with which

the operation is carried out in

the directions of ensuring

perfect causticisation of the alkaU of Ume

used, but in preventing any excess into the alkaU lye which is made,
the soda

finding
on

its way

but

also

the quality of

ash

used ; the

will be the caustic

salt,sulphate

better the quality of this the purer inasmuch ties, the soluble impurias made,
are

of soda, which

present in the low grades

a

of soda ash, will find their way to into the caustic lye is made, which

greater

or

less extent
some

although

of the

sulphate which

may
some

be present
extent,

in low-grade but
any

soda ashes will

be causticised to
affected in any The
drums,

chloride

will not

be

way.

commercial which

caustic soda is usually supplied

open

in large

require to be broken

they contain can iron tanks with a is not much difficultyin doing

caustic be dissolved. This caustic is dissolved in suitable quantity of water ; although there
so,

before

the

stillthere

are

right and

26
a

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

wrong

way

of doing

even

this simple operation.

and throw the

The

wrong

way

is to open

the drums Here

a

tom caustic to the botslightly acted upon

formed,

of the lye tank. by the remain

water,

it will become lye will be

and

strong

which

will

saturated, with the solid caustic, and, becoming will prevent further solution ; then again, the caustic will tend to set into a solid mass, which is difficultto deal

in contact

with

when

at the

bottom

of

tank.

The

right way

is to

suspend

the solid caustic at the top of the tank

the surface of the
water

justunderneath
the

used

to dissolve it, then

lye

as

it is formed,

being

heavier

than

the

surrounding

Fig.

2.

water,
reason

sinks to the bottom, of the

currents
or

so

that

the solid caustic is by always

thus

set up

coming

in contact

with
soon

fresh water

unsaturated

lye, and

consequently

becomes

dissolved.

This

is carried out
ends

in

some

works
them

by opening
the tanks
to have
a

the drums

at both

and

suspending

in

by

A better method is,however, of chains. perforated iron plate placed just under the surface
means

of the water

or or

liquor in the tanks.

the

On

this the drums

out

may

be placed,
drums

solid caustic
on

may

be broken

of the

and

thrown

to it

(see fig. 2).

or

A tank

is placed

in

room

place

above

the soap-boil-

CAUSTIC

SODA.

27 the floor,

ing kettles ; part of this tank may

be placed below

but at least 18 in. should be above the floor; a swing syphon tube should be placed in the tank for the purpose of running a tube has some off the lye. For this purpose syphon advantage
over
a

simple

or

fixed tap placed

in the side of the

tank.

below grating

be fixed in the top of the tank just the surface of the liquor contained in the tank ; this
A

grating should

may

be placed

on

supports

which
the
are

extend

from

side

to side of the tank.

On

this grating
out

drums

of caustic

which

have

had

the ends knocked

placed, the water

the caustic^

penetrating

into the drum

gradually dissolves out

the
water,

the solution, being heavier than

tom sinks to the botof fresh water

or

of the
weak
so

tank,

constant

circulation

hquor

passing through
then

the drima becoming down

to the

stronger in
of the tank.

doing, which goes

on

goes

bottom

This
This

until all the caustic in the tank

of working
means some

is dissolved.

method

less labour

in the handling
; there

of the caustic, which

is of

advantage

is

no

undissolve

caustic formed

at the bottom

of the tank, while the

operation is done somewhat quicker. From the sohd caustic, soda lyes of any
made. It should

strength

may

be

be remembered is attended

that

the the

solution of solid-

caustic soda
considerable

in water
amount

by

evolution of

some

of heat, which

may

be utilised by running

the fresh and stiU warm

caustic lyes into the soap-boilers.

not

Caustic-soda
the atmosphere,

lyes should
as

be kept

too long exposed

to

they tend to absorb carbonic acid and pass

or

into carbonate

of soda, the alkaline Should

soap-making
necessary
at

strength
any may

being thereby reduced.

to keep

it be

time

lyes

considerable
on

time

before using
some

they

be

preserved
wax,

by pouring
setting In this
wax
can

their surface

melted air from

some

paraffin

which

on

cooling prevents
they may many

any

getting time.

to the lyes.

manner

be kept for times.

The

paraffin

be used

28

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

following table of the specific gravities of solutions : of caustic soda will be of service to soap-makers
The
"

CAUSTIC-SODA

LYES.

29

30

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

The figuresin this table have been most carefully calculated, and it is believed that they are accurate, at all events
so sufficiently for alltechnical purposes. The figuresin the last three columns giving the quantities of actual caustic in

one

gallon of lye are new ; those for 74 per cent, and 70 per puritie cent, caustics are based on the assumption that the imin such caustic have as much influence in raising

has, the specific gravity of the lye as the actual causticitself fluence they have sometimes less inwhereas, as a matter of fact,
so ; that the actual strength of and sometimes more the lye in contents of actual caustic depends upon the character the impuritiespresent, which will vary from time to of

the figures given may be accepted as sufficiently time, still By knowing the strength of the correct for technicalwork.

commercial caustic he is using and the gravity of his lyes, the soap-maker from this table will be able to calculatethe weight of actual caustic he may have in any given quantity of lye,and thus having a given quantity of fat,and knowing how much caustic this willrequire,he will be able to add the just right amount of lye to saponify the fat. Solutions of caustic soda have a somewhat soapy feelJ they react very strongly on the skin, dissolvingit. They dissolve wool and animal tissues rapidly, and react upon transparent and causing it cotton, making it become more
to swell.

powerfully basic,and capable of neutralising the strongest acids,the sodium saltswhich are formed They
are

in being characterisedby theirsolubility water ; with oilsand fats itreacts very strongly.
The following table gives the proportion of caustic soda required to saponify the various oilsand fatscommonly used in soap-making :
"

POTASSIUM.

31
Per
cent, of NaOH

Oil.

to saponify.

Olive Oil
Almond

13-66 to 18-91. 13-82 to 18-92.

Oil Oil

Ground-nut
Sesame

18-66 to 18-98. 18-49 to 18*66. 18-66 to 13-92. 18-80 to 13-86. 13-88 to 16-92.

Oil

Cotton
Linseed

Oil
Oil

Whale

Oil
Oil
Oil
.

Ooco-nut
Palm-nut Tallow Palm

17-48 to 19-05.
1662 to 17-61.

13-70 to 14-06. 18-92 to 14-44. 12-49 to 12-88. 12-07 to 18-66.

Oil

Castor
Eosin

Oil

POTASSIUM.

The

second

alkali metal

much

used

in soap-making
respects.
water,

is
It

in many This resembles potassium. sodium is a silver-white metal, very soft, lighter than
a
.

having

specificgravity of 0*865. It melts at 62*5" C, and at a red heat can be volatilised, its vapour having a green colour.

Exposed
thrown
on

to

the

water

; air it rapidly oxidises to the monoxide it rapidly discomposes it with the evolution

of hydrogen

and

the

formation

(caustic potash) ; the energy

hydroxide of potassium evolved in the reaction being

It is more
or

to bum. the hydrogen suificientlygreat to cause With one energetic in its action than sodium.

two

exception

are

platino-chloride, acid tartrate, all its salts soluble are readily soluble in water, while none absolutely ine.g,ythe It
was

discovered
a

by Sir Humphrey electric current

on

Davy

in 1807
potassium

by the action of hydroxide. Potassium

in

powerful

fused

occurs

very

abundantly

and

very

widely

distributed

nature.

It is found

in

sea-water,

in marine

plants, in plants of all kinds, from! whose ashes potassium in the form of carbonate is largely obtained ; it occurs combined with
and

alumina
form

and

silicate in various natural associated

with
common

silicates,
salt.

in the

of chloride

32

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

magnesium

nitrate as an is assigned To potassium firstletter of the Latin name kali.

Two
maker, potash. Its atomic

chloride, in various localities; it is also found efflorescence on the soil in hot countries.
the

as

symbol

K, that being the

kaUum,

the Arabic term

being

weight

is 39*1.
are

of its compounds viz., the

of special interest to the soapand the

carbonate

hydroxide

or

caustic

This very important comPotash, potassium pound carbonate. by the formula has the composition KgCOg. shown
"

Its original source was the ashes of plants, but it is made also from the various deposits of potassium chloride found at

Stassfurt and
the Leblanc Trees
and

Stanislaus by

process

analogous

to

that

of

soda process. other vegetables

from

have

the property

of absorbing

potassium and
etc.,
are as as

compounds

the soil in fairly large proportion,

this is left behind

burnt, the ashes of wood

a source sources

in the ash when the trees, have for a long period been following table compiled
of ash and

used from

of potash. shows

The

several

the percentage
:
"

that of

potash

yielded by various woods

The

manufacture

of potash

from from

wood

is

industry in Canada

and America,

which

considerable countries Great

Britain derives its principal supply. The is comparatively of manufacture method

simple.

POTASHES.

33

The and

trees

are

split
ashes

or

cut
are

burnt, the
a

up into logs of convenient size into a tank collected and thrown

fitted with little slaked

hydroxide
are

false bottom,

and

little water the

containing
carbonate

lime is put

into the tank,

are

and
and

in the ashes
out, while

freely soluble in the water

sulphate, chloride, or other into hydroxide by the lime neutral salt is partially converted sufficie and partially left insoluble in the residue of the ashes, inany

dissolved

being used to dissolve them along with the two products desired. The liquors when saturated are drawn into iron pots, and then evaporated to dryness, when off, run left behind ; these constitute are masses greyish-pink pot
water
**
".

ashes this body In

It is owing
owes

to this method

of manufacture

that

its name

of potash. potash is named

this article, whenever

it will have
".

while the hydroxide reference to the carbonate of potassium, be referred to as caustic potash, but never as may potash '* The potashes are graded by inspectors into firsts," "seconds,"
''

"

thirds,
From

'*

**

".

and

unbrandables
''

the potashes

"

pearlash

is made

by calcining in

furnace ; the small amount of carbonaceous reverberatory in the potashes is burnt off, the hydroxide converted matter

into carbonate,
are

converted

sulphide, sulphite, thiosulphate present is then The into sulphate. calcined mass
some
a

lixiviated with
evaporated

small quantity

down

of water, the solution is then to dryness, and by agitation during solidification

is obtained

the product colour

in granular
commerce.

masses

of

white of in

and

forms

the pearlash of

The
one

process

thus manufacture localities. most

briefly sketched

is the

followed

is very pearlash" and composition of /'potashes" variable, although the main constituent is the carbonate, yet there is also present hydroxide, sulphate, chloride, silicate,
The
^

*'

aluminate,

small quantities of insoluble matter, 3

sodium

salts,

34
etc.

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

is also obtained from beetroot molasses, the ashes from which contain 45 to 50 per cent, of potash. A small quantity is made from suint, the natural grease of wool. A large quantity is made from the sulphate and chloride
Potash

of potassium by a modification of the Leblanc soda process. The sulphate is firstprepared, then this is fumaced with limestone and coal, the resulting ash is lixiviated with
water,

the liquors

are

then evaporated

down

to obtain the

potash.

gives potash of a high degree of purity, and such potash islikelyto supersede that from wood ashes owing to its greater purity and lower cost. The following table shows the composition of various commercial qualitiesof potash, compiled from the published analyses of Tatlock and other chemists :
"

This process

The

position above analyses will sufficeto show the average comof commercial potashes. They are sold on a basis

per cent, of actual carbonate, the of containing so much standard being 90 per cent, of carbonate, a standard which is only obtainable in the best pearlashes.

CAUSTIC

POTASH.

35 in water,
100

Carbonate

of potassium

is freely soluble

parts of which at 0" C. dissolve 83-12 parts ; at 10" C. 88-72 parts ; at 30" C. 109 parts ; at 50" C. 112*9 parts ; at 80" C. 134*25
parts, and
at 100" C. 153*6 parts.
CAUSTIC POTASH.

This

important
As far
as

potassium its main

compound
are

has

the

formula

KOH. resembles slightly

properties sodium
and

concerned,

it closely

the corresponding
more

compound greater

; it is,however,

hygroscopic

shows

affinity for the

or

carbonic

acid of the atmosphere.

on

It is rather stronger
a

more

caustic in its action

various bodies,

property

due chiefly
other bodies.

to the greater affinity of potassium

for acids and

amorphous

It is

a a

white, sohd

body, of

an

character, and
red

having

specific gravity of 2*10.

an

At

little below
has
a

heat

it melts to
action
on

oily-looking liquid, which

and

most

powerful

all animal the

vegetable

tissues.
accompanied it absorbs

It

dissolves
with
the
exposure

easily in water,

solution being
heat, and

evolution

of considerable

water

on

to the atmosphere.

The
caustic

aqueous

solution

possesses

strongly
moderate

alkaline

and

properties, and
such

when
a

of

degree of concentration

solution has

solvent

action

on

animal

tissues.

It is also capable

of neutraUsing

forming the strongest acids known, the potassium salts, all be obtained in the of which are soluble in water ; a few may

form

of precipitates from

very

strong

solutions of potash,

to their slight solubility. owing Exposed to the air caustic potash solutions rapidly absorb carbonic acid, passing firstinto the carbonate, ultimately into

the

bicarbonate;
lyes
as

on

this account

it is desirable to
Aqueous

expose

potash

precipitate
metallic

littleas possible to the air. from the metal as hydroxide

as

solutions
some

solutions of

salts such

ferrous

and

ferric chlorides, copper

sulphate, etc.

chloride, magnesium

sulphate, aluminium

36

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Potassium

hydroxide

is also soluble in alcohol, methyl

other solvents.

alcohol, glycerine, and

some

Caustic
employed
purchased the

potash

is made

by

processes

in preparing from
the

caustic soda, and alkali-maker,

similar to those it may be although

are

soap-makers The
same

still in methods

habit

of preparing
as

it themselves.

caustic soda may be used and for weight potash Weight need no further description here. takes less lime to causticise it than soda, the proportions
of working

described

under

being

as

69 to 53.
to every

It is best to allow hundredweight in making

from

50 to 53 lb. of

quick-lime Care been

that

of potash.
that

should

be taken
as

all the

potash

has
also

causticised,
no
excess more

will be shown

by the acid test, and

These
of

of lime be used.

defects may
more

be cured
as

by using
case

lime,

or

the addition

potash,

the

may

be.
strengths

Convenient
22", 30",
or

of caustic potash

lyes to make

are

15",

40" Tw., which

contain

approximately

1 lb.,1 J lb..

If lb., and 2 lb. actual caustic potash per gallon.

When in
a

See

table.
are

caustic potash
of quiet

lyes

are

boiled down
then

until they
to

state

fusion, and

allowed
three

cool, solid
are

caustic
made.

potash The

is obtained.
from

Usually
80
to 85

qualities
cent,

best contains
the

per
75

of actual
per
cent.,

potassium
and the

hydroxide,
lowest
show

medium
to

from
per

to 80

from

70

75

cent.

The

following

analyses

the constituents usually found

:
"

in commercial

caustic potash
Potassium
Potassium Potassium

hydroxide
carbonate sulphate chloride
nitrite hydroxide silica and
matter
.

Potassium

Potassium Sodium Soluble

Insoluble

alumina

Water

CAUSTIC

POTASH.

37

from which
are

it will be
so

seen

that commercial
as

caustic potashes
caustic

not

of

pure

character

the

commercial

sodas. Several
man

tables have

been

pubUshed

by Dalton,

Lunner-

and

Eichter, of the strength tables

are

of aqueous

caustic potash and good service

lyes.

These

not

very concordant,

would be rendered of chemistry

to technical chemistry

by

some

fessor college proto solve this

one

setting his students table is based

as

to work
on

problem.

The

following is probably
OF

the

given by
:
"

Dalton, which
TABLE

accurate
POTASH

as

any

of them
AT

OF

STRENGTH

CAUSTIC

SOLUTIONS

60" F.

Caustic potash
soft soaps.
more

is used

in soap-making
and

only

for making fats much

so

It acts upon
does

saponifies oils and

and

readily than
are

caustic soda,

the have

soaps

duced pro-

more

freely soluble in water

hundred

and

hygroscopic
oleate will

properties.

One

parts of dry potassium

absorb 162 parts of water potassium

from

the air ; the

up

same

quantity

of

palmitate

will take

35

parts

of water,

while

sodium stearate

only absorbs

7^

per cent, of water.

38
Hard

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

although
on.

potash soaps are not manufactured in practice, be made as will be described farther they can

The combining equivalentof potassium hydroxide, KOBE, bein^ higher (56) than is that of sodium hydroxide, NaOH

(40),oils require a larger proportion by weight of caustic

potash than they do of caustic soda to saponify them ; on the other hand a proportionatelygreater weight of soap is yielded. Generally oilstake from 18'5 to 20 per cent, of pure caustic
potash
to saponify them ;
some

take

little more,

others

l ]ittleess. The following table gives the percentage of actual KOH used with caustic required to saponify the oilscommonly
soft soaps, although a few others have been added to make the table complete. These percentages correspond with the Koettstorfer numbers obtained in the

potash to make

testing of oils:
"

Oil.

Per cent, of KOH.

Olive oil Almoudoil Ground-nut

oil

19-1

to 19-6

19-47 to 19-61 19-13 to 19-66 19 19-1 to 19-24 to 19-66

Betjftme oil
Cotton oil Linseed oil Whale oil Coco-nut oil pB^lm-nut oil Tallow Paimoil

18-74 to 19-62 18-85 to 22-44

24-62 to 26-84
22
to 24-76

19-32 to 19-8

19-63 to 20-35
17-6 17
to 18-16

Castor oil
Bosin

to 19-3

ALKALIMETRY.

Alkalimetry is the art of determining the value of the bonates alkaline bodies which have been described above, the carand hydroxides of potassium and sodium. Aa usually carried out the process depends upon

the fact

that when any of the alkalativecompounds in question are brought into contact with sulphuric acid combination takes

ALKALIMETRY.

39 being formed

place, sulphates
to the following

of the alkali metals

according

equations
H2SO4
+

:
"

2 KOH
Potassium hydroxide

K2SO4
Potassium
sulphate +

2H2O

Sulphuric acid

H2SO4

K2CO3
Potassium

K2SO4

CO2

HjO

H2SO4

2NaOH
Sodium hydroxide

Na2S04
Sodium
sulphate +

2H2O

H2SO4

NaaCO,
Sodium
carbonate

Na^S04

OOg

H^O

which

show

the action
are

of the acid

on

the four alkaline compounds

which
From
98 molecular

of importance

in soap-making.
that
one

these equations it is seen

molecular

proportion
to

parts

by

weight

of sulphuric

acid is equal weight

of

two

proportions
or

112

parts

by

potassium

hydroxide,
of potassium

to

one

molecular
or

proportion

138 parts by weight

carbonate, of sodium

to two

molecular
or

proportions
molecular

80
proportion

parts by weight

hydroxide,
of sodium
or one

to

one

106 parts by weight

carbonate.
proportion, then

Taking

one

molecular of sodium

equivalent
as
a

40

parts by weight,

hydroxide

standard,

49 of sulphuric
" "

acid =56
=69 =40 =53

of potassium

hydroxide.

"

"

of potassium carbonate. hydroxide. of sodium of sodium carbonate.

"

"

Knowing

then

the proportions

in which

sulphuric

acid

and the alkahes

react

with

one

another,
a

it follows that to ascertain commercial

sample,
to neutralise

the quantity

of actual alkali in
the quantity

it] suffices to ascertain

a

of acid required

known

weight

of the
use

alkaline

body.

This

is most

easily and simply done by the

of known

of a solution of sulphuric acid

strength
The

to

solution of the alkali until neutrality by making

is attained.
use
as

latter point is readily ascertained which

are

of certain bodies
they
are are

altered in colour according

or

in the presence

of alkalies

acids ;

some

of

these bodies

excessively sensitive, and

will readily show

40

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

the presence

of the minutest
as

trace

These

indicators,

they

are

alkali. called, will be dealt with in

of either acid

or

detail shortly. This system

of analysis is known
as

volumetric

analysis,

because its essential feature is the measurement

of certain solutions of known
These made

of the volume

strength.

solutions

are

called standard

solutions, and may

up

be

of any

strength,

but there has grown

analysis
a

with

velopmen the dethe

are
an

of volumetric

system

of making

various standard
called normal

solutions of recognised

strengths, what
to contain
or

equivalent

solutions; these are supposed in each htre weight in grammes reagent.

Thus
normal

1000

cubic

centimetres of the contains 49 grammes

hydroxide
Normal

actual HgSO^ 40
grammes

sulphuric acid per litre. Normal sodium

actual

contains sodium

NaOH
actual

per

litre.
per

carbonate potassium
Normal
per

53

grammes

Na2C03

litre. Normal
actual KOH. actual KgCOg

hydroxide

56 grammes

per litre of of It

potassium
so on

carbonate

69 grammes reagents.

litre, and
c.c.

with
one

other

therefore follows that 1

of any

of these normal

standard

solutions is equal to 1 c.c. of any other. For the purpose of measuring the volume of the standard as burettes, glasses known solutions there are used measuring
of which form thfi^best
one
C.C.

is^ that

known_as^ohr's, with

atop,

cock^ and to hold 50

or

twci^JK^n^^b^ proviVjftdthft h^nt hW'^ ^'s onfi ;

These gmduatedJnJgnthsofa_c.c.
are

and

ported sup-

noted

in suitable stands, and the volume of liquid iiithem is where the bottom of the meniscus of the upper surface
to be to adjacent
a

of the fluid appears

mark

on

the burette.
the

This

is done

before

and

after using

the solution, and

or

difference between
of
c.c's

the figures gives the volume To

number

of solution used.
"

burette, small glass floats line round these comes a

facilitate the reading of the Erdmann's floats may be used ;

"

up

close

to

the

sides of the

ALKALIMETRY.

41

burette, and the reading is much

made.

easier and

more

accurately

Besides the burette there is used in volumetric analysis pipettes for measuring of Uquids and off definite volumes
flasks marked
to hold
a

definitequantity of liquid when

filled

up to certain marks on the neck. The standard solution most in

in alkalimetry is one of sulphuric acid of normal strength, that is 1000 c.c's of it It can be bought from contain 49 grammes of pure H2SO4. all dealers in analytical chemicals, ready prepared ; that is a
use

convenient but most expensive manner of procuring it. The best and cheapest plan is to make it for one's own use.
To
or

do this, procure

supply of pure

desiccator, weigh out exactly 53 grammes of the dried carbonate, dissolve in water, place the solution in a litre-measuring flask and fillup to the mark with water. There will be now prepared a normal
a

pure carbonate of soda ; place a heat to redness, allow to cool in

bicarbonate of soda quantity in a crucible and

solution of sodium carbonate, each c.c. of which contains 0*053 gramme of NagCOg and is equal to 0*049 H2SO,.
Measure
out

standard

55 cc/s of pure strong

sulphuric acid and

dissolve in two htres of water.

stronger than normal

This solution will be a little depends upon the strength, but much

actual strength of the acid used. Place the sulphuric-acid solution which in a burette, and note the Then reading.

has
measure a

been

made

with

"V pipette 10
a

c.c's

of the normal

soda solution into

beaker, add

solution, then, turning on the tap of the burette, allow the acid to drop into the soda soluof methyl-orange

few drops

fy

the colour of the constantly stirring the latter. When jirtion, \J soda solution changes from yellow to red, the operation, or titrationas it is called, is finished. If the acid solution is of ' the right strength 10 cc.'s of it ought to have been used. If

42 less is required From

as

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

it is too

strong;

if

more,

it is too
a

weak.

the quantity
to how

of acid solution required, make

water
or

calculation

much

how

much

bring it up to the right strength. Then if necessary, again, with 10 c.c.'s of the soda
add water
or

acid is required to test it again, and,

solution, and
a

acid

as

required until you

have prepared

standard

acid solution, 10 c.c/s of which

c.c.'s

will

justneutralise

10

of the soda solution.

normal

acid solution will then be of strength and will contain 49 grammes of actual H2SO4.

The

per litre.

The

methyl

orange

which

has been
an

to the soda solution is what

is termed

directed to be added indicator ; it is very

turns

sensitive to acids, the merest

It may

trace of which

it pink.
to describe

be convenient

here, before proceeding

alkalimetrical processes, to briefly note the various indicators which are used in this branch of chemical

fully the various

analysis. One of the oldest indicators is litmus. This body forms turns red on a violet blue solution, which the addition of bluer. It is the shade a little acids, while alkalies change
a

good

indicator to

use

when
one

acid; it has, however,

testing alkaline liquors with drawback when using it in the

testing of alkaline carbonates, and that is the carbonic acid which is evolved from the carbonates by the action of the standard acid, and which tends, by its solubility in water, to
remain in solution in the liquid, has
red, and

the property there is

a

ing of turnto

the Utmus

consequently

tendency

testing carbonates with litmus. obtain too low results when by boiUng the solutions This trouble can only be got over before titrating, so as to prevent the carbonic acid from becoming dissolved
and objectionable

in the

solution.

This

boiling

is rather
are

inconvenient, although

excellent results

obtained
Litmus

when

it is resorted to. being rapidly replaced is, however,

by

methyl

ALKALIMETRY.

43
; it

orange.

Methyl

orange

is one

of the coal-tar azo-oranges

dissolvesfreely in water, forming an orange solution, which is turned yellow by alkalies,and red by the merest presence of acids such as sulphuric, nitric,hydrochloric, aqetic, oxalic
acids,but not with carbonic and some weak organic acids. This want of sensitiveness to carbonic acid enables it to be used in the analysis of alkaline carbonates in cold solutions,

convenient to work with than hot solutions. Phenol phthalein is a preparation of phenol and phthahc acid ; it is a yellowish powder insoluble in water, but soluble
which
are

more

in alcohol

spirits to a colourless solution. It has the property of producing an intense red colour with the
or

methylated

caustic alkalies, and

red with the alkaline carbonates. Its sensitiveness is great ; it can be used with advantage in the testing of acids with standard solutions of sodium
a

weaker

or

potassium
a

hydroxide, the merest

coloration,
or or

excess

of the latter producing

pink

it may

be used

in the testing

hydroxides (caustic sodium alkalies) with standard acid. It does not work well with the alkaline carbonates, it shows the normal carbonates to be alkaline, but
of pure potassiimi

the acid carbonates are neutral to it. It does not work well in ammonia. A weak solution in methylated spiritis used in analysis. Lacmoid
over

is a preparation of resorcin, and behaves hke litmus, more which it has the advantage of being a little

'

sensitiveto acids. There are other indicators which may be used, hut the above are sufficient for all purposes in alkalimetry. Methyl
orange is the indicator which the author prefers to use. The operation of testing the alkaline carbonates and hydroxides is practically alike for all,so that one description

willsuffice. Testing Sodium

grammes

or

Potassium

Carbonate.
a

"

Weigh measuring

out five

of the alkali,transfer to

250

c.c.

flask.

44

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

fill this up

to

the
as

containing
the volume

mark

advisable to heat,

with water. of the liquid may

250
c.c.

It is not thereby be
made,

affected, for although

it might becoming
and

measure

when

it

will

measure

less

on occur,

cold, due to the contraction the results will not

come

in
out

volume

that will

then

right.
at
a

All volumetric

apparatus

is understood

to be correct

uniform

temperature
more

of 60" F., which the average

is not

the best;

70" F. is much

nearly

working

temperature

of

laboratory, and

is much

easier to obtain in practice. sulphuric

acid, measure hy a pipette 25 c.c.'s of the alkali solution into a beaker, add little methyl-orange to give a faint a solution, just enough
yellow

Fill the burette with

the normal

tint to

the

liquid, then

drop

in

from (titrate)

the

burette the acid until the colour of the liquid changes from To be able to observe the colour change yellow to pink.
more

quickly, it is best to place

white in
a

tile or
good

plate under
Methyl

the beaker, and orange

does

to carry out the work

light.

well in gaslight, the change is not so by gaslight it is best to use easily perceptible ; when working
not

work

litmus

or

Jacmoid, then the alkah solution must

Note
or

be boiled previous of acid used.

to titrating.

the number three

of

c.c.'s

Repeat

the test two

times ; the various

c.c.

should

not

differ more

than 0*05
used,
a

from

one

readings If an another.
paper
more

Erdmann's

float is not burette

sheet

of white
to

held easily

behind
taken.

the

enables

the readings

be

Having
can

ascertained the number

to the

of

c.c.'s

of acid used, these

be calculated

equivalent

of alkali by

is taken, or by by 0*053 if sodium carbonate is being tested ; this gives the weight in carbonate grammes of the alkali in the quantity taken for titration, and
from the figures obtained the percentage
can

multiplying 0*069 if potassium

be calculated.

Testing
or

Sodium
"

or

Potassium process

Hydroxide

{CausticSoda
identical with

Caustic

Potash). The

is exactly

ALKALIMETRY.

45

the above.

In

calculating
0'056

the results, the factors 0*04

are

for of.

caustic soda Caustic articles are

and

for caustic potash

or

made

use
"

Soda

Ash

Commercial
soda
ash

Caustic is
or

Soda,
be

These sodium
soda.

rarely

pure;

should
some

carbonate, but Then commercial

contain
In the
case

it invariably

contains

caustic

variabl caustics, especially the lower grades, inin addition to the caustic. some carbonate
that v^hen

of the caustic alkalies it is advisable they should

used in soap-making
as

contain

as

little carbonate

possible.

Since this takes

of saponifying
to

very the

little,if any, part in the

fats, it is therefore frequently

actual process

necessary

examine

samples

of soda

ash

for the

presence and amount and amount

cases.

of hydroxide,
The

and caustic for the presence method

of carbonate.

is the

same

in both

Five
c.c.'s

grammes
a

are

w^eighed

out

and

dissolved

in

250
a

of

neutral

solution

of barium
; the

chloride ; this gives

volume

precipitate of barium
is made up
to

carbonate c.c/s, then of the

are

of the mixture
as

100
c.c.'s

it is filtered

rapidly
25
c.c.

as

possible.

Fifty

filtrate, which
and

equal
as

of

the original solution,

taken

titrated

before.

This

titrationgives the alkali present as caustic (hydroxide).The difference in the amounts of normal acid used in the two

titrationsrepresents the amount To make the calculations the

of carbonate
c.c.'s

in the sample.
in the
or

of acid used

two

titrationsare
ashes
are

multiplied
tested,
or

by 0'053 by

when

caustic soda

soda
or

being
are

0*069

when

caustic

potash

potashes

being tested.
in the

It is customary strength of soda

or

alkali trade

to

represent

the

not

by

the percentage

of actual

carbonate

hydroxide

they

may

contain,

but

by

the

percentage
no

of

sodium

oxide, NagO,

they

contain.

There

is

difference

in the mode

of testing, but when

the amount

only is required

the factor for multiplying

of sodium oxide the acid is 0*031.

46

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

The
**

amount

of sodium

oxide
as

so

calculated may
or
'*

be expressed
".

as

total alkali,"" alkali

same
case can

The

be done

alkali as caustic the factor with the potash compounds,

carbonate,"

in that
In

being 0047.

alkali works
the of
cc's

it is customary
by
means

to

adopt the

method

of

working
number

tests

of

which

reading

of the

grammes

the percentage acid used gives at once This is done by weighing out 3:1 of alkali present. of the alkali,dissolving in 250 c.c.'s water, titrating

of normal

of c.c.'s used multiplied with the alkali as before ; the number by 10 gives at once This the percentage of NagO present. deal of time by avoiding the trouble of making a good saves

elaborate calculations. In the case of potashes,

out, when
once

6*9 grammes of carbonate,

should

be

weighed
at

the

percentage

KgCOg,

is given

by the acid.
The

following

table of factors may

:
"

be found

useful for

reference in alkalimetry
1
c.c.

normal

sulphuric

acid contains equals

0*049

grm.
"

H2SO4.

0-031
0-040 0-063 0-047

NagO.
NaOH.

"

"

NaaCOa. KjO.
KOH.

"

0-066 0-069
" "

"

"

K2CO3.
NagCOg.

sodium sodium

carbonate

contains
"

0-063

"

"

"

hydroxide hydroxide

6-040
0*066
0-049 0 049

"

NaOH. KOH.
H2SO4. H2SO4.

"
*

"

potassium sodium

"

"

"

"

"

"

sodium

carbonate hydroxide

equals
"

"

"

BORAX.

salt has from time to time been added to soaps of various qualities for the purpose of increasing their detergent properties ; borax is a borate of sodium, having the formula

This

NagB^OglOHgO,
per
.cent,

and

pccurs

in

of water.

It

occurs

containing 47 naturally in various forms, and

fine crystals

SILICATES.

47
the

from this natural borax or is now largely manufactured.

article commercial In Tuscany boracic acid is found, and from this borax is made it with by combining soda. Borax crystals are rather efflorescent, are soluble in about half their weight of boiling water and about 12 parts
of cold water;
when
it has
a

tincal

feebly alkahne
to

taste

and

reaction

hydrochloric
on

acid is added

strong

of borax;
owing

to the

boracic acid coohng feebly alkaline properties

boiling solutions It is crystallises out.

of borax
that

it is

used in soap-making.
PHOSPHATE
OF

SODA.

This substance is often added to soaps with a view also of increasing its detergent properties ; it has the composition in the formula Na2HP04l2H20 shown and forms large
transparent, somewhat efflorescent crystals, soluble in about four parts of cold water, and in boihng water to an unlimited
extent, the solution having
a

faint alkaline reaction.

SODIUM

AND

POTASSIUM

SILICATES.

of the silicates of potassium and sodium or, as they are frequently called, water glass or soluble glass, on account in the solid state, and being of their glassy appearance when
use

The

solublein water, which time they

the preparation
maker

was

suggested

by

Sheridan

in 1838,

since

have

been

largely used

by

soap-makers
The
"

in

of the cheaper

qualities of soaps.

soap".

also knows
are

these products

by the
or

name

of

runnings

They

made

by fusing sand
or

powdered
ash,

quartz of good
as

quality with

potash

with

sodu

according

either

silicate potash or silicate of soda is required ; the operation of being conducted in a suitable furnace. at a high temperature They may be by heating sand with aqueous solution of made important the alkalies. The silicate of soda is by far the more
of the two

bodies.

48

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Silicate of soda solid and liquid.

is offered to soap-makers

in two

forms,

in the form of glassy-looking Solid silicateof soda occurs This colour is due masses of a brownish or greenish colour. to metallic impurities, usually iron, which are present in the is made. It is brittle,breaking fracture, and closely resembles with a conchoidal glass in appearance, and it is this body that is generally understood
sand
from

which

the

product

when

soluble glass

or

water

hquid^caustic soda is the It is a viscous liquid, whose soap-makers.

The ranges
from
an

glass is spoken of. form mostly patronised

by

1*500

specific gravity to 1-546 (100"to 109" Tw.). Generally it

and per

is of sodium

alkaline character,

contains
cent,

15*9 per

cent,

of

oxide, NagO;
The

29*3

silica, SiOg;

54'8 per

cent, of water.

formula

of the dry silicate contained

in

so that although this solution would be Na202Si02, nominally Normal alkaline," it is really an acid silicate in character.
''

lent silicate of soda in which the base and acid are exactly equivato one another has the formula NagOSiOg.
a smaller proportion of neutral'' silicate containing It is advisable that the ratio between soda is often made. in the the silica and the soda should be kept as 2 to 1, shown

**

firstof the
proportion solution
as

formula then

given

above ; if the
be
concentrated

silica is in greater
to
so

it cannot

strong

it is less When without decomposition. for soapthan 2 to 1, it becomes of too caustic a character Usually about 5 per cent, is the quantity employed making. in making pale soaps, and such a quantity will harden a soap.
100" Tw.

If, however,
tendency

the proportion

largely exceeds

this, then
very often

the

is for the soap

to become

pasty
now

and
as

wasteful

in

use.

Silicate of soda
as

is not

used

in soap-

making

it formerly

was.

Silicate of potash
has usually
a

is sold

**

"

as

neutral

solution, which contains

specific gravity

of 1*38 (76" Tw.) and

COMMON

SALT.

49

13*43 per cent, of potassium

oxide, KgO, 24*40

per. cent, of

SiOa, 62*17 per cent, of water. silica,

The proportions of alkali and silica in this approximate to It is also sold as '' neutral'' siUcate the formula KgOSSiO^,. in a solid form, this usually containing 30'78 per cent, of

potassium oxide, K2O, 68*73

corresponds approximately

per cent, of silica,Si02, which to the formula K204Si02.

sihcate of soda is used for mixing with hard soaps, silicatef potash is used for mixing with soft soaps. o The effect of employing the silicates in soap-making will be discussed in another place.

While

COMMON

SALT.

One
making

find extensive use in soapof the materials which is salt, sodium chloride. This is a compound of the
and

metal sodium
"

the gaseous

element

chlorine, in the proportions

39-32 per cent. Sodium

60-68
"

Chlorine

and having
It
occurs

the formula

NaCl.
to the extent

in

sea-

water

of 27

per cent., and

sea-

itis to this substance

water
a

and

the magnesium
.

chloride that

owes

its saline taste.

"

Salt

occurs

in large deposits in
:

solid form

rock

salt
"

in many Winsford,
at

places in this country

and

at North wich,

Middlewich,
of

other localitiesin

the County

Cheshire,

Droitwich

in Worcestershire,
in Yorkshire,
or
a a

Fleetwood in other
up

in Lancashire,

Middlesborough

and

places, at all of which it is either mined in the form of brine. Eock salt contains
as

pumped

few

purities, im-

shown

in the following

analysis of

Cheshire

sample

:
"

Sodium chloride Magnesium chloride Calcium sulphate

98-3 0-05

per cent.
"

1-65

"

50

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

while the brine usually has the composition

Sodium Calcium Sodium
Magnesium

"

chloride sulphate
sulphate

25*22

per cent.
"

0*39
0*14

"

carbonate

0*11

"

but varies considerably. Salt is purified for domestic and dissolving the rock salt in water, or
is pumped,

industrial purposes taking

or

by
as

the

brine
from

it

clarifying by

filtration

settlement
and

any

insoluble matters,
the salt which

boiling down
as

in large pans

fishing out

deposits

rapidity

of the

boiling continues. Upon the is boiling depends the form of salt which
the

obtained. domestic grained

A rapid boil gives the

purposes,

while

fine-grained salt used for slow boil gives rise to the largepurposes. In the

salt used

for other

soap

industry

the latter is the form

usually employed.

Salt thus prepared

traces

is almost

pure, and

contains

but small

of other substances.

Pure in cubes. air.

nor

salt is a colourless and transparent

These
are
are

solid, crystallising

They does

slightly hygroscopic on exposure to the The solubility is not great, soluble in water.
to

it increase
as

any
case

marked

extent

with

the

rise of

temperature,

is the

with

most

other

soluble bodies.

At 0" C. 100 parts of water

25" C. 36*1
parts, and

will dissolve 35*5 parts of salt, at at 110" C. (the la^iling point of salt

40*3 solutions)

parts of salt.

The

following
contents

table gives the

specific gravity and

:
"

percentage

of salt of saline solutions at 15" C.

51

Salt is used

in the soap

trade for freeing the soap formed

by the saponification of the fats with alkali from the excess the glycerine of alkaU used in the manufacture, and from formed in the operation. Its use depends upon the fact that
while soap is soluble in pure small quantity
of caustic
water,

soda,

containing a etc., in solution, it is not

or

in water

solublein water
saltis added
to

containing
the

much
and

salt in solution, hence

when

soap-pan,
the soap

becomes
out

dissolved

in the
when

lye, brine is added, or

is thrown

in curds
The

sufiBcient salt or brine is added

cannot

for the purpose.

quantity

be definitely fixed,
and
more
a

the soap
takes much

the

it varies with the character of from. Coconut-oil fats it is made soap

as

salt than
or

than either

tallow
has

cotton-oil soap, and this more Then the excess of palm-oil soap.
a

alkaliemployed

some

influence

by reducing

the quantity

of salt required, while also the proportion of water to soap in in the quantity of salt according the pan causes a variation as itis or little. much

The

salt may

be recovered

from

the spent

lyes by

cess pro-

of evaporation.

52

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

LIME.

Lime,

or

quick-lime,

or

caustic lime,

as

it is indifferently

called, is the oxide of the metal

CaO.

It is used

calcium, and has the formula in soap-making of only for the purpose
lyes to make
the
a

causticising the soda or potash caustic lyes for soap-making.

which falls to
when
a

necessary

Quick-lime is
as

white

body

exposed

to the air absorbs moisture

rapidly, and

white

powder.

Air-slaked lime,

it is called,when giving
a

mixed

with

water

combines

energetically therewith,
heat, and

rise to the production

white
used pasty for
a mass

of considerable

producing lime

called slaked

lime.

This

slaked

is

cement,

variety of purposes, and also is the form

mortar chiefly for making and in causticising the employed

with a quantity of water it forms what alkaline lyes. Mixed is known The following table taken from as milk of lime. Lunge Handbook the shows and Hurters' Alkali-makers'
amount

of
:
"

calcium

oxide

in

milk

of

lime

of

different

strengths
TABLE

SHOWING

AMOUNT

OF

LIME

IN

MILK

OF

LIME.

When

milk

of lime is boiled with

fatty acids, combination

takes place, and

what

are

known
and

as

lime lime

soaps

are

formed

which

are

insoluble

in water,

is also, when

both

LIME.

53

heat and pressure are applied, capable of saponifying fats, and is therefore used in the Autoclaven process of decomposing
fats.

The

quahty

of quick-lime
manner

and
:
"

slaked

lime

may

be determine

in the following
1. Free

CaO,

"

Weigh
slake

100

grms.

of

an

average
the

sample

carefully taken,

it completely,
to

put

milk

into

half-htre flask, fillup

of the
contents,

the mark,
to

shake

well ; take 100

c.c.

equal

1 grm.

quick-lime, for the

test.

Titrate with normal as an oxalic acid and phenolphthalein indicator. The colour is changed all free lime has when been saturated, and before the CaCOg is attacked.
2. Carbon

Dioxide,
an excess

"

Titrate CaO
of standard

and

CaCOg

together

by
and

dissolving

in

hydrochloric
By

acid

titrating back
estimated
as

with in No.

standard
1, the

alkali.
quantity
the

deducting

the CaO

of CaCOg

is obtained.

For very

accurate

estimations

COg
as

is expelled

by

HCl,

absorbed

in soda lime and

weighed

described.

CHAPTER

III.

FATS

AND

OILS

USED

IN AND

SOAP-MAKING: PROPERTIES.

THEIR

PREPARATION

The

oils used by the soap-manufacturer ^and from both vegetable and animal sources ; none,
are

fats

are

derived far

so

known,
There

derived from
very
a

the petroleum

oils or paraffin shales.

an

is

no

essential difference between

question
a

oil and

fat ; it is purely
as

of climate,

or

ture, rather of tempera-

to whether
"

particular

body

makes
"

its appearance
an

in

solid form

fat, or whether
of the place

it is liquid

oil, at the

ordinary is here Coconut

in which fat, i,e,, solid ; in Africa it is an a oil is in this country a white solid
temperature

it is.

Palm

oil

oil, i.e.,liquid.
;

in India it is

water- white

liquid.
That

Olive oil is here

a

an

oil ; in Greenland
of temperature

it is

^t.

it is simply

question
or

is
oil

proved
can

by the fact that

in
a

if tallow

palm place

oil or
they
are

coconut

be kept

sufficiently warm
on

converted

into Uquids olive oil, or

are

; while,

the other

hand,

by artificially cooling
are

cotton-seed
no

oil,or

lard oil, they

from
a

solidified,and

then These

in

wise distinguishable

solid fat. tween the relation bethese

few examples

will suffice to show

in these
term

fats and
are

oils, and

pages

when

bodies
clude to in-

generally oils, and

referred to, the

vice versd. fats
are

fat may

be taken

"

The

oils and

characterised
ranging

by being
from

Ughter

than

water,

their specific gravity

0*878, which

is

that of sperm

oil, the

lightest of natural

oils, to 0*964, that

water

of castor oil, the heaviest

of natural oils. In

they

are

SOAP

FATS

AND

OILS.

55

quite insoluble ; in which

the water

on

shaking

up

with

it they form
throughout
; on

an

emulsion

the oil is distributed of minute

out

the

body

of

in the form

globules

standing, the
surface. They
more

oilgradually separates impart

or
a

and paper,

rises to the causing

greasy

stain to
;

it to become They

less transparent

this stain

is permanent.

are

readily soluble in ether, chloroform,

petroleum

carbon

bisulphide, turpentine,
their solubility
;

spirit, benzol
; castor

in alcohol

varies very much

oil is readily soluble its volume

linseed oil
alcohol,

issoluble in about
while the

ten

times

of strong

solubility of tallow oil is but

the freedom

shght ;

great deal

depends upon

of the oil from

acidity, which

creases in-

its solubility in alcohol. On

being

heated

to

500" to 600"

Fahr.

they

decompose,

and under

ordinary

atmospheric
a

pressure pressure

they cannot
and

be distilled

unchanged
superheated

; at

reduced
may

with
The

the air of of
carbonic

steam
are

they rather

be

distilled.

products
water,

decomposition

variable, but

include

acid, acrolein, acetic acid, sebacic acid, etc.

oils are compounds hydrogen (H), and oxygen

The

of the three elements,

carbon varying

(C),
in

(0), the proportions

are
"

different oils ; for linseed oil these

cent. ; hydrogen,

carbon,

T7*40 per
lime, rine, glyceis

11*10 per cent., and

oxygen,

11*50 per cent. potash,

one
or

When they
are

boiled with
decomposed the

caustic soda, caustic

and
two

bodies

are

formed,

the other

familiar
"

article soap ; this operation

more more

known
On
some,

as

saponification

but of this

hereafter.
or

exposure

to air all oils become

less oxidised ;

such
are

as

olive oil and

as

lard oil, are

these and

known

the
on

**

non-drying
exposure

but slightly affected ; oils : while linseed oil

"

some
**

other oils
dry
"

to the air gradually

are

become
**

hard,

as

it is called ; these is
no

known

as

the

drying
two

oils". There

hard

or

sharp

line between
gradual

these

classes of oils ; the transition is very

between,

say,

56
sperm and

SOAP

MANUFACTtRE.

olive oils, which oil and

are

types

of non-drying

oils,

through

cotton-seed

niger-seed

oil, partially drying

of the

oils, to linseed oil and

poppy-seed has
a

oils,types

drying
on

oils. This property

uses

of drying
are

material influence
:

the

to which

the oils
use

put

in practice

the non-drying

oils find extensive drying

used

oils

are

used
as

in lubricating machinery, the partially food oils,while the drying oils are as
the
non-

in soap-making painting oils. Even drying oils are the best for making soft soap, while the drying oils make the best hard soaps.

primarily

Two
commerce

other

kinds

of oil

are

commonly

distinguished

in

; these

only resemble
are

; the

essential oils
and

vegetable
a

sources,

it may
an

in their appearance almost entirely derived from in passing that be mentioned

the oils proper
an

plant

may

yield both

essential oil and

owes

ordinary
odour

fat
and

oil ; to the essential oil it

its characteristic

taste ; the essential oil only exists in small

quantities, while
The
are

the fat oil may

vary
are

occur

in large proportion.
"

essential oils

in specific gravity very much

heavier
are
can

some
are

lighter, others slightly soluble ;

than

water,

in which

some

they they

soluble in alcohol and other solvents, and as a rule be distilled without decomposition ; alkalies have
no

Httle
and than

or

action

on

them

they contain

carbon,

hydrogen,

oxygen,

but

the proportion

of the latter element

are

is less
to

in the
a

fixed oils ; these

to soap.

used

in soap-making

impart
The

perfume
second
or

class of oils referred to above

are

the so-called

hydrocarbon
shale
and

mineral
or

oils derived from

Eussian
an

the Scotch
; these

paraffin

American
water, to
can

petroleum

oils
a

are

lighter than

have

oily appearance,
they
are

will give in water

manent perand
not

stain
alcohol, they

paper;

insoluble

be distilled without
are

decomposition,

are

acted
and

on

by caustic alkalies and

whence they

composed

only of carbon

hydrogen,

are

called

hydrocarbon

oils ;

GLYCERINE.

57

these
use

are

not

used

in soap-making,

but find

most

extensive

in lubricating machinery.
COMPOSITION
OF OILS
AND

FATS.

they are above that oils when boiledwith caustic soda form two bodies soap and glycerine. Glycerine is a water-white a very viscid liquid having

It has

been

mentioned

"

specific gravity
affinitywith

when

pure

of 1*2665 ; but

it has

such

an

water

that it is difficultto obtain absolutely anhydrous

glycerine, and generally has

a

the

ordinary

commercial

glycerine

specific gravity of 1*260 to 1*263, and

It has
as
a
"

little water.

sweet sweet

taste, and

was

contains originally known

in the glycerine the
*'

in consequence
industry
water".

the

spirit of oils," and

is known
as

the crude
water

material

sweet

With

it mixes

in all proportions.

The

following

table showing
various mixtures
TABLE OF

the specific gravities and

strengths

of
:
"

of these two
GRAVITIES SOLUTIONS OF

liquids will be found

AND

useful

SPECIFIC

STRENGTHS

OF

AQUEOUS

GLYCERINE.

Glycerine
ether.

is also soluble in alcohol, but only slightly

of chloroform

so

in

A mixture of equal volumes

and alcohol

58

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

dissolves it, but it is insoluble in chloroform,

benzene,

leum petro-

spirit and

oils. It is

powerful

solvent for salts, etc.,

being nearly equal to water in this respect. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen

in the

proportions indicated by the formula CgHgOg ; in its relationships it belongs to the alcohol group of organic compounds,
has

basic properties, and

hydrochloric forming

acids such acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, it is capable

with containing
one,

the monobasic

as

of

compounds

two,

or

three equivalents

of the acids, the Compound

containing glycerine must

three equivalents being

the normal

one

; hence

be

tribasic alcohol

containing

three equivalents
the formula

of the radicle hydroxyl,

"

OH,

and

therefore having

fOH
OH OH

and

is essentially the hydroxide of the radicle glyceryl. by a looseness of exIt may be mentioned that although pressio is very common, glycerine is often spoken of which
the base of the oils and fats, yet glycerine
as

as

such

does

not

but is formed exist in the oils,

during the various processes

of the real base

of

saponification by the combination C3H5, with the radicle hydroxyl. of this basic radicle glyceryl. acid
or

glyceryl,
are

The
Heated

oils and with

fats

salts

strong

sulphuric

sulphate it is dehydrated, and acid potassium is evolved, recognisable C3H3COH, acrolein (acrylic aldehyde),

with

by its peculiar odour. Nitric acid

of products,
acts
on

it energetically, forming

variety

nitro-glycerine, oxalic acid, glyceric acid, etc.,

according in which
to the strength

being formed
the
with
manner

of the acid used,

and

the

operation
in

is carried out.
the presence of

Heated caustic

potassium

permanganate is converted

potash, glycerine acid ; and

as

into oxalic acid and

a

carbonic
manner.

this reaction

takes place in

definite

SOAP.

59

it is taken glycerine.

advantage

of for the

quantitative

estimation

of

When

glycerine is heated
ethers
are

takes place, and these have

with organic acids combination known formed as glycerides, and

in, as

the special termination

monOy

acetin, olein, stearin,,

how

and palmitin, with the prefixes

many

di, and tri,to show

equivalents
of the base.

of the acid

are

combined

with

one

valent equi-

Chemists,

to show

the analogy

between

given to it the systematic name glycerol, but it has been thought better to use the more famihar name glycerine here.
glycerine and
the alcohols, have
SOAP.

Some

of the properties of this, the second

on

body

formed
more

by

the action of alkalies

the fats, have

been
have

given, and

will be given

after the fats themselves

been

fully described.

Soap is,to
the fats and
on

a more

or

less degree, dependent

on

the nature

of
;

that of the alkali used, soluble in boiling water

to cool it sets into
a

ifthis solution be allowed

mass jelly-like

provided that there be sufficient soap dissolved in the water. If the soap be ignited it leaves behind about 7 per cent, of white ash consisting entirely of a carbonate of the alkali, the soap, thus proving that soda or potash used in making
a

soap is an

alkaline compound.
a

If to

boiling aqueous

solution of soap

slight

excess

of

dilutesulphuric acid be added, the soap is decomposed, and there is obtained an aqueous solution of the sulphate of the oily matter rises to and forms a layer on the surface of the hquor ; the character of this layer of fat depends a great deal on the fat used in the preparation of the alkali,nd a
a

fatty

or

soap, but is, as

rule,

more

solid.

This

fatty

matter,

although

resembling
possesses

the

fat

or

oil

from which properties.

the soap has been made, In

very different
water.

specific gravity

it is lighter than

It

60

SOAP

MANUFACTURE^

is soluble in petroleum spirit, ether, benzene, and from fat by being soluble in alcohol and acetic acid. It is capable
soda
or

is distinguish

glacial

of combining

with

caustic potash, re-forming the cold. It is also on heating capable of decomposing carbonates
acid
matter

neutraUsing caustic it will do in soap, which

and

the

of the
a

gas,

very

evolution of carboniccharacteristic feature of acids. The fatty alkalies with

soap

the

liberated from

therefore acid in character As soap

a

by the action of sulphuric acid is and is the fatty acids of soap.

the union
of
to
an

is formed

by

acid

or

acids

with

base
known

(the alkali)it belongs

as

the

class of compounds
as

salts ; for the

a

same

reason,

oils and

fats

are

compounds

of

base-glyceryl,

with

these

acid bodies

they must

be salts too.

The

is not

of the soap acid body obtained by the decomposition less complex mixture or simple body, but is a more that the oils
researches
are

of several fatty acids, showing

compounds
and

of two
others

or on

more

glycerides. oils have

some

The

of Chevreul of
a

the

revealed

the

existence

large

number
are

of fatty acids ;

of these, oleic, stearic, palmitic,

present

in various

proportions

in most

oils ;

as,

for example,

oil,arachidic acid in arachis (ground-nut) oil, doeglic acid in sperm oil, brassic acid in rape oil, etc. These fatty acids are monobasic acids, and the glycerides present in the oils contain one equivalent of the ricinoleic acid in castor
base to three equivalents of the fatty acids.
The from

fatty acids

so

far known

belong to five groups ; which

member
of the series may

that of the most

important

be called the
groups.
from and The
one

stearic, oleic, linolic, linolenic and

of these groups, various members another in the proportion of carbon, hydrogen,

ricinoleic ing while differ-

oxygen

they contain, in their specific gravities, melting-

points, combining

equivalents, yet possess

family

resem-

FATTY

ACIDS.

61.
decomposition

blauce in the
and combine
THE

manner

in which

they undergo
a

with

various other bodies in

SERIES OP
FATTY
^
*

similar way.
ACIDS.

STEABIG General

formula/

qqq"
Oils and fats in found. which

Name.

Formula.

Formic

HCHO2
XJLG2U3O2

Acetic Propionic
.

Butyric

HC3HA HC^HA
HC5H9O2
HCgHnOg

Butter.

Valerianic

/WhaJe 1 rian

oil, oil valeroot.

Caproic Enanthylic
.

Volatile acids found in coconut oil, kernel palm oil,

-

Capryllic Pelargonic Capric

.

etc.

HCgHiyOg HCioHjgOg
oil, oil of chaulmugra oil, oil of Califorrue,

Cocinic
.

HCuHgiOa

{Geran
nian

bay-tree.

Laurie
.

HC]2H2302
HC13H25O2 HC14H27O2

-| oil. I

rCoconut kernel

oil, palmoil, laurel

Tridecatoic Myristic Pentadecatoic Palmitic Margaric

. .

{Nutmeg
oil, palm-kernel

nut oil, coco-

oil.

HC16H29O2 HCigHgjOg HCiyHggOg HC18H35O2 HC20H39O2

Palm

Stearic
. .

{Tallow,
oil.

Japan wax. oil, Olive oil. cotton-seed

Arachidic Medullic

Behenic

HC22H43O2
.

{Ben
\

Ground-nut oil. Beef marrow. tard oil, black mus-

Lignoceric
Geoceric Cerotic
. .

(Distillate
ceti. Bees' wax.

oil. tar. Beechwood from brown coal, r Bees' wax, sperma-

Melissic

This series is also known the acetic series, acetic acid as being, important of the series, perhaps, the most member

62

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

although
often
a

it is not known product

to be present

in oils and fats, but is

They
are

of their decomposition.

saturated

acids and
a

will not

combine

directly with

iodine

or

bromine

distinguishing feature from

The lower members
"

the other series of fatty acids.

"

formic, acetic,propionic

are

liquids,

miscible with water, and have or more are a pungent, acrid odour ; the next few members less oily in appearance; those below the eleventh member,
volatile without decomposition,
as soluble in water, and are hence known be distilled without the soluble fatty acids, and can change

cocinic acid,

are

in the presence
are

of water.

The hardness

higher
and

members

of the series

solid bodies, whose

with the complexity

water,

of their molecule

melting-point increase ; they are insoluble in

Heated

and

they cannot

be distilled in its presence.

no

with

solid caustic alkalies they undergo

acids
are more

change. acids of additive

two

These

fluid than the corresponding

the

stearic series.
compounds,

With
one

bromine
equivalent
or

or

iodine they form

acid taking
up

of

equivalents

of bromine

iodine, forming
.

compounds
Heated

of the

type of bromo-oleic

acid, HCi8H34Br202

with caustic

potash

to

temperature
acetate

of 300"C., they
and
a

undergo
salt of

tion, decomposia

potassium

potassium

fatty acid

This acid has two atoms of the stearic series being formed. of carbon less than the original acid, thus oleic acid is converted

into potassium
HCigHgsOa
+

acetate
2K0H
=

and potassium
KC2H3O2
+

palmitate

"

KOjeHgiOa.

Under acid, the

certain conditions formation of which

the higher

some

of the acids give sebacic

as

serves

distinguishing

test

for oleic acid and One

very

acids of this series.

conversion isomeric

characteristic reaction of the oleic series is the by means of nitrous acid into a more solid but
:

compound

thus

oleic gives elaidic acid

occurs

hypogaeic

acid, gaidic acid. This reaction also

with the glycerides,

FATTY

ACIDS.

63

and

is

very useful

means

of detecting the presence in oils.

OF
formula

of much

olein and its homologues

OLEIC

SERIES General

FATTY

ACIDS.
~

"

rjoOH

The

while
that

lead salts of the oleic fatty acids are soluble in ether, the lead salts of the stearic fatty acids are insoluble in

solvent.
LINOLIC SEBIES
formula

OF

FATTY
~

ACIDS.
^'

General

series of fatty acids are characterised by readily combining This

| q^^ in few

they are number: with bromine or iodine in

64 the proportion element

to
one

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

of either two

or

six equivalents

of the halogen

equivalent of the fatty acid.

They

are

not affected by nitrous acid ; their lead salts

are

soluble in ether. Myristolic

acid, HCigHggOg
are

stearolic acid, HCigHgiOg,

action

; acid, HCigH2702 by the isologous acids formed ; palmitolic

the dibromo-derivatives of caustic potash on acids of the stearic series : corresponding

"

of the

HCiaHggBrgOa

2K0H

HGisHgiOa
OF

2H2O

2KBR.

LINOLENIC General

SERIES
formula

FATTY
-

ACIDS.
6.

CnHgn COOH.

These

acids

are

characteristic of drying oils, have

great
on

affinity for iodine and hydrolytic

bromine

and

are

readily acted

by

agents, such as alkaline, permanganate being converted into hydroxy acids.

RIOINOLEIO General SERIES
formula

of potash

OF

FATTY
"

ACIDS. ^'^^-

|g^^

FATTY

ACIDS.

65

These

with

acids are bases to form

and

hydroxy

acids, monobasic,

easily combine
readily with
ether, but

very soluble soaps, combine

are

bromine
not

iodine,

soluble in alcohol

and
them

in petroleum

oils. Nitrous acid converts

into elaidic

acids. Having
so

far dealt with

the fatty acids, and

the

base
now

glyceryl, the general composition

of the oils and fats may

be dealt with in detail, and folly pointed out. Glycerine without

normal

their decomposition

by alkahes

being

tribasic radicle, and

the

fatty that
one

acids
the

exception
compound

monobasic
of these

acids, it follows

bodies must
equivalents

contain

of the base with three

of the acid.

valent equiThus

olein, stearin, palmitin, laurin, and linolein, to take the five common most and important glycerides used, in soap-making, have the following formulae :
"

Olein, O3H5

"

Stearin, OgHg

Palmitin,

CgHg

Laurin,

OgHg

\ Ci-^H.^Oa
Oj^H.^^0^
.

Linolein,

C3H5

C,,n^fi^
other glycerides. It dealing

Oils and
Some will be

fats

are

mixtures
two,

of J;heseand
a

contain
more

only

others

much

larger number. when

boiled with caustic soda or caustic t (sodium or potassium hydroxide),he stronger base potash a soap, while the with the fatty acid to form combines to form glycerine, as combines with the hydroxyl glyceryl
the glycerides
are

wdth When

convenient to state the composition each individual oil and fat.

illustrated by the following equations 5

:
"

66
CigHjK.Oo'i

SOAP

MANUFACTURE

C3HJ C,,U^0A I C18H33OJ

Olein.

3NaOH
Sodium hydroxide.

C3H5

f OH OH

I ohJ -^
Glycerine. Glycerine.

SNaCigHgaO,
Sodmmoleate

(hard soap). C3H5

C18H31O2I
+

8K0H

rOH-v ( OH^ OH

SKCigHsiOa.
linoleate

linolein.

Potassium. hydroxide.

Potassium

(soft soap).

These

two

equations, with, of

course,

any

necessary

alterations,

represent the action of sodium

on

and potassium

hydroxides

all fats and

on

oils.

The

process

is termed

saponification,

and

the principle here given the operation of soap-making is based.

perceive in these reactions the principle of the separation of a glyceride into its two approximate components,
Chemists

be brought about by other glycerine and acid, and as this can by the agency means, as the of superheated steam when directly formed, bodies are they include under the term saponification any process which and fatty acid.
OOGURRENCE
OF ANIMAL
AND

splits an

oil up into glycerine

VEGETABLE FATS.

OILS

AND

FATS.

1. ANIMAL

In

the

animal

body

are

comparatively internal the

are

large deposits

of

fatty matter. with

a

Nearly of fat.
occur.

all the In
and

organs

are

covered the

coat

about
muscles

joints of
cases
case a

bones
from

deposits of fat
one

The

also separated these

another
are

by layers of fat.

In This

some

deposits is

of fat
known'
matter

of particular note.
as

is the

with what

to anatomists

omentum

of animals,

layer of fatty commonly

**

which
names
"

covers
''

the

intestines, known
case

by
in the
are

various
case

leaf" in the
oxen.

of the pig,

skin"
and
**

of sheep

and
a

The

bodies of whales
as

seals

covered The fat

with
occurs

thick layer of fat known

the

blubber".

animal

in the animal body enclosed in small cells of tissue in a liquid condition, so that it does not inter-

OCCURRENCE

OF

FATS

AND

OILS.

67

ferewith the motions

of the body. heat

It is maintained of the body.

in this
the
sets

liquidcondition

by the natural
becomes

When

animal dies the body

into a solid mass,
or

cold, and

the fatty matter

to which

circmnstance

is due the stiflEness

rigor mortis The

of dead

bodies. in the
animal

purpose

of fatty deposits

kingdom
case

is

threefold.
omentuniy

First it preserves,

especially in the

of the

the internal organs

from

injury and
It
serves

serves as
a

cate to lubristore

them
warmth

in their various motions.

; also
as a

of

for the body

store of food.
AND

2. VEGETABLE

OILS

FATS.

In the vegetable

kingdom
contain per

oils and oil to

a

fats

occur or

in

variety

of ways.
some
as

All seeds
much
as

greater

less extent,
as
a

60

cent.

This
such from

oil acts
a

food for

the young that it can

plant until it reaches

extract

period of its growth

the earth. The
a

its sustenance

pulp good those

of certain fruits, e.g.,olives, oil-palm nuts, contains deal of oil. The vegetable oils here referred to are

fixed
many

or

fatty oils, and

any

not

the

essential oils, to which

or

in

cases

particular odour
AND

taste

of the plant is due.

ANIMAL AND

EXTRACTION

PURIFICATION OILS
AND

OF FATS.

VEGETABLE

It is obvious

that
or

as

the circumstances

under
are

which
varied
must

any the

particular animal
methods adopted

vegetable

oil

occurs

so

for the purpose

of extracting them

be

varied also. A process which will work well with, say, the fat of the not suit the blubber of the whale or the pig, would Space will not permit of a very extended oilfrom the ohve. description of all the processes which have been devised for
the extraction of animal those which
are

and

vegetable
use
a

oils and

fats ; but of

in

common

full description

will be

given, while

other

processes

of only

special interest will be

noted in outline.

68

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

1. ANIMAL

FATS

AND

OILS.

The such It may

as

operation
tallow and

of

extracting

the

animal
as

oils and
"

fats,
".

lard, is generally known be carried on in various ways. The

all the methods

rendering

principle which
fatty

underlies
matter
means

is that

of

liberating the

from

the

animal
This

of heat.
so

it is enveloped by tissue in which to swell, and causes the fatty matter

the
envelope may
carry

in

doing
to flow

it bursts
away.

of

tissue and

is then
out

ready

We

this operation
3rd, steam

by

1st, direct heat; pressure.

2nd,

boiling in water;

under

Eendebing her lard

or

by

Dibect

Heat.

"

The

housewife

renders
or

suet

in the
a

oven. on

system

by placing the rough fat in a tray It is scarcely possible to adopt quite so the large scale, although two one or described
method.
very

dish

simple
plans

which

will be
primitive

closely resemble

the

housewife's

A
rough
the

simple
fat in
are a

method

occasionally
over

adopted fire.

is to
The

heat

the of

large boiler
kept

the

contents

boiler

continually been

that

the fat has and

it is constirred, and when sidered freed from the tissue, the fire off into
a

is withdrawn This
method,
care

the fat drawn

separate receptacle.

though

If great
or

be not

simple, is open to several objections. to char the fat taken there is a liability

tissue, the fat thereby

a

acquiring
only
so,

discoloured

appearance
are

and

burnt odour.

Not

but

bad

odours
are

Uable

to be given off during

the operation

which

also

able. objection-

better plan of rendering fats by dry or direct is built of heat is illustrated in figure 3. A large chamber can enter it. In conveniently such a size that a workman
A much this
an

on each arranged inclined position towards

are

side rackwork
the centre
a

shelves

placed

in

of the chamber. of steam

On
for

the

floor of the

chamber

are

number

pipes

RENDEBING

ANIMAL

FATS.

69

the purpose

of heating
up

the chaanber

to any

required

degree.

The fatis cut

machine, and
turn
are

into small fragments by means of a mincing spread in layers on metallic trays, which in

At the lower the shelves in the chamber. end of each tray is an opening to permit of any fat running for the purpose, these out into gutters, which are arranged
placed
on

gutters conveyimg

the

fat into

storage

tank

placed

in

Fig.

8.

Tallow

Rendering

Chamber.

suitable position. When all the shelves are filledwith trays is closed, and steam of fat the door of the chamber sent into the pipes, is heated 130" to to from the chamber whereby 140" P. it When At this heat the fat melts and runs out.
is
seen

that

no

more

fat is being fat in the

stopped, the

melted

is the steam obtained trays is allowed to run out

and the residual tissue removed, another rendering.

and

the

trays

filled up for
some

As the residual tissue still contains

70 7
or

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

8 per cent, of fat, it is sent

to another

pan

for the purpose

of this
"

of extracting this residual fat.

process,
has which of the East London pure

The

advantage

been Soap
On
some

devised
Works,

by

Messrs.

Cook

Hall

very

quality.
work

the

is that it yields a other hand, it is rather

processes.

fat of
more

costly to

than

other fat and

There

is the

labour of mincing
The
cost

the rough

fillingit into the trays.

of heating
so

the

chamber

yield is not for the fat.

great.

high, while the better price is however obtainable

is rather

Pig.

4.

Merryweather'a

Fat

Rendering

Plant.

Messrs.

Merryweather
of rough

"

Sons

have

devised

plant

for

the dry rendering

the overheating
three parts
:

fats by superheated

steam

whereby

of the fats is avoided.

or

First, a double-cased
steam

consists of boiler in which jacketed into the space

This

the fat is heated, the

the two

being
a

sent

tween be-

pans

second,

superheater

which

is heated

in

the steam ; and, third, suitable furnace for superheating is very efficient in use. boiler. This apparatus It a steam in figure 4, where H represents is shown the fat pan ; B
a

BENDERING

Alrt";^^:^?3irfB.

71
a

the steam

boiler ; A, the superheater, pipes in

a

of fi shaped chimney.
left behind
or

furnace ; D

consisting of is the steam

number

In all the the animal

".

dry systems

of rendering
as

pipe ; C, fats there is

"

tissue, or,
the
a

it is called, the
of rendering

greaves

cracklings

With

best system

th^ fat, it is
may

these always

contain

certain proportion

of fat which

desirable from

economical

motives

to

recover.

This

be done
One
from

in several ways.
of the most
common

methods
to

of recovering
pressure

the fat
a

greaves
very

is by

them subjecting
press

in

press.

One

convenient

for this purpose

is the

Boomer

Screw

Joint

Press.

A convenient
It consists of
a

form
round

of this press is made

for fat renderers.

and

table with

corrugations,
can

provided is supported

with

hp from
on
a

which

the pressed fat

flow.

This

strong iron casting.

halves

On
a

the table is fitted a cask

made

in two

worjcing

on

hinge, with A

the

of object
has
are

enabling with the right- and connected

causes

it to be readily discharged*
screw

plunger

connected
press
a

gear fits the cask.

screw,

The

Boomer

left-handed

the nuts
; the

working

on

which

with the press plunger

to travel inwards,

revolution of the
a

screw

the nuts

and thus by
some

knuckle

joint
the

force the plunger

or

downwards

with

force.

The

greaves

cracklings while still hot are The press brought into action.
residual greaves
manure. are

placed in the cask and fat is pressed out, while

sold for dogs' food
or

the
for

collected and

Eendering

by

Boiling

Water.

"

very

old plan

of

rendering tallow is to boil it in an open boiler set in a fireplace Uke an ordinary household boiler along with water. washing The heat of the boiling water causes the fat to expand and
Being lighter than water, melt and flow from the greaves. it collects on the top of the boiling water, and should be

skimmed

off from

time

to

time.

The

greaves

fall to

the

72 bottom

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

of the boiler. and

Some
a

of the animal

tissue passes

into

solution, however,
This
process

little tends

to get into the

tallow.

is simple,

but it has

the

disadvantage

of

leading to the production

so

that except

which are objectionable, for treating small lots of fat it is rarely

of evil odours largely superseded under
pressure.

resorted to, having

been

by processes

for

rendering
Such

fat with steam boiler is shown a

in figure 5, which

represents

an

Fig.

6.

Fat

Boiler.

improved

The bottom is double, and of construction. the space thus formed is in communication with the outer air. By this means the temperature of the bottom of the pan never

form

gets too high.

of which
the
a

The

boiler is covered with

lid,from

one

portion

pipe conveying carrying

the steam,

etc., passes

into

chimney,

thus

off all vapours

and

preventing

nuisance. Eendering
convenient

Fats

under

Pressure

by

Steam.

form of plant for this purpose

is shown

^A very in figure 6.
"

RENDERING

ANIMAL

FATS.

73

This
and

consists
supported

of
on

boiler placed vertically as shown, The rough its upper portion. flanges near
steam
a

fat is fed

in through

manhole,
a

M, placed

on

the top of the

boiler,
placed
and

on a

which
V.

also is
steam

safety valve, S.

In the bottom

is

perforated

valve,

coil,C, connected with a steam-pipe In the side of the boiler are placed two gauge

tlSp

Fig.

6.

Fat

Boiler.

or

flow-out

taps, T, K, lower down

is placed

large valve, E,

tallow, while at the bottom of the for running off the melted boiler is another valve, T, for running off the water, etc. : The boiler is used in the following manner This crude

fat is broken

up

into small

through

the manhole,

pieces, and fed into the boiler is then which is then closed. Water

74
run

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

in, and

steam

at 60

lb. pressure

sent

in through

the

for five to six hours, the coil; this being continued length of time being regulated according to the amount of When is shut the operation is finished the steam charge.
steam

Fig.

7.

Fat

Boiler.

off, the contents

to get solid it is
water

allowed
run

to settle,then before the fat has time

off from

the flow-out taps.

If necessary,
run-

is

run

in to throw Some

the fat up to the level of the

ning-ofif taps.

renderers

will, after turning

off the

RENDERING

ANIMAL

FATS.

75

steam,

there

off all the contents of the boiler into a tank, and it can be allow the fat to settle out and solidify,when
run

removed.

be using such a plant, a larger quantity of fat can rendered in a given time ; there is less chance of objectionable
odours

By

crude The
render

arising, and the yield of rendered material is better.

apparatus

fat from

the

previously

described
pressure, By

is constructed
or

to at

the fats at the ordinary

at all events

but slightly increased pressure.

are
are

employing
some

boilers which
advantages
gelatinised,

constructed
secured

to work

at

higher pressure,

; the nitrogenous

tissue is

more

completely from

therefore the fat is better separated

and
so
a

the tissue, Figure

greater

yield of better quality is obtained.

an

7 represents

such

apparatus,
cases

which
they
are

may

be built of any
of
a

required

size ; in

some

constructed

capacity

of 10,000

gallons.

As will be

seen

from

the drawing,
a

it consists of
valve, v^hich
There

an

upright boiler, fitted on

for charging,

the top with

safety

manhole passes

and

stuffing box, through

the

rod

of the

discharging
the two

orifice

or

valve.

is a false bottom.

Between and
a

bottoms
an

is a steam
steam

coil connected

by

valve

pipe

with

ordinary

boiler.
closed

In the bottom

is

discharging by
a

orifice,which passing

is kept
the

by

plate valve worked

rod

through
a

top

of the boiler.

In the side of the boiler is placed

number
to about

of draw-off cocks, extending

from

near a

the bottom

half-way
The

up, while

near

the top is

testing cock.

apparatus

is used

ii;i the

following

manner:

The

discharging
the

valve is closed, and rough

fat is thrown

in through

manhole

from
in

until the boiler is filledto within about 21 feet is then closed, and steam The manhole the top. sent
a

until

pressure

of 45 to 69 lb. is attained.
of the
steam
occurs,

Generally
and

good
water

deal of condensation

much

is formed,

which

collects at the

bottom

of the boiler.

76
From

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

time
the

to time

the top

cock

is opened.

If live steam fat

that
comes

escapes
out, then

boiler is working

it shows

right; if however that the boiler is too full, and

the

water

must

be drawn
to time

off from during

lowest cock. of the

This

is done

from

time

the

progress

operation.

After

supply is about twelve to fifteen hours* steaming, the steam the safety valve, cut off, the pressure is relieved by opening

and the contents

of the boiler allowed

to settle. When

well

Fig. 8.

Bone

Boiler.

settled the water storage tanks.

is
The

run

off, while

the tallow

is

run

into

nitrogenous
manure.

matter,

Working
yield of fat
or

liquor contains a good deal of be collected and used as and it may there is a fairly with this apparatus,
aqueous
tallow from
BONE

good

the crude material.

TALLOW.

Bones
necessary

contain
to extract

good

deal of fatty matter,

the

before

bones

can

it is which be used for other

BONE

TALLOW.
^

77

purposes.

This bone

fat, or,

as

it is commonly

called, bone

tallow, is very largely used

which

are

to be used
a

in making soaps, especially soaps for industrial purposes. The simplest

in open
account

plan is to adopt
a

boiling process
on objection

vessels, but of the

such

plan is open

to great
are

nauseous

odours

which

developed,

therefore

it is better to render

bone

tallow in closed vessels by steam.

an

Such
and
a

apparatus

for the Mr.

purpose

is shown It

in figure 8,
consists

is constructed

by

W.

M.

Fuller.

of

boiler measuring hinged

covers

about
at
means

6 feet by

3 feet 6 inches, fitted

with

both

ends,

both

tightly closed
are

by

of suitable nuts

of which and bolts.

can

be

There

also

provided
of about
the

steam

connections
of bones

and

draw-oflf cocks. into the boiler

Steam
at

charge

46

cwt.

is put

through

upper

door, which

is then

closed.

about

50 to 60

lb. pressure

is then
when

introduced,

and

kept
excess

up for about
steam

forty minutes,
run

it is shut The
an

; oflf the

being
are
run

into

condenser.

contents

of

the the

boiler fat is
The

now

allowed

to settle for half

a

hour, when

off through
are

cock

at the

bottom
the

bones

drawn
them

out

by

opening
on

of the boiler. bottom of the This

boiler

boiler and allowing

extracts
more

to drop

the

floor.
out

fatty and
other

gelatinous matter
of
treatment,

of the bones
the

than
are

do
a

most

modes

while

bones

in

better condition
therefore
a

for being
more

converted

into

manure,

being freer and

friable.
plant for the boiling and Fuller. B

In figure 9 is shown

complete

crushing

of tones,
mill

prior to their being placed in the bone boilers, E, E, the crushed bones being conveyed crushing
to them

by constructed to break up the bones

as

Mr.

is

by

means

of elevators ; d, d
the bones, which
are

are

the

tanks to
on

receive the liquor from

passed
are

to the

crushing and

sieving mill, F, where sieved prior to being sent out as bone

they

crushed

and

meaL

78

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

EXTRACTION

OF

VEGETABLE

OILS.

79

Other

plans of treating
no

bones

have

been

devised.

It is
are

quite possible that

arranged

two

bone-boiling

establishments
the

alike in their

plant

for extracting

fat and

gelatine from
In The
one

bones.
they

works
are

boil the

bones

in pans

over

fire^

fitted with covers. Each pan communicates by a flue with a large iron condenser, in which all the matter into which is capable of condensing collects and flows away
pans

suitable receptacles. into

a

Anything into the

to

which

is uncondensed
It

passes

flue and

away

atmosphere.

would
up

be all

better to conduct

all gases

the

fireplaces to bum

that is combustible. In heated

another works

they

use

bottle-shaped
and
the

boiler, and being

by

steam,

both

the

fat

gelatine

recovered.
are above applicable for the fats, and are those usually extraction of all kinds of animal In some be adopted a cases worked. special process may

The

processes

described

for special fats ; any such will be found

described under

their

respective fats.
2. VEGETABLE

OILS

AND

FATS.

There

is

greater variety in the

from

methods
than

of extracting from animal

the

oils and
sources.

fats The

vegetable
generally
cases one.

sources

method
some

followed
the

is to extract

oils by pressure, in

at

ordinary

temperature, fats
are

in others at

higher

Some

vegetable
water,
as

extracted

by
of animal

process

of boiling with
the property

in the
as

case carbon

fats, while

of such

bodies

bisulphide, benzohne,
taken

benzol, of readily dissolving oils,is

advantage

of for obtaining

vegetable

oils by

solvent

process. Extraction
of

Vegetable

Oils
oils by

by

Pressure. pressure

"

The
very

process of extracting

vegetable

is

80

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

followed by people commonly ancient one, and it is the one in a low state 9f civilisation. Like many other methods from it has undergone many changes and developments
the
to

It is not intended earliest times to the present. into a discussion of the changes enter which place ; attention will rather

here

have

taken
now

be given to the methods

in

use

in this country.

If any

something

of the older methods

or

reader desires to know he is referred to Chambers's

Encyclopoedia
There
are

to Spon's Dictionary

of Engineering.
oils in
as

this country
system,

of pressing chief methods ; the oldest is generally known

as

two

use

in

the

English

the newest English

as

the Anglo-American

system. takes

The

System follows
:
"

of oil pressing

place

in

several stages

First, Crushing. Second,

Grinding.

Third, Heating. Fourth,

Pressing.

Fifth, Eefining. refining of the oil obtained by carrying out the firstfour in other processes of extracting as operations is the same
The

oils,and

will be considered
"

later

on.

First, Crushing.

Prior to being submitted

above,
the seed
or

to the various

operations

enumerated
a

other

material
dirt,

is first

to subjected

cleaning
have

process to free it from

foreign seeds, etc., which

interfere with the proper
or

got into it and

which

might

carrjring out of the various

tions [operaThese

with the quality of the oil which

is obtained.

and cleansing processes consist essentially of winnowings with all the sievings through various sizes of sieves. Even free oil that may be taken it is impossible to completely care it is seeds from all other foreign seeds, so that commercially

doubtful

whether

an

The

crushing

absolutely pure oil exists. horizontal mills consist of an

frame

in

PEESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

81

fixed two are which diameter, the other

rolls ;
one

of these is about four feet in The larger roll is foot in diameter.

one
one

the driving roll,the smaller

revolving by friction against

to press
screws

it.
with

The
some

two

rolls

are

caused
of

against
and

one

another

force by

means

against the bearings of the rolls. The hopper delivers it between the pair of rolls, in its which

springs working seed is fed into a

Fig. 10.

Oil Seed

Crushing

Mill.

mill will day of ten hours. It a working crush is obvious, however, that the quantity a mill will do will It is vary vrith the kind of seed and other circumstances. usual to run the mill at such a speed that the large roll makes about 4 tons of seed in
One of these crushing mills fifty-sixrevolutions per minute. win keep two ordinary-sized presses at work,
6

passage

through

which

it becomes

crushed.

82

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Figure
made

10 is

drawing
Eose,

of such
Downs

mill

by

Messrs.

"

described above, Old Thompson of the

as

Foundry,

Hull, to whom

the author

is indebted

for the

engraving

of this and

other oil machinery.

"

Secondy Grinding^
into the hopper
of

After being crushed

edge-runner
mrsfgrrn

the seed is thrown

an

grinding

mill

as

seen

in

Fig.

11.

Oil Seed

Grinding

Mill.

figure 11, which well.

runner

shows

the construction

of such

mills very

An

oil crushing mills in having

for the

runners

other edgemill differs from most The a usual size shallow hopper. is 7 feet in diameter and 16 inches thick, and
6 to 7 tons.

they will weigh

The

driving shaft makes

of these edge-runner

seventeen

revolutions per minute.

One

mills

PEESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

83

will keep two presses at work.

of twenty
taken
to twenty-five minutes.

The

seed is ground

During

for a period the operation care is

and

that every part of the seed gets efficiently ground,

to add from

it

is usual

2 to 3 per cent, of water

^

during the grind-

^i^'

Fig.

12.

Oil Seed

Heating

Kettle.

ing to moisten
the

it and

put

the seed

in the best condition

for

succeeding Third,

operations. After Heating^

"

being

crushed

and

seed

next

undergoes

heating

operation.

This

the ground done is now This

of

in

large copper

steam

kettle, shown

in figure 12.

kettle varies in size according seed

to be treated, etc.

to circumstances,

quantity

In

large oil mill the kettle will be

84 5 feet in diameter
so jacketed

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

and 2 feet "inches

can

deep.

They
up

are

usually
a

that they

be heated
There

by steam
an

to

temperature

of 160" to 170".

is also

arrangement

for

sending which

into the inside of the kettle among the seed is being treated. the as This is very important,
steam

heating in the kettle tends to dry the seed, and dry seed does
not

give

good

yield of oil. The

time

of heating

varies

somewhat
twenty

according
to twenty-five

to circumstances,

minutes.

The

usually is about fitted kettle is always

but

with

that every portion of agitating apparatus to ensure One kettle of the dimensions the seed is uniformly heated.
an

given above

will keep four presses out 6 tons of cake in a day.

at work

capable

ing of turn-

in their previous operations are purely mechanical effects,being designed to get the seed into the best possible The heating in condition for jrielding all the oil it contains.
The the kettle has
a

combined

mechanical

and

chemical
cells,and

effect.
thus
at the

The

heating
a

more more

completely ready

breaks

up the

results in
same

separation

of the oil ; while

of the albuminous
so

time it leads to the coagulation

present

and

other matters

in the seed, and

prevents

them

from

being pressed out along with the oil. It is the great object in oil pressing to obtain an oil as free as possible from extraneous in oil the presence of which vegetable matters, brings about its decomposition be the case. Fourth, Pressing.
placed in strong
each
"

sooner

than

would

otherwise

After being heated, the hot

of
canvas,

seeds

are

bags made

the

usual

amount

in

bag

being 8 lb., or
there

sufficient seed
a

that

after pressing

the oil out

are

remains

cake
covers,

weighing
and
are

8 lb. then

The

bags

next

enclosed

in woollen
**

wrapped
cloths

are caUed again in what The made of horsehair.

hairs," which
of seed
are

are

strong
now

cakes

placed

tween be-

the plates of the press and

to subjected

pressure.

PRESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

85
as

Beyond

such

primitive
and

methods in
use

of pressing

oil

have

been in existence
there have

still are

by uncivilised people,
use
:
"

been

three kinds of press in and

First, Stamper Second,

Screw

Wedge

Press.

Press. Press.
have almost
are

Third, Hydrauhc
The first and only hydraulic of them The
second

gone

out

of

use,

oil presses

made.

A few

words

while now descriptive

will however Stamper

of

be useful.

and
two

Wedge

Press,

"

This

old form

of oil long,
a

press consists
narrow,

portions. At

cast-iron
one

box,

but

deep,

is provided.

end

is placed
the

perforated iron press

plate ; against press

than

this is put

bag

of

seed ; next
wood

comes

another

plate, followed

by

piece of
the

thicker at the bottom

by
a

at the top ; then

comes

wedge, followed The other end

two sets is what

similar piece of wood in the

as
a same

to the foregoing.

is fitted up is known
pieces

way.

Between

the

key

arrangement,
at the

consisting
than
the

of three pieces, two top, with

an

thicker piece, the

bottom

intermediate
The The
whole

key, shaped

like

an

verted in-

wedge.
one

of this arrangement

constitutes
hardwood
the

part.

other
can

portion
made

consists
to

of

two

stampers, wedges

which
some

be

alternately them

fall upon

with

force, thus

driving
some

farther in and
of pressure,
on

causing them

to press the seed with

amount

forcing out the

oil it contains.

After

falHng

the

wedge

it the stamper is raised up ready for another When drop. is considered that all the oil has been extracted, a stamper is allowed to fall loosens the whole the key, which upon
arrangement
as
a

so

that

the
can

bags

of pressed

seed, the

oil cake into

it is now

called,

be withdrawn.
portion
tank.
a

The

oil flows

receptacle in the lower

to
a

of the

box, from
of
a

whence
course

it is transferred

storage

It is obvious press is

that the production

of oil in

stamper

limited

86
one.

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

About

12 cwt. per day is

out.
"

fair quantity

for

stamper

press to turn

The Screw Press.

gone
out of
use,

The

screw

press for oil has practically

partly because

it could
was

not

be made
to

strong
It

enough usually worked

screw

for the

work, of
a

and

it

awkward
vessel
was

work.
a

consisted
up and worked the

circular

in

which

piston
strong
placed the

down.

To
lever.

the piston The

attached

by

bags

of seed
the

were

between
screw

bottom

of the vessel and the

latter
was

piston, and
down,

being

worked

forced

thereby

pressing out the oil. Press. The Hydraulic

been virtually superseded
there
are

"

All other forms by the hydrauUc

The

of oil presses have

oil press, of which

several makers.

the press adopted

have

undergone oil pressing,

details of the construction of first many changes since it was

and the
most

for of

modern

form

is,

capable
products
to

turning

out

more

work

and

obtaining
more

better

than
a

the older
.

ones.

It will be

convenient until
an

defer

description

of the

hydraulic

oil press

account

The

is given. system of the Anglo-American System Anglo-American of oil pressing

was

duced intro-

son, " Thompinto this country by Messrs. Eose, Downs it, have, since its introduction, greatly developed who and made The
many

improvements
system

on

the machinery.

Anglo-American

requires

five operations

"

First, Crushing. Second,

Heating.

Third, Moulding.
Fourth,

Pressing.

Fifth, Eefining.
the seed has been cleansed, as ^After to a crushing operation, mentioned above, p. 80, it is subjected a which is given by passing it through series of heavy (seefigure 13). chilled iron rolls placed in a suitable frame First, Crushing.
"

PEESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

87

of these rolls depend upon the quantity size and number Some mills have three rolls, others of seed to be dealt with. four, and others five. A very common size is a mill with five Such a mill rolls, each 3 ft. 6 in. long by 16 in. in diameter.

The

will pass
work

through

sufficient seed

to keep

set of presses at
a

capable of turning out

5^ to
a

6 tons of cake in

working

day.

At the top of the mill is

seed
to be crushed

feeding hopper
From

into which

the

is placed.

this hopper

it is passed

Fig. 13.

Oil Seed

Crushing

Rolls.

between
By

the firstpair of rolls,where

it receives its firstcrushing.

adhering to the second roll the seed is carried between rolls Nos. 2 and 3, and successively between through Nos. 3 and 4 and 4 and 5, receiving a greater crushing each
time.
seed

Guides

are

attached

to each

roll to

ensure

that

the

is carried between each pair of rolls. This operation is identical with the Secondy Heating, similar operation in the English process described on p. 83.
"

Third,

Moulding.

"

After the seed

has been heated

in the

88
kettle, it is sent
shown

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

into

moulding
The

machine. machine

This

machine
one

is

in figure 14.

moulding

is

novel features of the

to
ensure
a

Anglo-American

system.

Its

object

of the is

it by
not

uniformity in the size of the cakes of seed, to mould gentle pressure into a level cake, so that the press is
any
are

subjectto
a

undue

strain due
a

to

inequalities in the
the presses
to
ensures

cakes, while there and

secured

greater output from hot

from

better yield of oil. The the kettle into a measuring

seed

is allowed
always

fall

box, which

Fig.

14.

Oil Cake

Moulding

Machine.

uniform
a

quantity

of seed

being

used.
placed

A
on
a

tray

covered

vdth
the

sheet

of woollen machine
formed
The

cloth is next
and

the table of

moulding
thus

surrounded

by

frame.
formed then

Into

the mould
a

the

seed is placed, and its contents

are a cam

into

smooth

cake.

tray and

pushed

under

the die of the moulding

machine,

when

is brought

into action, and the die caused to fall upon the seed and compress it to a thickness of 3 inches, or even less ; the pressure being maintained for about half a minute, when the die
rises and
the cake

of seed

is removed

and

sent

into the

PRESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

89
a

hydraulic press.
number of cakes

By
can

the

use

of the moulding

machine

larger time.

be dealt with
seed has
a

in the press at
of about

one

A cake of unpressed

thickness

8 inches,

seed has a thickness of about 3 inches, and while the moulded so a press than twice as much moulded will take rather more

seed

as

unmoulded

seed.

Fig. 15.

Hydraulic

Oil Press.

Fourth,

Pressing.

"

This

is the

final operation
system,

of either

the Anglo-American
case

or

the English from

although
has

in either
a

the oil after it flows

the

press

to undergo

refining operation before it can The hydrauhc press has sale.

be sent
undergone

into the market

some

for in

changes

90

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

firstapplied to the pressing of oil ; but it detail since it was is not intended here to give any historical sketch of these changes, as space does not admit of it. Figure
pressing
the
15 shows

the latest form

of hydrauUc
are

press for oil

to work

short

of the pumps

which
press

necessary
a

press.

The

hydrauhc

consists of
a ram

very

strong with down

cast-iron foundation,
a

in which

works

connection

iron movable plate. This plate moves up and for between stout iron standards, which also form supports bottom a the movable very strong iron casting. Between
strong

Fig.

16.

Oil Cake

Moulds.

plate and

the top

are

arranged

number

of corrugated

iron

plates which
The

receive the cakes of seed

of seed
as

to be pressed.

cakes

they

come

from

the

hke a machine are placed in a pair of iron covers (seefigure 16),and into the press. This does away hairs which were used in the old system, which
expensive
to

moulding book back with the

are

very

them

the press does which owing to the damage be made The in in breaking them. press may
to
use

various sizes to suit the

miller, from
once
a

particular

requirements
of pressing

of the

oil
at

small press capable

four cakes

to

one

taking twelve

to fourteen

cakes.

PRESSING

VEGETABLE

OILS.

91

Two press,one

sets
to

of

pumps
a

are

usually of about

supplied
700
a

with
800

each

give

pressure the other

to

lb. per of 2

square inch, while

tons.

set will give

pressure

At firstthe lower. pressure

twenty minutes,

is applied

for about fifteen to

which the great bulk of the oil will iow out. Then the the higher pressure is put to complete extraction of the oil, which will take a further five to ten
during sides of the seed into the conmgations on the iron plates and into channels which are to a storage or receiving tank provided for it to flow away
minutes. The

oil flows out of the

placed about

the base of the press.

two
to

Usually from
plant,as the

four presses

are

included
are

in

one

oil

other portions
than
one

of the plant

quite capable of

keeping

more

press at work. that the output

It is obvious,

of

course,

from

the oil press

will vary very

presses and while
a

considerably

owing

to the varying

also of the

seed

per hour of press can work linseed, it wiU only do three of rape seed and four of cotton Larger presses, working perhaps seedin small-sized presses.

is being which five charges through

size of"the For pressed.

through lb. of seed at one charge, will work threeto four charges in three hours. The size of the cake
of seed also varies vnth the size of the press. As a rule seeds are only passed once the press, through but there are few, such as rape and gingelly seed, which a are crushed twice, the cake obtained in the first pressing

250 to 320

being reground before being

pressed in two

and

reheated

again

pressed.

vdth a little additional water Further, was originally what

in the
second

presses is spread

pressing

over

threepresses.

oil seeds, castor seeds, cotton seeds, arachis seeds, have a very hard shell, besides being of large size. It is etc.,
necessary for the better extraction of the oil that the shell
or

Some

92

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

husk

be removed;
as a

this is effected by
the

means

of

known
**

decorticator,

operation

being

machine known as
of

decorticating".

Such

mill adapted

for the treatment

be made to they may oil seeds bj^ hand, although by steam, is shown These mills have in figure 17, a work pair of revolving cylinders carrying blades fixed at a particular distance apart, this distance being dependent the seed upon
castor

which

is being

treated, castor

oil seed

requiring

different

Fig.

17.

Castor

Seed

Decorticator.

distance than
the seed and

arachis nuts and allow the kernels

may
castor

so

on.

The

knives

just cut
figure
at B

to fall out, then

by winnovs^In

ing
are

the

husks
at A

readily

be

separated.

18

shown

oil seeds

before treatment,

the

DECORTICATING

OIL

SEEDS,

93 for the

husks, and

at C

the

white

kernels

ready

crushing

mills.
There

is, of

course,

oil which
in the

is yielded by
case

difference in the quantity of It is found preferdifferent seeds. able

great

of seeds which
of seed

give but
charge

poor

yields to is done

use

smaller quantity seeds which In

some
are cases,

in each

than

with

rich in oil. such

or
as

castor

and

olive oils, the

seed

is

distinct crushings, yielding oil of several qualities. First the seed is crushed cold, when what " " is known as or cold drawn virgin oil is obtained ; then the seed is heated and reground, when what is called ** second
to subjected
two

three

"

'*

Fig.

18.

Castor

Seeds.

*'

pressure
water

oil is obtained

finally, the
a

seed is warmed

and

again pressed,

when

third quaUty

with of oil is obtained.

In the
are

case

of oils which, like coconut temperature,

and

palm-nut

solid at the ordinary

it is customary

oils, to heat

the oils fluid. In winter, too, it is the presses so as to make desirable to work with heated presses. from the press is passed to a The oil cake after coming

paring machine,
cake rather The parings with
more
are

where

the edges

are

trimmed

to

make

the

marketable. presentable and therefore more sent back to the crushing rolls to be worked batch of seed.

through

the next

94

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

PRINCIPAL

VEGETABLE

OILS

AND

FATS.

Eefining
come

and

Clarifying
are

Oils.
usually

"

The

from

the

oil press

cloudy

they oils as in appearance,

contain
vegetable
freed.

much

colouring

matter,

tissue, from

which

extraneous moisture and it is desirable they should be

The

oil

as

it

comes are

from

the

press

should

be

run

into it

large tanks,

which remain

kept for
some

at about

100"^ F., in which The

the
water

is allowed
vegetable
clear.

to

time. leaving
a

and

solid
and

matter

settle down,

oil bright
and

This

process

is however

slow

one,

the oil

CLARIFYING

OILS.

95 fore there-

presser often does not

must adopt
a a

care

to keep

his oils so long, and

quicker process.

by oil-clarifjdng tank made It consists, as Messrs. Wm. Oxley " Co., of Manchester. willbe seen, of a long cylinder tank made of tinned iron ; the
drawing
of
an

Figure 19 is

bottom is made

conical with

the

apex

to the bottom,

from

Fig.

19.

Oil-Clarifying Tank.

which

protrudes

to the

off -the foots and

side of the tank a pipe for drawing impurities which Draw-oflf settle there.
placed
tank
on

and testing cocks are oil is placed in the

the

side of the tank.

to

The
some

and

allowed
the

stand

for

time.

The

impurities

collect at of which
thus

bottom
as

of the
to

tank,

the peculiar construction them

is such

concentrate

in

small

space,

economising

the

quantity

of

96

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

foots obtained.
cocks
fibre

From
and

time
when

to time

the testing and

draw-oflf
the

opened,

the oil appears

clear enough

bottom

draw-oflf cock
run

foots being then ready for another

or

is opened and the clear oil rmi the oflf, into a separate vessel, and the tank is
of oil.

batch

These

tanks

are

ma,de

to

hold 250

500 gallons of oil.

Sometimes
10 per
cent,

oils are

clarified by adding

to

them

from

5 to

of their weight
150" F., and

of fuller's earth, heating

the

mixture
half
an

to about

maintaining

it at that heat for Then the

hour

to

an

hour, stirring well all the time. for about twenty-four

to

oil is allowed
to settle out.

to stand

thirty hours

The

fuller's earth carries down and

on

with it all the

a
more

impurities in suspension,
or

at the

same

time exerts
same

less bleaching
may

action be

the oil.
several

The

quantity

of

fuller's earth

used
a

tinies, especially if its

function is simply it is employed

with fresh material

that of
as a

ever howWhere clarifying agent. bleaching agent, it must be replfiksed

time
to time.

from

The

fuller's earth

absorbs
treatment away.

large proportion of oil,which benzine or with benzoline

should be removed

by

before

it is thrown

large quantities of oil are to be dealt with, it is a fuller'searth combined with a filter press. good plan to use The oil is heated with 2 to 3 per cent, of its weight of fuller's Where
earth,
as

described

above;

then

the

oil is sent

through

filterpress, which

removes

the earth and

the solid impurities

are

in the oil.
with oils.

Special forms

of filterpress

made

for deahng

Figure
Halle,

20

represents

filter press
for

made

by

Dehne

of

which

is well
are

adapted
to
use,

pressing
they
are

oils.

These

filter presses operation.

easy

while

efficient in

It is quite possible when

using

filter press
so

to render

oils, while not quite perfect, yet sufficiently

to be market-

REFINING

OILS.

97

from the able,very quickly, by sending the oil as it comes hydraulic press through the filter out of press. The oil comes the latter fairly bright and clear, and will find a ready sale.

is filtered out is returned to the which solid matter kettleto be worked up with the next batch of seed. By this there is produced nothing but oil and method of working
The cake,no

foots of any

kind being formed.

Besides fuller'searth, there have

oils other solid matters,
etc., which
act

such

mechanically

used in clarifying as china clay, infusorial earth, by carrying down the solid

been

Fig.

20.

Oil Filter Press.

matter
80

in suspension and absorb the moisture leave the latter clear and bright. Various processes have
been devised
agents most
soda.

in the oil,and

for refining oils by used

chemical
sulphuric

means

; the two

commonly general

being of

acid and

caustic

The

method

using these

bodies will be detailed. Acid. Sulphuric Oils by Befining

a

"

Sulphuric

acid

has

powerful

action

on

all organic

itsgreat affinity for water, which properties. As regards its employment

7

bodies, chiefly owing to imparts to it dehydrating in refining oils, its

98

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

virtue depends
matters

on

the

fact that
oils
are

the

found

in crude is the
or

more

vegetable by easily acted upon

not acid must is risk of it acting on

extraneous

the

acid than

oil itself. Too

otherwise
there The

much

however

be used,
thus

the oil and

leading to loss.

usual

plan of treating

oils is to place the oil in a suitable receptacle, a copper tank iron pan, which or should coil or, either contain a steam better still, be jacketed means ; of agitating the oil and acid together
should

be provided, which
or
a

may

take

the

form

of

mechanical
during tank

agitator,

current

of air may

be

blown

in

the operation.

It is advisable

for the bottom of

a

of the

to be made

conical for the purpose

oil and
for the Many

more

effectual
at the

separation

of the
cone

acid, and
purpose

tap provided

bottom
which been

of the

of running
of the

off the
process

acid
have

collects.

modifications

published

from

time to time.
to be

It will however

be found
to

that the

details will have

treated. others.

varied

according
from
a

the oil

which
much

is being
purer than
than

Some Such

oils

come

the

presses
severe

oils will require

a

less

treatment

those

which

contain

large

proportion

of

be Strong sulphuric acid should never matter. vegetable and cannot well be controlled. used ; its action is too severe, It is always
water
"

advisable

to

use

mixture

of sulphuric

the proportion
"

being treated
while
some

according is 1 of acid to 1 of water

may

vary

acid and to the oil which is

a

very

good

ratio,

oils may

Hartley

recommends

even require an weaker acid than this. for linseed oil 1 of acid to 2 of water ;

if the
water

oil be
may

very

impure,

then

the ratio 2 of acid to 1 of

be used.
is
run

The about

oil to be treated
110" to

into the tank

and

heated
never

to

115" F. ; the latter temperature

should

be

exceeded,

while

it may be
used.

happen

that

lower

temperatures
of

than and

110" F. may
water

Then
constant

the mixture

oil, acid, in
a

is added

with

agitation

and

slow

EEFINING

OILS.

99

stream

to the oil.

The
and

proportion

used must
1

vary

according

to circumstances,

sometimes

per

cent,

of strong

acid

be used. 3 per cent, may will be sufficient, in other cases The last-named however not be exceeded. quantity should It would be better to give the oil two treatments with a The oil and acid are thoroughly smaller proportion of acid. stirred together
allowed to rest for about

half

an

hour,

then

the

mass

is

for twenty-four
of
warm

hours.
water

At

the end

of this
10 the

time 6

or

gallons

at

150" F. the

for every

gallons of oil treated

mass

are

mixed
for
some

with
days

oil, and
a

then

is allowed
of oil and

to stand

until

perfect separation

acid liquor takes

place.

The

oil is drawn all traces of

away.

offand washed

acid.

The

again with water foots," as they acid

**

to free it from
are

called,

are

run

to almost all seed of refining is appUcable oils, and is largely used in connection with linseed oil,rape

This method

oil, colza with any

oil,nut

oil,and

also with

fish oiW. machinery, with

If it be used
it is necessary
to

oils intended

for lubricating

that the oil should

be well

washed

water

free

itfirom all traces of the acid used in might have a deleterious action
to which

in refining, which
on

if left

the metal

ings of the bear-

it is applied.
treatment

The

acid

will not
; any

aflfect any
such

free, fatty acid

which the oil may

after the treatment It has
to 130"

contain

will be left in the oil

is Anished.
to
use a

been

recommended
of zinc has

strong
from

solution

(100"

Twaddell)
it and

chloride,
no

using
on

1^
and

to 2 per

cent, of the oil.

This

action

the

oil itself,but it

dehydrates
matter

coagulates

all albuminous
more

vegetable

the oil contains.

It costs

to refine oils by zinc

chloride than
Refining
are

by sulphuric

acid.
Soda.
"

Oils

by

Caustic

good

many

oils

refined by using caustic soda, in fact some, oil for example, cannot well be refined by other

cotton-seed
means,

while

100
to obtain

SOAP

MANUFACTUKE.

certain

qualities of oil
from

an

alkaline treatment

to

free the oil completely

acid constituents is necessary. Colza oil, for instance, is much used for illuminating purposes ; if it contains any notable proportion of free acid it
hence an alkaline unsuitable for this purpose, is needful to be used with colza and other refining process

is rendered

burning

oils.
processes not only free the
remove

Alkaline vegetable
and

oil from
traces

extraneous

matter,

but

they

any

of resin, acid
a

colouring matters
and

which pure

the

oil may

contain, leaving
care

perfectly neutral

oil.

Greater
than

is required
an

in

carrying out
process.

an

alkaline process

is required for

acid

material

This is due to the fact that, while the acid has no action on the oil itself,and therefore little loss is
has
some

Ukely to take place, the alkaU

of saponifying the

tion action in the direca

oil, and

thereby

loss may

occur.

On

the

other
are

hand,

while

the foots obtained from

with

the

acid

treatment

useless, those obtained

use

the alkaline process

may

be made
process

of.

The simple. oil to be treated is run into a suitable vessel ; an iron tank serves very The requisite quantity of caustic soda lye is added, well. thoroughly time and the whole agitated together for some
The

is comparatively

and
some

then

allowed

to

settle,

an

operation
one

which

may
watery

take

time, when much

two

layers will form, foots, the

of

fluid
The

containing
watery
run

soapy

other

of clear oil.

fluid is drawn
mass

off into treated

as

tank, fresh weak

alkaU

is

in, and the

oil is well washed The strength and

before, after which the purified with water to free it from alkali. proportion of alkaline solution used

the character of the oil to be treated. upon will depend be With may all ordinary oils a lye of 8" to 12" Twaddell Crude cotton-seed oil requires a stronger lye, one used. of from 16" to 20" Twaddell,

while

coconut

oil

can

be

refined

KEFINING

OILS.

101 The

with

lye of about 6" to 6** Twaddell.

the amount

quantity

used will

depend upon

of acidity of the oil which

matter

is being

treated,the quantity
the amount given
as

of resinous
matter.

it may few

contain, and
rules
can

of colouring
regards

Hence

be

quantity

of alkali to be used. will suffice.

the formation

Generally

i to

1 per cent, of caustic soda

Occasionally
which

trouble

arises from

of emulsions

prevent

the proper

alkaline liquor.

When

separation of the oil from the it is best to add a little this happens
out

solution of salt, sufficient to throw In

some cases

the oil.

"

the oil has been

treated with

soda crystals

melted by heat in their water

of crystallisation.
to stand, when,
one

After being
as
a

well mixed

the

mass

is allowed

rule, it of

easilyseparates
soapy matter,

into three

layers,

of oil, the

second

and

the third of watery

liquid. mucilaginous
matters,

When

the

oil is fairly free from

and is of poor quality in consequence free fatty acid, this may be removed

of its containing by
or

much

agitating

the

oils

with

weak

solution of caustic soda

of carbonate

of soda,

but usually it will be found easier to treat them vsdth milk of lime or vsdth magnesia, followed by filtering from the lime
or

magnesia

soaps which
"

are

formed. of refining oils

These may
a

Oil Foots,
quantity of various ways
method

In

the alkali method

"

large

**

foots

is formed.
to

be

utilised in
very good

according
them

their character.

One
in

is to work

up for soap-making
however
occur

conjunction
to their

vnth other fats.

Cases

where,

owing

being strongly coloured as in the case of cotton oil foots, this be done. best plan of dealing with such is to The cannot decompose the foots by weak sulphuric acid and distil the
liberated fatty acids, etc. containing
glycerine There

is then

obtained

late distil-

which may in the retort takes the form

(from any undecomposed be present in the foots)and fatty acid.

**

glyceride The due resi-

of

pitch," and

will consist

102

SOAP

MANUFACTUKE.

of the resinous matter which

are

present
are

in the foots.

The

fatty acids

obtained

not

quite pure,

but

contain

small

bodies produced by decomposition quantities of hydrocarbon in distilling. of the fatty matter by the heat employed

Other
those

processes

for refining oils have

are

been

devised, but
use

just described
BLEACHING

what

are

in

common

in

oil

refineries.
OF

FATS

AND

OILS.

A.S obtained
and
fats
are

by

the
more

processes
or

described
In

above, the
vegetable
of

oils

often

less coloured. due

to

oils

this colour organic

present

is necessarily
matters,

the

presence

natural
etc.,

colouring

chlorophyll, Linseed

erythrophyll,

in solution in the oil.

oil
are

oil, brown
are

rape

oil,

palm

examples
often

of

such

oils which

strongly
as

coloured. have

Very

in the
a

processes

of refining, such

been
matters

described

above,

large proportion of them

fats
are

of the colouring

is removed,

but traces
oils and

the refined oils. Animal

colour. Any

in will remain usually free from

to

such

that may

be present

is generally due

exceptional
There removed

circumstances.
a

are

number

of ways

by which
which
may

the colour give good

can

be

from

oils. A

process

results

In some it cases oil may not do so with another. with one is suflficient agitate the oil at a temperature to of 120" F. with by filtration. Blowing hot air charcoal, followed animal cases through (palm oil)destroy the colour. will in some

Air and
some
cases

hght

bleaching

are

sometimes
use

resorted

to, but

in

it is necessary
by

to make

of chemical
a

reactions.
of hot

Bleaching

Hot

Air."

By

blowing

current

fats and oils can be decolorised. air at about 130" F. many be treated in this way. Tallow, lard, and palm oil may It is or not desirable that the action should be prolonged, wise otherthere important

is

some

risk of the

oxidation

of the oil.

It is

that the air should

be dry.

BLEACHING

OILS.

103

Figure 21 is

drawing

of

an

apparatus

made

ing for bleachBros. This

{palm oil by air devised by Messrs.

consists of
a

Korting convenient
K

cylindrical vessel of any

of fat that
means

size to suit is
a

the quantity
steam

is being

treated. fat
can

closed up
to terminating

coil by

of w^hich

the
tube

be heated
at the

any required

degree.
a

is

open

top

and

in

ring at the bottom

H

inside the vessel, this ring

having perforations. worked by steam

is

drav^-oflfvalve.

C is

an

injector

w^hich enters at A, B is the regulating valve.

Fia.

21.

Apparatus

for Bleaching

Palm

Oil.

By

the

action of the
vessel and

injector air
therein

is draw^n
a

from

the

upper

part of the

creates

vacuum

v^hich

is

filled by air being

and

drawn

in through

from

the outer

atmosphere

which

rises in bubbles is comparatively

oil drawn

through

the fat, bleaching and

it. The

operation
sample

simple
from

is continued
that the

until

of the

shows

bleaching has been carried far enough.

that the top of the vessel is fitted with
80

It may
a

be mentioned

tight-fitting cover

that it may
Bichromate

be hermetically
of

sealed up. Process.

"

Potash

Watts

has devised

104

SOAP

MANUFACTORE.

process
potash,

for the bleaching

of oils by

means

of bichromate

of

which

is largely used, especially for bleaching

manner
:

palm

oil.

It is carried ouivin the following

The
a

oil to be
quantity of fat, mixed
2

bleached

is heated

at about

120'' to l^O** F., then 22

to 28

of bichromate

of potash, in
a

about

lb. per ton

thoroughly

previously
with
or

dissolved

little water

and

the fat, then

per
cent,

hydrochloric

acid to the extent

and

of about

2^

of fat is added
In

also thoroughly

'mixed oil, the

vsdth the

material.

the

case

of bleaching

palm

green, and reddish orange colour changes firstto a brownish finally to a light green, the entire operation only taking a few minutes. is now for a few blown Wet through steam

minutes, and bleached The

then
and
may
can

then

it is allowed
out

to

stand

for

some

hours.

oil is separated with

clean water

and

is skimmed
out

off, and
of acid

washed chrome.

to take

all traces

Instead

of hydrochloric

acid, sulphuric
results.

acid

be used, but it does not give good

also be used Chlorine
for other fats and
"

This

process

oils. is
a

Process.
may

Chlorine

powerful

bleaching

agent

which

be employed

for the purpose however,

account

of bleaching

fats and
should

oils.

It is necessary,

that

great

care

be is

taken
a

in using
agent of

it

on

of the
fats,
excess

fact that
resulting

chlorine

colouring
formation
them.

in oils and
which

in the effects upon

is to mix

products
most

have

deleterious
of working

The
a

convenient

plan

the fat with

solution of bleaching
or

powder,

using

about
the

lb. to 1 ton

of fat

oil, then

about
and

three times
the whole

quantity

of hydrochloric
;

acid is added,
mixture
run

stirred together fat taken off, and

then

the

is allowed
away.
as a

to settle, the

the acid liquor

One

advantage
to rancid

of the chlorine process is that it acts fats. In

deodoriser
are

the

case

of fats and
to give them

oils which
two

strongly
rather

coloured, it is advisable
than
to attempt

treatments

to bleach

them

at

one

operation.

EXTRACTING

OIL

BY

SOLVENTS.

105 there may

In place of using potassium of fat ; about

bleaching

powder

be employed
ton

chlorate at

the rate of 2 to 4 lb. per of hydrochloric

acid is added, and the operation done at a temperature of 150" F. Sun Bleaching. This is commonly posing carried out by exthe oils and fats in colourless glass bottles to sunlight.
twice
the

quantity

"

From

time

to time

the oil or

fat is poured

from

one

bottle to another
the action of the often employed,

with

view

to exposing

This sunlight. especially for castor and

fresh portions to is slow but is method

other

oils used

for

medicinal
The
commonly

or

food purposes.

processes employed

above

described

are

those

which

are

in bleaching
have

oils and

fats.
of

Different different
the

refiners, however,
processes, which

various
have

modifications
to
use.

they

found

work

well with

plant and
are

appUances
as

they have
''

in

Such

modifications

often regarded
SOLVENT

trade secrets *\
EXTBACTION

PROCESSES.

All oils and

fats

are

soluble

in

such

bodies

as

ether,

carbon
etc.

bisulphide, benzohne,
is taken

benzol, carbon
advantage

tetrachloride,

This property
and
on

atory of in both the laborpurpose

of extracting them.

the large scale for the

fats and

oils from
on

substances
all such

containing
works

The

principle

which

apparatus

is that
solvent in

of
a

treating the fat-containing suitable vessel, then to

and
run

substance

with

the
a

the solution into

stillor

retort

distil off the solvent by any means. The fat remains behind in the still, hile the solvent is recovered and used w over The best possible solvent is one that has great again.
solvent
means

be distilled completely by properties for oils, can is free from odour and non-inflammable. of steam, substance
among
those named

The
answers

only

above

which

conditions entirely is carbon but unfortunately it is expensive.

these

tetrachloride,

106

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Benzoline light, has

is commonly
solvent

used

for this purpose.

It

is

It action on oils, and is cheap. has one disadvantage, it does not entirely volatilise by means there is a tendency for a littleof the of steam, consequently strong

benzoUne

to remain

behind
care

in the oil ; again, it is very in the working

of the vnth

flammabl in-

and solvent.
use.

great

is needed is
one

this
to

Carbon

bisulphide

best solvents
of

It is volatile at the heavier than

wrater

temperature

boiling vv^ater.
under

Being

it

can

be

kept

in tanks
from

vsrater, thereby

explosion fire. It has unfortunately rather a noxious odour, w^hich or it unpleasant to w^ork vdth. This odour is however makes largely due to impurities that come from the materials from
reducing which
odour
the carbon

the

risk of danger

bisulphide

is made.

By

repeatied

use

this

becomes is
a

less offensive and unpleasant.

Benzol

hydrocarbon

obtained

during

the distillation

of coal tar.
water,

It is freely volatile at the temperature and

has

ing of boil-

strong therefore

solvent

properties.
care

It is highly

inflammable,

and

great

must

be

taken

in

working
DiETZ

vsdth it.
Apparatus.
"

A very

convenient

form

of apparatus
as

for the extraction of oil by bisulphide is that of Dietz,

shown

in figure 22.

This consists of

an

extraction tank B,

in which

is placed, between perforated plates at top and bottom, the material from which the oil is to be extracted ; by
means

of

pump,

carbon

bisulphide, contained
through
the extractor

under
and
so

water

in the tank A, is passed

abstracts the oil from the material ; from the extractor, the carbon bisulphide containing the oil flows into the still or bisulphide is distilled off by carbon in the coil condenser steam, and is condensed and flows back into tank A to be used over Eesidual oil left in the again.
retort

D,

where

the

stillD
pipe.

is

run

off from

time

to time by

means

of

discharge

This plant is small and

easy to work.

EXTBACTING

OIL

BY

SOLVENTS.

107

Figure 23 is
made in any

drawing

of

convenient size and It consists of three portions. First, the centre vessel which forms the extractor. The material is put in at the be hermetically top, which is fitted with a hd which can
closed. In this extractor there is also a bottom, on which the fatty materials are

be small plant which can vent. used with any kind of sol-

perforated false placed. Under

Fig. 22.

Apparatus

for Extracting

Oils,

This which can be heated by steam. still still communicates of a tube, with the extractor by means which proceeds from the bottom of the extractor and rises up alongside it to nearly three-fourths of its height, and
or

this is a retort

then turns down

and

enters into the still,nding e

near

the

bottom.

worm

a the top of the still pipe passes to a condenser placed above the extractor, the end of the condenser passing into the top of the extractor. This plant is

From

108

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

used the

in the following
extractor
means

way

The

fatty material

is placed

in

and of

the
a

required

; still by

steam

passes
as a

into the condenser,

of solvent in the coil the solvent is volatilised and it is condensed, and flows where quantity
; here

liquid into the extractor

it gradually

accumulates.

Fig. 23.

Oil Extracting

Plant.

dissolving
the

out

the fat until its level rises above syphon

the

level of
; still
same

bend

in the

tube, when
and

it flows
passes

into the
the

here

it gets volatilised again

The

through

cycle of changes.

fatty matter

which
can

it had

however,

is left behind

in the still and

in solution, be run off from

EXTRACTING

OIL

BY

SOLVENTS.

109

time to time,
on

as

required, through

discharge

pipe placed

the bottom

of the still.
method of

Another have two

extracting,

using

benzoline,
Each

is to

large upright

boilers side by side.

"

is divided

into three portions

extractor and

by partitions

the middle
manholes,

portion
one

is the

is provided
the other
forms

with
at the

two

at the top
; the

for charging,
lower portion

bottom

for discharging

the stilland
a

is fitted with steam

arrangement. The

pipes ;
This

the top portion

contains

condensing
manner.

apparatus is used
are

in the following

extractors

filled with
one

the oily material.

Benzoline
means

is placed
a

in the

stillf o

and

is vaporised
upwards condensed

by

of

steam

coil ; the
other
down

vapour, passing

into the
to
a

condenser

of the

boiler, is there
through

liquid

and

flows

the oily material all the

into the still, carrying

has been

with

it the

oil. When

benzoline

vaporised

off from

the original still,the action is reversed and the benzoline distilledback again ; the oil it held in solution is, however, left behind in the still. The to go on action is allowed

until all the oil is removed then

run

from
a

the

raw

material.

This

is

off from

the stillto

storage tank.
means

The

extraction
simple.

of oils by The

of volatile solvents seed

a

is

in itselfvery

crushed

or

other oil-bearing

is material (driedfish,etc.) placed in

petroleum

closed vessel.

Benzine,
any

spirit, bisulphide

of

carbon,

ether

or

other

it, and allowed to flow through suitable solvent is passed into a retort, carrying with it the oil in solution and leaving
the exhausted in the extractor or substances macerator. The solvent in the retort is now distilled off and condensed for reuse, in the retort. while the pure oil is left behind So far the process is very simple, but there are many difficulties :
one

consists in recovering in the extractor.

a

the part

solvent of the

from

the

waste product

This
tank,

apparatus outlet

consists essentially of

large

with

inlet and

110 for the

to

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

pipes

circulation

of the solvent, and

solvent

steam

connections

drive
been

off the

residual

after

the

material

in it has
These

exhausted.
must

extractors

necessarily
has

be of

size, and
left behind husks
ought

when
a

extraction
large
case

been

considerable there is completed,

starch and

bulk of

of residual

material, with

(in the
to

saturated seeds), the

solvent

which

be

distilled off before

for
not

extractor

is emptied. because
the

This

is necessary
could

two

reasons.

First,
lose

manufacturer secondly, if allowed

afford

to

all this

solvent;

because

its vapours are to escape freely become

chief difi"culty:

inflammable,
a

and

might And

source

of danger.

herein

lies the
is
a

the

material

left in the it is very

extractor

bad

conductor
mass,

of heat, and
when

therefore

difficult to heat throughout

second
to

the
ensure

in large bulk,

sufficiently
To this
a

complete

volatilisation.

difficulty is added,
solvent has the

by

the fact that the volatilisation

of the

tendency

of greatly
are

depressing

the

temperature

in those

parts which

not

easily reached

by

the heat of the steam.

This
steam

difficulty is only
into
the
extractor,

partially
as

what upper

admitting volatilises in the lower

layers, until the

overcome

by

part
mass

condenses

again

in the

whole
account

is sufficiently heated

throughout,

which,

on

of the non-conducting after many

thus

hours

properties of the material, is achieved But the solvent has to be only. when
the material
a

driven off by live steam,

same

is being moist

cooked

at

the

time, and
cases

when

taken out is in
to what

state, which

in many

is detrimental

otherwise

would

be

e^

valuable product.
The it
soon

residual meal
spoils, and
apparatus all these

cannot

be stored

in this condition,

as

The

is only fit for manurial purposes. in figure 24 was designed shown

The

to

come over-

defects.

difficulty arising

out

of the

EXTEACTING

OIL

BY

SOLVENTS.

Ill

112

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

cessfull material while in bulk has sucbeen conquered by treating small and successive This is being done by practically time. quantities at one is,instead of passing the That reversing the older process.

unmanageableness

of the

solvent
to

through
extracted
at the

large

mass

of material, here through the

the material

be

is passed

solvent,

the

latter

flowing

same

In what by
a

manner

time in the opposite direction. this is effected wdll be best understood

reference
and

to. the

accompanying
alternately

drawing.

C, C2,

C4,

C5,
each

C6

are

cyhnders

communicating

wdth
screw

other

at top and

bottom,

carriers. work,
forward shoot where falls
and
screw.
on

The

material

in which are working is fed in at A (which, when by

a

not

at

is hermetically by
a

closed

water

seal) and
by

carried

screw

working

in B, and

falls down
a

the vertical
screw

into C.

Here

it is carried upwards
communicates

to CI,

the first cyhnder

to the
screw

with

the second

and

working

in C2, is carried downwards

channel the

falls through

communicating carries

C3

on

to the n^xt
an

This

again

material

in

upward

direction and
up again

to C4, whence

it is carried downwards
part of which
the
excess

in C6,
is
a

in

C6,

in

the

upper
to

there

squeezing
and
a

arrangement
through

express

of

solvent,

falls then

into kiln E, which

screw,

is provided
the

with

steam

jacket and
as

forward of the

where

exhausted

material is deprived effected,

a

residual solvent.
a

This

is easily
over

the

material
area.

large heated

is spread out in The vapours, which

hence have
a

thin layer
are

considerably
tendency,
are condensed

heavier than
are

the air, and

to escape

downward
of the

allowed

at the

lower

end

kiln,

in their passage through receiver 12, and

pumped back

the condenser

11, collected in at 1.

into the machine

While
flows

the material thus travels from

left to right, the solvent

in

an

opposite

meal, etc., meets

direction, whereby the partially extracted in each successive cell with a purer stream

TALLOW.

113

of solvent, thus
the other hand

ensuring
the

nearly
comes

complete

solvent

On exhaustion. successively in contact

with material richer in oil, finally passing into the first cell (the last as regards the direction of the solvent), where itmeets the largest quantity of oil, passes through filter a H, and thence into a retort. This latter part of the apparatus
is provided
over

with

several trays, each of oil and

solvent

steam-jacketed,
flows in
a

which
the

the

mixture

thin

stream;

solvent

being
out

9, while

the

oil flows

volatilised and in a continuous

throughout.

condensed
stream
at

in
10.

The apparatus

is sealed by water

ANIMAL

AND

VEGETABLE
TALLOW.

SOAP

OILS.

is, or should be, derived from the fat of cows, sheep, goats, and similar animals; the best fat being
from the known thicker deposits
which butchers
some

Tallow

ox(?n,

taken

generally among

known

by other

names

in

abdomen, the skin, although it is as call it places. Anatomists

obtained
from
and the

surround

the

the omentum.
the

Tallow
large

is also

fat surrounding
other

muscles,

the

kidneys,

the

be and Fatty matter can organs of the from other parts of the animal, such as the intestines, bones, etc.,and such fat is often sold as tallow ; sometimes with a

body.

is obtained

qualifying distinction

as

bone

tallow ; at other

times,

and

possible, without such a qualifying description. Whenever tallow is dealt in as tallow, it is always understood to be the fat and the obtained from the parts above-named,
sale of any other

this wherever

kind of fat should

be regarded

as

fraud

upon the buyer.

The

deposit of tallow

found to be contained

it exists in the animal body is in small cells or bladders of animal

as

tissue. The
a

reason

for itsbeing in this condition is that being

move

Uquid and

therefore able to

with

every

motion

of the

114 parts, yet it is not

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

able to flow
from

from

the

spot in which

it is

found.
as

As it is taken
fat, and

the body,

the crude from

a

fat is known
the

butcher's

is usually purchased

butchers

by the tallow refiner, who,

often distinguishes between
the

if he

be located in
fat" and

large town, fat,"

*'town

"country

former

being

usually

fresher, and
the

therefore

better quality of tallow

which

than

latter.

The

yielding a idea or principle

of the
some
a

underlies
this

all processes fat

for the

extraction
out

tallow
means

from the

rough

is to
the

separate
actual

by

animal

tissue from
as

fatty matter, various

means

process

which
have

is known
been
adopted

rendering.
to

The

which

do

this have

been

described,

p. 68 et seq.

Of fatty matters
body, the intestines
"

obtained give what

".

from

other parts of the

"

animal
the

is called
The

tripe tallow,"

feet yielding
these greases

neatsfoot
or

oil
not

processes

for extracting

fats do
as a

differ essentially
are

from
by and

those

described

above, but,

rule, they

obtained
in water, the top feet

simply ming skimwater

as

boiling the various parts of the

the where fat which is obtained
the

animal
from

of the
are

it collects, whilst

tripe and

used

food.
A
great deal of fat largely used
as

in making

soap grease,"

is
**

now

extracted

from

bones,

and
not

sold

**bone

bone
as

fat,"

*'

bone

tallow," and
do
not

seldom,

wherever
or are

possible,
fat;
the

tallow.
are

All bones

contain

tallow

best
and

cows
a

and

bullocks' shank

bones, which

hollow,

contain

fairly large proportion of good and

sold
as
**

fat, often

separately
more

extracted

marrow

tallow".

The
much

bones

found
pay

in the

animals

do

not

contain

solid fat, and

so

scarcely

for its extraction.

are

Horses* process worth

bones

contain

little fat they

not

worth

the

of treatment. while
to sort

In them those

dealing with bones into those which

it is therefore
are

worth

treating for the fat and

TALLOW.

115
The of extraction

which are not worth is given on p. 76.

Tallow
world.
comes

so

treating.

method

into this country

a

from

all parts
regard

of

the

Now

it is

well-known
from
various

fact with

to natural

products
somewhat

obtained

localities that

they

vary

in appearance,
of minor

colour, odour,

and consistence, etc.,

to say nothing

differences in chemical
to

composition.
in the
tallows

Tallow which

is
are

no

exception

this rule, hence

from North

sent

into England
are

America,

Australia,

Eussia, India, etc., there

experts
can

certain minordifferences from

by which
came.

tell the

locaHty

There
are

can

scarcely be any

doubt

which but what

on

the

tallow

these

differences
the
to
a

caused

by the

character

of the food

which
vary

cattle great

feed in the various

extent.

localities,and
tallows

which
are

must

Commercially,

distinguished
"

according
or

to their country
or

of origin, and
or

of the cattle which

oxen

sheep,

into

beef

mutton

"

from

they

are

obtained.
rog, Taganoxen,

Russian tallow
and St.

comes

chiefly from

Cronstadt,

Odessa,

Petersburg.

It is derived

chiefly from

and is a hard, yellowish

tallow, better suited for candle-makers

than for soap-makers.

tallow finds its way from and

large proportion

of the

Eussian

Siberia, but
that
*'

no

distinction is made
parts
*'

between
South

this tallow sends

from

other

of Eussia.
"

America

both
from

beef "and
Plate

mutton

tallow.
a

It is chiefly shipped
strong yellow
for all

the Eiver usually

ports.

It is of

colour, and
uses.

of fair quality, and

tallow

able service-

North

American

is of very good

American, quality,rather paler in colour than South and is the favourite tallow of soap-makers. It is mostly "beef** tallow that comes from North America, but mutton" tallow is also sent over. Australia also sends large quantities
*'

of both

'*

beef

"

*'

"

and

mutton

tallow value the

to

England

of fairly
depends

good colour
on

and

quality.
"

The

of the
tallow

tallow
and

its consistence

the

harder

higher

its

116

SOAP

MANUPACTUEE.

melting
very

point, the within

more

valuable

it is.

These

points

vary-

much
out.

certain

limits, which

will be

presently

pointed
The

chemical

composition

of tallow varies somewhat the locality

as

according as

to the method

of feeding and Tallow

well

the

kind

of tallow.

consists essentially of the two

the
per
latter
cent,

glycerides,

olein
60

and

stearin,
80

predominating,
in hard
tallows.

forming
Margarine
there
are

from

in soft to

is also probably
also nearly always
matter,
to
more

present small

in

some

tallows, while

quantities of animal
should
not

tissue,

colouring
amount

water

but

these
to

altogether
total.
so

than

from
more

1 per

cent, mutton

of the

Beef
that

tallow

contains

olein

than

tallow,

it is rather

softer in consistence,
and

and

therefore
and

better

adapted tallow

for soap-making oil, whereas

The
to mutton

lubricating is
more

for making

tallow

candle-maker. from from

0935 0-937

specific gravity
while
at 60"

suitable for the of beef tallow ranges

tallow

0*939, 0*940

that
F.

of mutton

ranges F. The

to

(15" C.) ;

while

at 212"

(100" C.) the

melting ranging

specific gravity is from

0*860

to 0*862.

point of tallow varies very considerably, usuallyfrom 36" to 49" C. (97" to 120" F.)" the lower limit

is that of a soft tallow, while the higher limit is a hard 39" C. (102" F.) is the average tallow. melting point of it begins to solidify at rather After being melted tallow.
lower the

temperatures,
moment

from

33" to

46"

C. (115" F.), but rises white,

a

at

of When

solidifying the
pure, much tallow odour

temperature should
and

few

degrees. firm, and

be

fairly

without
40
to 44
a

taste.

It is soluble

in from

times

its volume
of

of alcohol.

Generally,
from

it contains
0*75
to

small
cent.,
are

quantity
although
met

free acid, ranging

samples

per

occasionally
For

with

larger
presence

quantities

with.
is not

of free fatty acid

the soap -making, detrimental, but rather

TALLOW.

117

otherwise;

but

for lubricating

machinery

it is decidedly-

disadvantageous.

When
a

melted

tallow

is allowed
27'

to to

cool very
30"

slowly

at

temperature
forms

of not
a

less than
mass,

C.

(80" to 86"
crystallising be separated
The
process
to

F.)"it

granular
of small

the

stearin
can

out in the out from

form
the
as

nodules
mass

which

more
**

fluid

by
is

pressure.

is known
separation

seeding,"
stearin

and

largely
for

applied
use

the

of the the

of the

tallow

in making

candles, while known

"

as

tallow

the press is passes through which oil," and is used for lubricating machinery

Uquid

and soap-making.

When
into soap.

boiled

with

caustic

alkalies, tallow

is converted
13*79

Of caustic soda, tallow

to completely

usually takes about

to 18'85 per cent,

potash it requires

19*32 taken
more

to
as

saponify it, while of caustic The 19'38 per cent. alkalies

pure, of the ordinary
to the

being in both

cases

chemically

conmiercial products

vnll be required, according

strength of the article, which

soap formed

varies very much. alkah

tallow
per

When

the

by

boiling tallow and

fatty acids of the
to

together
are

is treated
and

with acid, the

usually
used.
are

separated of the

found melting

amount

to 95

cent,

tallow
fatty

The

point and

specific gravity of these

acidsvary with the quality of the tallow. Tallow Among is frequently adulterated.
have been used
as

other

bodies

soft fats from

other parts of the animal, such

bone

or

tripe tallows, cotton-seed

fatty matters,

oil, seal oil, stearin from

to

wool grease, among

clay, starch
easy matter

and

similar
some

products.

say nothing It is by no
:

of china
means
an

to detect

of these adulterants The

cotton-seed

oil stearin is very difficult to detect.

the fat at 100" C, the melting

specific gravity of
some

point, is also

guide, while
be
a

the large proportion addition.

of solid fatty acid would

clue to its
the

Cotton-seed

oil can

be detected

by its reducing

118

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

specific gravity, melting point, and increasing the proportion of liquid fatty acids, as well as by the silver nitrate and iodine be detected by the tallow test. Stearin from wool grease can
containing
a

large proportion Bone

of fatty acid,
can

as

well

as

by the

silver nitrate test. containing

grease

be detected
is
a

by the tallow

phosphate

of lime, which The

gredien characteristic inmatters

as

of bone china and forms

on

grease.
can

addition

of such

clay and

starch these

be detected
matters
rare,

by
to

melting

the tallow

allowing

insoluble
are

settle out.

Such

of adulteration

now

and

show
wax

unskilful work and be

scale and

the part of the

adulterator.

Paraffin
; these

mineral

oil are

sometimes

added

may

detected

by

their reducing
the tallow

the percentage

of potash

required
a

to saponify

and

by

the

sample

having

low

flash point

(under 400" F.).

Tallow
one

is

now

rarely used largely used

for lubricating machinery.

for lubricating
steam

At

time

it

was

engine

cylinders,

but

it has

been
now

superseded

by

the

petroleum

cylinder oils.
heavy

It is used

in small
"

quantity

for

cating lubrimills

"

and

bearings engine for making lubricating is

more

bearings
greases.

of rolling

Tallow

largely used
; it gives

for soap-making
a

than and

any of
a

other fat that is known

good

soap

"

hard

good

white

colour.

of the tallow, and

is modified by the colour however, .This, The taken in making the soap. the care is good
on

grain of tallow
soluble in water, freely in
not
as
use

soap
and

uniform ; it is not readily it does not lather so that account

and
the other hand,
are

some
:

soaps do.

On

itis not

so

wasteful

its cleansing powers

excellent, and it keeps well,

or

odour acquiring any objectionable It is a littlebit troublesome keeping.

rancid on to saponify, but by the this

can

becoming

exercise of

littlecare
over.

on

the part of the soap-maker

be

easily got

LAED.

119
TALLOW.
.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.

OF

0-943 to 0-942. (60" F.) 50" G. (122"F.) 0-896. 100" G. (212" 0-862. F.) Melting Point, 42" to 46" C. (107" to 116" F.). Solidifying Point, 36" C. (98"F.). Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 96 to 96 per cent. Saponification Value (Koettstorfer 19*3 to 20 per cent. KOH. Test), Iodine absorbed 39 (Hubl Test), to 44 per cent.
.
.
.

Eeichert Viscosity

Value,

0-26

c.c.^KOH.
63.
36.

at 120" F
"

150"
212"

"

26.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity

OF

FATTY

ACIDS

FROM

TALLOW.

0*8698. (212"F.), Melting Point, 43" to 44" C. (108" to 110" F.). Solidifying Point, 42" to 43" 0. (107" to 108" F.). Molecular Weight (Combining Weight),284. Iodine absorbed 40 (Hubl Test), per cent.

at 100" C.

LARD.

Lard,

as

is well known,

and other parts

is the fat obtained from the leaf of the pig. It is almost entirely used for
and

culinary purposes
used to
a

but

rarely for industrial in soap-making,

and

uses.

It is
only

limited

extent

then
a

in

making

the

best grades

of toilet soaps

where

good

white

colour is desired, lard in regard

coconut

to these points
a

ranking

with
or

oil. Lard

is

soft fat of

consistency

equal to

sUghtly harder than butter, melting to a clear, water- white oil ; itsconsistency varies It is white slightly in different samples. in colour, although it may have a faint yellowish sometimes
or

creamy

tint ; its odour

and

taste

are

sweet

and

pleasant,

and if well refined it keeps

a

well ; it saponifies freely, forming

a

good white

hard

soap with soda, and

a

white

soft soap

with

potash.

It consists essentially of

mixture

of stearin and

oleinin somewhat
of olein and

varying

proportions, from

60 to 65 per cent,
are

35 to 40 per cent, of stearin ; there present. Lard

also small adultera-

quantities of palmitin

is

to subject

120

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

tion, the usual ingredients added oil. Lard

soap has
a

being

fat and cotton-seed

white colour, uniform texture, and lathers freely in water, being superior in this respect to tallow
good soap ; it is free from
any

strong smell and does not go rancid.

OF
LARD.
.
.

CONSTANTS Specific Gravity

at 16" C.

60" C.

(60" F.) F.). (122"

F.) (21*^"

0-931. 0-881.

100" C.

0-868.

to (80" 84" F.). to Melting Point, 40" to 42" C. (104" 108" F.). 96 per cent. Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 196 per cent. Saponification Value (Koettstorfer Test), Iodine Value (Hubl Test), per cent. 69

Solidifying Point, 27-1" to 29" C.

KOH.

CONSTANTS

OF

FATTY
at 100" 0.

ACIDS

FROM

LARD.

Specific Gravity

0-844. (212" F.),

Solidifying Point, 39" C. (102"F.). Melting Point, 43" C. (107" F.).

Combining Iodine
Equivalent

Value

Weight), 280. (Molecular 64-2 per cent. (Hubl Test),

BONE

GREASE.

This fat is largely used in the manufacture

sorts of soaps, both domestic

of the

cheap

and manufacturers'

soaps, either

in admixture with other fats and oils. Its preparation As usually sold it is in the has already been described. form of a greyish-coloured, granular soft fat, its consistence
alone
or

being between

tallow and

lard.

It has
an

slight odour
one

when

fresh,,which often develops into becomes rancid. It contains some from

unpleasant
water,

if the fat
varying

the amount

2 to 6 per cent., small quantities of animal rather

an

tissue, from

0*5 to 1 per cent., the latter being

; the proportion

of free acid in bone

excessive proportion grease is rather

7 to 21 per

higher than

in tallow, the amount

ranging

from
are

cent. ; then small quantities of phosphate

of lime

present

"

this constitutes

characteristic test for the presence

of such
:
"

of bone

grease.
had

Two

samples

grease examined

by the author

the composition

121

100-00

100-00

Owing
to test

to the variable

quality of bone

fat it is advisable

it for moisture,
water

etc., before buying. may

The

it contains
the fat and

if thought it in
a

necessary melted

be got rid

of by melting
some

keeping

condition for

hours.

The

colour of bone

fat varies

great deal, but

as

rule
as

this is of little detriment

the colour generally

to its soap-making

properties,
soap
a

finds its way

a

into the

lyes, and

pale soap, rather softer than

tallow

soap and soap

little more
still retains
soaps

soluble in water,
some some

is obtained. of the fat, and

to

Bone-fat
so

of the odour
scent

if used

for domestic

is required
soap

disguise

this odour;

if used

for

manufetcturing

the odour
ANIMAL

is of Uttle consequence.
SOAP

FATS.
are

Besides
of commerce

tallow and
there
are

bone

grease which

regular articles of animal

other

solid greases

origin
; such

which
are
:

are

oflferedin occasional

parcels to soap-makers

tripe tallow, horse fat, skin fat, etc.

are

These

only fitto be used

as

to make

the commonest

class
are

of soaps, such usually of

some
are

scouring

soaps, rough

mill soap^ ; they

a

soft consistency, and

shade

vary in colour
or

great deal,
others

are

darker than

tallow

bone-fat, but

of

brownish

tint ; their odour comparatively

soaps

likewise varies considerably,

to

from odour.

being
make

sweet

having
and

rancid
rather

They

of

consistence
If anything

quahty
are

softer and

poorer tallow

than
or

tallow.

they

rather
very

easier than

bone-fat to saponify.

They

are

122

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

variable in composition, unsaponifiable fats, some

The
author

some

contain water,

others traces

of

contain large quantities of free acid.

to

has

had

occasion

examine and
"

many

siich soap
are

greases during
results of
some

the last few years of these analyses

:

the

following

the

The

large proportion

of free acid in Nos.

some

1 and

3 is to

be accounted

for by the fact that

to them.
TALLOW

distilled stearin has

been added

OIL.

oil is obtained from tallow by melting and keeping the tallow in a warm room at about 80" to 90" F. for some hours ; the stearin it contains crystallises out in the form of Tallow
small

granular
The

particles, hence
tallow is then pressure,

this process is known

placed

as

seeding.

seeded

in
the

canvas

cloths and

put
comes

under

hydraulic

when

olein it contains stearin, and

the forms
names

out, together

with

little of the

the tallow oil of of

ox

commerce.

It is also sold under

chinery, oil,animal oil, etc. Its chief use is for lubricating mabut it is used for making a soap when white soap, rather softer and more soluble than a tallow soap, is required.

Tallow
more

oil varies much fluid than

others; the

in consistence, this depends

upon

some

samples

are

the proportion

of the

stearin which

oil contains ; if there it is liquid. from

is much,

then

then oil is sohd ; if little,

The

specific gravity oil in wellnil Tallow

a

varies for the contains

prepared oil should
a

same

reason

0*911 to 0"916.

Tallow

varying
samples

proportion
to

of free acid from

[15 or

16 per cent,

in others.
have

be

quite white tint. When

when melted

cold,

or

at the most

faint yellow

it ought

to be

quite

clear

PALM

OIL.

123

".nd bright, free from any kind.

any
a

cloudiness

or

floating particles of
an

It has only

slight odour
LABD

of

animal

fat.

OIL.

Lard

oil,like tallow oil,is not much

use

used in soap-making,

finding its principal

from

in lubricating machinery.
same

It is prepared

lard by the

process the

as

taUow

oil is made

from tallow.
uses.

It resembles

last oil in its properties and has less

It is if anything resembles

rather lighter in colour and that of lard.

odour, which

VEGETABLE

SOAP
PALM

OILS OIL.

AND

FATS.

Next making which

to tallow palm

oil used

to be

the fat most

used

for

soaps, but of late it has been

displaced by cotton

oil,
run

is cheaper

and

gives

better soap for the general

of domestic

purposes.

Palm
palm

oil is obtained

from

the

fruit of various
of the
west

species of
coast

trees, natives

of the

oil regions

of

Africa.

The

tree which

yields the

largest proportion The

and

of the

palm oil of

commerce

is the

Elaiis Guinensis.
plum,

fruit of
hangs
an

the palm is about the size of a small bunches from the trees. Like the plum pulpy
mass

in

it contains
the
outer

outer

and

an

inner

kernel.
the

From

pulp

is
or

obtained the palm

palm-kernel

oil, while in

kernel

yields palm-nut
but which

oil, also used

soap-making,

has

differentproperties to palm oil. The natives of the oil regions employ a variety of methods for the purpose the fruit. The of extracting the oil from
commonest

plan

consists in stacking

the

nuts

as

they

are

taken from

the tree in heaps

for from'seven

to ten days, when

by the decomposition
the

of

some

of the the
and

vegetable
can

tissues surrounding

husk

of the nuts

husk

be readily removed,
The
pulp

leaving the internal pulp

kernel.

is of

124
a

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

rather hard
are

nature,

and

to

soften

it the

nuts,

after being" plantain

husked,

thrown

into pits and

earth
and

covered

over

with

leaves, then they remain

months,

with for
a

palm

leaves ; in this condition

period varying
to the fancy
are

from
or

three

weeks

to three

according

tribe of Africans period named

mass

who

making

practice of the particular the oil. At the end of the been

converted

the pulp thrown

a

will have

into

soft it

; it is now

into pits lined with process whereby is

now

stones, where

is

to subjected

pounding

the pulp thrown

is separated

from

the kernels ; the former

into boiling

pots and
and

boiled with
off,any

water,

when

the oil rises to the top may

accompany

is skimmed

vegetable

tissue which
or

the pulp passing into the water, from

to melt

the oil may

be separated
so
as

the vegetable then

pulp

by heating
the

it with water
mass

the oil, and

squeezing

in bags, when

the oil flows out. The

on
as

quality and

consistence

of the product
from

depend

partly but
more

the particular species of palm

to this point

which

it is made,

definite information
the
care

is required,
the process

but

particularly upon
has been
allowed

with

which
the

of extraction

carried out, and

length of time

the fruit is

same

in the pits. A long steeping results in the oil being harder, but at the time its quality is materially decreased ; it acquires a
to remain
as

rancid odour, its colour is not free acid, indicating that

has
sweet
a a

bright, and

it contains

more

decomposition
short steep The

into acid and glycerine gives

a

taken
and
as

place ;
a

soft oil of

odour

bright colour.
crude
as

process

of extracting that

palm

oil being

it

can

well be, it is evident

the commercial

article is far from

traces

being all pure fat ; it may tissue, etc., which,

contain

some

of vegetable

being

very hable to ferment,

will in

course

of time gradually bring

about
more

the decomposition
or

of the oil,resulting in its becoming losing its odour and colour.

less rancid, and

PALM

OIL.

125
the consistence of butter ;

Palm it has
an

oil is

solid fat of about

to golden-yellow

orange

colour, which

is highly

Salt Pond characteristic, but is liable to vary very much. colour, Lagos and Brass oils have usually a brownish-yellow oil is
a

bright
a

orange,

Sierra

Leone

is rather
colour

redder.

New partly

Calabar oil is
dependent

golden
the

yellow ; the

is probably

upon

species of palm

from
partly
on

which

the oil is
of

obtained in the first instance, and extraction.

Lagos oil is the

the process

best and

most

neutral quaUty,
10 per
not

the proportion
cent., and
more

of free acid it contains rarely exceeding

amount

the

of water

and

other

impurities

than

2 per cent., and

in consistence
as

the palm

oils.
comes on

Brass,
next

so

far

freedom

it is the softest of from impurities is

of the

concerned,

to Lagos

oil ; it is the hardest is the quality most

a

palm oils,and

that account
;

in favour

with candle-makers

it usually contains by

large percentage,

53 to 65, of free fatty acid, and

of palmitic acid of any

far the largest proportion its hardness.

variety, hence
of the worst
market,

Salt Pond

oil is

one

be found

in the

English

qualities of palm oil to the amount of impurities

the free

often being found

to amount

to 20 per cent., while

acid has

been

recorded

by

Norman

Tate

to be

as

high

as

80 per cent., indicating

that but usually

little actual
poor.

oil is present.

The colour and odour are New Calabar oils occupy

these oils in hardness
a

Half

Jack, Bonny,
between

intermediate

positions Palm

and

quality generally.

oil has
to the

peculiar violet-like odour, which from it. soap which is made

is communicated

Chemically

palm

oil consists
proportions, The

of

mixture varying

of palmitin

and olein in various

with

quantities of
of palm

free palmitic and

oleic acids.

specific gravity
The

oilat 15" C. varies from

at 100" C. ranges

0*920 to 0*926. 0*857

specific gravity
melting

from

to 0*859 ; the

point is

exceedingly

variable, ranging

from

25" to 36" C. (77" to 97" F.),

126

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

the setting point being

palm

few

degrees

lower.

When

saponified

oil yields from

94 to 97 per cent, of fatty acids, the

setting points of which

the F.), from

range

from
from

41" to 46" C. (106" to 113" 273 to 274.

combining

equivalent

Palm

oil takes
or

19*6 to 20*2 per cent,

of caustic potash,

KOH,

from

14 to 144

per cent,
soap

of caustic soda, NaOH,

an

to saponify

it.

Palm-oil
upon

has

orange

yellow

to yellow

pending colour, deit is made

oil which
;

the quality of the the

oil from
odour

which

it also possesses
has already

characteristic

of the
not

been

referred to.

It is hard,

liable to go

in quality in so doing ; well, improving it lathers fairly well, and is a good cleanser, altogether being rancid, and will keep
a

first-class soap.
done
are

Palm

oil may
used

be

bleached,
a

which white
;

must

be

if the
many

oil is to be
processes

for making

soap.

There

available

for this work

then

the best

is Watts's
bleached
These
samples
met

by
by

means

of bichromate air through been

already

of potash, it and by

it may
means.

be

blowing
have

other

processes

described.

Adulterated
has not

of palm

oil

are

scarcely known

; the author

in the course of his practice, nor with one that it is adulterated referred to in the text-books
CONSTANTS Specific Gravity
at 15" C.

is the fact
on

oils.

OF

PALM
.

OIL.
.

(60"F.)

0-920 to 0-924. 0-893. 0-8586.

50" C.

100" Melting Insoluble Point, Fatty from Acids

F.) (120" 0. (212" F.)

27" to 42" C.

(80"to

107"

F.).
per cent.

(Hehner Value),96*5
N

per cent.

Saponification
Reichert Value,

Value
0*5

20*2 (Koettstorfer est), T

c.c.

KOH.

Iodine

Value

Jq KOH. 51 (Hubl Test), to

OF FATTY

52 per cent.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
Melting

ACIDS

FROM

PALM

OIL.

at 100"

Point,

60" C.

Solidifying

Point,

0-8369. (212"F.), (122"F.). 45*5" C. (113-5" .). F 20*6 per cent.

C.

Saponification

Value,

KOH.

Combining

Equivalent

(MolecularWeight),270.

PALM-NUT

OIL.

127
OIL.

PALM-NUT

OR

PALM-KERNEL

The

nuts

or

kernels

of the

palm

fruit

are

collected and

imported in large quantities into this country

of pressing the oil from
to those

for the purpose in mills similar

a

them,

which
In

is done
some

previously

described.

places

very crude
are

method

is in
over

use a

for extracting

the

oil ; the

nuts

put

into a pan
exudes and

fire and

charred

slightly, some
nuts
are now

of the oil ground

is poured
with

; oflf the

roasted

up and

boiled

water,

the
a

oil they

contain
mass

rises to the of kernel

and

top and is skimmed

off ; after
up', mixed
more

short boil the

a

meal is reground

with

little water This

again

boiled up,
off as

when

oil is obtained.
oil obtained
for making
or

is skimmed

before.

The

by this process
good
soap.

is of

dark

colour and is unsuitable Palm-nut

a

oil is of white

faintly yellowish

colour, of
coconut

consistence

similar to butter ; in odour which

it
can

it resembles

oil, from

hardly

be

distinguished.

The

melting point ranges Much depends

from

26" to 30" C (78" to 86"

F.).
from the

upon

the proportion which melting

highest
are

of oil extracted
pressed
out
are

the kernel ; the first portions

softest and
are

have and

the lowest
have the

point ; the last portions

melting
or

harder

point.

It takes

from 22 to 24 per cent, of

per cent,

of caustic potash,
to

from

15J

to 17

caustic

soda

saponify

it.

In

this respect

it

resembles coconut

oil, to which
a

also it approximates
of the

in composition,
fatty
not

containing

large

proportion

lower

acids,lauric, capric, capryllic, and

so

caproic
oil.
"

acids, but

to

great

an

extent

as

does

coconut

Oudemans

gives

the following analysis of palm-nut

Glyoeride
of Oleic Acid Glycerides of Stearic, Palmitic

oil :

26-6.
.
.

Glycerides

of Lauric,

and Myristic Acids Capric, Capryllic and Caproic

33-0. 40-4.

Acids

Palm-nut
to go rancid.

oil is fairly clear of free acid and

is not liable

128

SOAP

MANUFACTUKE.

In its specific gravity at both 60" and

212" F. it resembles

closely coconut

oil.

Palm-nut
of coconut

oil is largely used oil ; it gives

a

in soap-making

in the place

Palm-nut and

soap of similar properties. oil is said to be adulterated with lard, tallow fats and

other cheaper
means

oils.

Such

adulteration

can

be

detected by

of the saponification value ; the distillation

test will suffice to detect any

CONSTANTS Specific Gravity
at 15" C.

adulteration.
OF PALM-NUT
.
.

OIL.
0-952. 0-9119.

(60" F.) 40" C (105" F.) 100" C. (212"F.) Solidifying Point, 20-5" C. (71"F.). to Melting Point, 27" to 28" C. (79" 80" F.). 91-1 per Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 24 Saponification Value (Koettstorfer Test), per
.
. .

0-9731.

cent. cent. KOH.

Keichert Iodine

Value,

2-4

c.c.

j^KOH.
to 13 per cent.

Value

10 (Hubl Test),

CONSTANTS

OF

FATTY

ACIDS

FROM
76"

PALM-NUT

OIL.

Solidifying Point, 20" to 23" C.

Melting
Point,
25" to 28" C.

Combining
Iodine

Equivalent

F.). (77"to 80" F.). (MolecularWeight), 211.

(71"to

Value,

12-07 per cent.

COCONUT

OIL.

The

next

soap

oil which
or

claims
as

from

the

coconut,
coco

cocoanut
cocos

notice is that obtained it is sometimes spelt,

the fruit of the

The

palm,

nuciferavery

fruit of this palm

is

useful product.
a

It is of

large size. The

outer portion consists of

fibrous

mass,

which

is made
proper,

into ropes, mats

and
a

carpets.
outer
matter

Inside

this is the nut

as

consisting
a

of

hard

portion, useful of
a

fuel ;

inside this is

layer of pulpy

white

colour, which

idea at by the young The central portion of the nut is occupied by a fair times. milky fluid. The pulp is of a very oily nature, the proportion
is that portion of the fruit patronised
of oil usually

averaging

over

50 per cent.

COCONUT

OIL.

129

This pulp is dried by exposure to air, and in that condition is known as coprah," and is exported into this country
"

in large quantities for the purpose of extracting the oil out of it. The native method of extracting the oil consists in heating the pulp with water, when the oil rises to the top
followed when and is collected. Another method commonly inferior qualities of oil only are wanted, is to heat the pulp fluid, and to render the oil more as so with a little water
then to the subject
mass

to pressure

in

rude

kind

press, worked
and then

by

oxen.

In

some

places the pulp

of oil is dried

grated

by
or a

means

good quality of oil. from many Coconut into this country oil comes in South-eastern Asia ; the best is that from Ceylon.
China
oil ranks very

after being mixed large quantity of

heated

^-nd this, of cutting machines, with water, is pressed, yielding a

places

Cochin
very

close behind, oil is good

; some

Malabar
comes

oil is of from

good quahty, Manilla

and the Isles. Fiji

Mauritius

In this country

coconut

oil is pressed

from

coprah

by the

machinery

which

has

been

described

in previous

sections,

the only difference being that the operation

is carried out

in

eithera

warmer

place oil makes

or

in heated

presses.

Coconut

its appearance

in this country

in the

Asiatic countries it is a water white, rather limpid oil. It melts at from 20" to 25" C. to (68'' 77" F.) : its specific gravity at 60" F. is 0-931 ; at 212"
of
a

form

white

but

soft fat.

In

F. it is 0*870.

Its odour of the

is pleasant

and

characteristic,

resembling that
rancid, when

coconut.
more

It is liable to

become

its odour

becomes

pronounced.
on

It is fairly easily saponified, and in the manufacture much employed

process.
It gives
one a

that

account

it is cold

of soaps

by

the

properties,and

out presently works

white soap, possessing good lathering that for reasons which will be pointed well in .hard waters, or in waters which 9

130

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

contain from

good

deal of saline matter

cent, of caustic

in solution.
potash,
or

It takes
17*4
coconut

24*6 to 26 per

from

to

18*7 per cent, oil, a fat.

of caustic soda
than

to completely

saponify
other

larger amount

is required

for any

known

Coconut
as

oil is

one

of the most

complex The
;

regards its chemical

composition.

far as oils known principal fatty acid

present

is lauric

acid, HC12H23O2
;

there

is also

present
; capric

caproic

acid, HCgHnOg These

capryllic
are

acid,

HCgHigOg

acid, HC10H19O2.

acids

all soluble in water

or

and

are

volatile when

distilled with

steam

water.

It is the presence
causes

of these lower
so

coconut
to form
a

oil to require
soap

soluble fatty acids which much alkali to saponify it with

hard
water,

and

which

works
are,

for the

lime

salts of these

fatty acids

comparatively
are

speaking,
more

soluble in water,

and

the alkali soaps than

much
case

freely

soluble in saline solutions

salts of oleic present
or

is the

with
There

the alkali
are

stearic acids for example. oil, stearic acid, HCigHagOg

also

in coconut

; palmitic

acid,
same

HCieHgiOg,

with smaller quantities of other acids of the

are

series ; there

but comparatively Of
course

small quantities of acids of in speaking

not

the oleic series.

it should be understood

of

fatty acids in

coconut

in it as

free acids, but in the

oil that these do form of glycerides.

exist

Lauric

The comof 200. bining acid has a combining weight be extracted from cococan nut of the fatty acids which oil by saponifying and liberating the acids with sulphuric
from
water
or

acid, ranges distilled with

196
the

to 204.

When

these
an over

fatty acids

are

distillate possesses

acid reaction
; the

due to the volatile from

100
parts

soluble acids coming

to

acidity

of

oil is equal palmnut

078
a

to

0*83

of caustic

potash.

Butter

and

oil have

similar

tion. composi-

Coconut

oil has very

little power

of absorbing

iodine

or

COCONUT

OIL.

131

bromine
latter 57

of the former

it takes up 8*9 to 9 per cent., of the

per

cent.

It

yields from

12

to

13

per

cent,

of

glycerine, and
In

from

94 to 96 per cent, of fatty acids.

soap-making, coconut
in
and

oil is largely used

for making cold soaps.

white soft soap process soaps,

with conjunction
for making
that soap

tallow, for making

and

marine

hard

water

When

is going to be used in districts little a where hard water prevails it is a good policy to use the soap, for then a lather is more of this oil in making
it is known readily obtained and
there is not
so

much

waste

of soap

by

the action of lime in the water. Coconut take

a

oil is comparatively alkali than alkali than

any

easily saponified, and

other

will

stronger
a

fat ; thus
cannot

tallow

stronger

10" Tw.

while with safely be used,

be 20" to 22" Tw. strong. It with coconut oil the lye may is this feature of coconut it so useful for cold oil that makes
process soaps.
much, than It also requires
or

more

salt, nearly

twice

as

does tallow

other oil soaps, to salt out and then

Coconut

oil is rarely adulterated, greases, and

such The

chiefly with

animal fats and

stearins. Any

with

adulteration

solid vegetable fats and be very difficult not would

of detection. reduction

odour, alteration of the saponification value,

of the of

specific gravity

of the amount

volatile acids

reduction will suffice to detect such

at 212"

F., and

adulteration.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
16" C. 40" C.

OF

COCONUT

OIL. 0-930.
0-9115. 0-8736.

at

100"

(60"F.) (105"F.) C. (212" F.)

Solidifying Point, 16" to 20" C. (60" to 70" Melting

Point, 20" to 28" C.

Saponification
Insoluble Reichert Iodine Fatty Value,

Value Acids
3-5

F.). (70"to 80" F.). 25 (Koettstorfer Test), to 26 per cent. (Hehner Value),83 to 88 per cent.
N

KOH.

c.c.

j^KOH.
to 9-3 per cent.

Value

8-9 (Hubl Test),

132
CONSTANTS Specific Gravity
SoUdifying

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

OF

FATTY

ACIDS

FROM

COCONUT

OIL.

F.),0-8354. (212" (70" F.). Point, 24" to 25" C. (75" to 77" F.). Melting Equivalent Combining (Molecular Weight),196 9-3 per cent. Iodine Value (Hubl Test),
Point, 20" C.

at 100" C.

to 206.

OLIVE

OIL.

The grows
and

olive is the fruit of the olive tree, Olea EuropeUy

very

which Asia,

abundantly
that

in those
on

countries

of Europe,

Africa

border

the

Mediterranean.

It is extensive

cultivated Spain, and oil is exported.

of about
the
same

in Italy, North

Africa, Grecian
all which

pelago, ArchioUve
and

Asia

Minor,
a

from

places the plum

The

olive is

fruit resembling

olive grown
and

are certain variations of the size. There in various localities due to climatical differences

to the mode

of cultivation.

The

fruit is collected when

justripe,
of oil. surrounds

and

in that

condition

it yields the finest quality the pericarp

or

Olive

oil is yielded by
The

pulp

which

the kernel.

kernel is also capable

that

of jdelding

oil, but

it is interesting to note

the oil yielded

by the oil is

kernel is different to that given

by the pulp.
; some

The

ohve

obtained
separated
has

from

the
use

fruit by

pressure

portion method

is also
which

by
in

of solvents. for
a

The time

simplest

been

use

long

consists in pressing
the

in

primitive

mortar,

and

separating
into
a

oil which
or

flows
and

out.

Generally
to
**

the

pulp is put The

large tub
flows and

tank

subjected
as

pressure.

oil which

out

is known

virgin

oil".

It is of
There and

fine quality

used

chiefly for
of oil

edible purposes.
left in the
the pulp

is

considerable

proportion

pulp,

this is usually
then

extracted

by

boiling
a

with

-water,

the subjecting poorer

residual pulp to

second

pressure. This

rather

quality of oil is thereby

obtained.
soap-making,

quality of oil is chiefly used for lubricating, A poorer and general industries. quality is residual cake
from

often got by

the subjecting

this second

OLIVE

OIL.

133 of bisulphide for the

"

pressing
This

to
a

extraction
lower

by

means

of carbon.
commonest

gives

grade

of oil, used
**

purposes, and

generally

known

as

sulphur

olive oil. The

Olive oil varies considerably

have
are a

in its quality.
some

best oils

yellowish
a

colour, while

of the
some

inferior qualities
the

of

greenish-brown tint.
60" F^

tint.

In

cases

oil has
0*916 lowering

greenish
at

The
the

specific gravity
presence of much

ranges

from

to 0*919

free acid
usually
are

it. The

best quahty

of olive oil contains

2 per cent, of free acid.

as
"

Certain

grades

of what

about known

huiles tournants,"
are

prepared

from

very ripe and

fermented
as

fruitswhich

largely used

in dyeing,
odour and

contain

much

as

25 per cent, of free acid. and peculiar ; the down

taste

The is sweet

of olive oil is pleasant bland.

When

cooled
at 6" C.

olive oil deposits

It requires

R). (23"

stearin and becomes from, 19-1 to 19*06 per iodine, and

an

soUd
cent,

of KOH

to saponify

it.

It absorbs

when

mixed

with
of 41"

sulphuric acid gives rise to

to 45" C.

increase

in temperature
mixed

One
or

property

of olive oil is that when of

mercury,

with

nitrous acid

nitrate

it becomes

solidified,

being converted
to the
same

into elaidin. by
any

This
other

property oil.

is not possessed
oil is largely oil and

degree

Olive

adulterated, the

usual the

adulterants

being cottonseed
of the

mineral

oils, but

character
presence

adulteration

varies

from time to time.

The

of cottonseed that

oil tends to
oil tends
reduces of

increase the specific gravity, while

to reduce it, while
at

of mineral

the

same

time
To

their addition
the

the flashing point oliveoil,regard

must

of the

oil.

determine

purity

point,Koettstorfer

be paid to the specific gravity, flashing iodine value, and the Maumene test, Hubl elaidin test.
soda

sulphuric acid test and

oil with caustic texture, hard and somewhat

a

OUve

yields

soap

of

smooth

brittle when

dry, breaking

with

conchoidal

fracture.

The

colour varies with the character

134 of the

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

oil ; good

oil yields

white

to cream-coloured

soap,

These qualities yellow to greenish soaps. soaps keep well, have fairly good lathering and cleansing properties. They are much used in the calico printing trade and for

the poorer

boiling-oflf of silk, owing comparatively Castile soap

made
was

to

their freedom
The

from

smell

and
or

easy

solubility.
from
use

original Marseilles

made

olive oil. A soft soap is often

some

from

olive oil for

in

trades.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.

OF

OLIVE

OIL.
0-916 0-862.
to 0-919.

100" C.

(60" F.) (212"F.)

Solidifying Insoluble Reichert

Point, 6" C.
Fatty

Acids
c.c.

(23"F.). 96-4 (Hehner Value),

N

per

cent.

Value, 0-3

j^KOH.
to 19-6 per cent.

Saponification Iodine
Maumene

Value

Test), 19-1 (Koettstorfer

KOH.

Value,

80 to 83 per cent. Test, 41-6" to 46" C.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity SoUdifying
Melting Molecular

OF

FATTY

ACIDS

FROM

OLIVE

OIL.

at 100" C.

Point,
26"

21" C.

Point,

Weight

(212"F.),0-8749. (70" F.). C. (79" F.). 283. (Combining Equivalent),

Iodine

Value,

86 to 88 per cent,

COTTONSEED

OIL.

Of later years the oil obtained

plant, Gossypium

from

the seeds of the cotton known

as

sp,^ originally always

cotton

cottonseed
of

oil,but
the
common

now

simply as household is obtainable

oil, finds its way

into most

soaps

which

are

now

the fashion.

Cotton

from

to the genera

Gossypium,
the

ing several species of trees belongis of which the most important

Gossypium
India, Siam,

that grown
cotton

in America,

Barbadense,

but

the

tree grows

in Egypt, America
and

China, the tropical

seeds from

portion of South
of the cotton
are

in other localities. The large size, averaging

of comparatively

COTTONSEED

OIL.

"

135

i to f
of
an

of

an

inch

in length,
more

by

{
or

of

an

inch

broad, and
and

^
a

inch

in thickness,
colour.

less rounded,
are

of

greenish-grey

To

the seeds

attached
are

the

fibres

which give the cotton tree its value, and which into this country in large quantities, and woven
and o4heiL textile fabrics.

imported into cahco

from

These
**

fibres ginning

are
".

separated

the seed by

process

known

as

To extract

the oil from

are

the seeds, they

are

first decorticated, action is

the kernel
seed

that is they
to break

passed

through

mill, whose
so

open

the hull of the seed, and the

hberate
clean
no

which
from

contains
much

oil of the
cotton
some

seed.

With is

free
to

attached

fibre, there

necessity

decorticate the
the fibre with

seed, but

varieties of cottonseed
such
seeds must

retain

great tenacity, and decorticating

revolves

be decorticated.
a

The cyUnder
which

machine
another

consists

of

hollow
of

in which

cylinder, the

surface

does not

touch

the surface of the outer cylinder has

a

cylinder.

The

inside surface arranged round

a

of the outer

number

of knives has
a

it,while the surface of the inner cyhnder

These
are

similar set of knives.

so

arranged

that when

seed passes

between

the two

sets of knives it is cut, the hull

faUing in two
some

parts, while

the kernel By

falls down

whole,

or

in

mills it is cut in two. be separated from can

as

winnowing,

the heavy
are

kernels

the light hulls, which

either

used

fuel

or

as

manure.

The
system

cottonseed
of crushing
a

oil

as a

it

comes

from wine-red

the

press

in either
to its

is of

dark

colour, owing

containing amounting,

rather large proportion

of red colouring
to 10 to 15

matter,

according the

to Longmore,

lb. per ton this by

the the

of oil. Before

oil

can

be

used

for any

purpose is effected

colouring

matter

must

be

removed.

This

treating the

oil with

caustic
having

soda, which only

soda
a

dissolves out
action
on

colouring matter,

while

shght

oil. The

quantity

of caustic

used

varies in different

186

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

refineries,but

amounts

to from

lb. to 1 lb. of 77 per cent,

It is used

solid caustic soda per 100 lb. of oil.

of solution of varying
as

in the
from

form
10 to
use a

strength

at different works,

much

as

40 Twaddell.

Perhaps

the best plan is to

lye of from
are are

10 to 12

Twaddell

strong. The

Of this about

10 lb.

required
mixed
can

for 11 cwt. of oil.

caustic and

the crude

oil

together

in wooden
a

tubs, and, if thought

means

necessary,

they

be heated

littleby

of steam,

being agitated
means

thoroughly
air pumped

all the time.

This

is best effected by
the air not only
to
some

of

in by

force pump,
soda,
on

thoroughly it probably
of

agitating the
acts
as a

oil and

but

extent
a

bleaching
the
mass

agent

the oil.
to

After
stand

few minutes for

some

such
when soap

treatment
a

oil is allowed
of soda
and

time,
some on

curdy

colouring
the

matter

with

which

has

been

formed

by

action

of the

soda

the

oil will settle out.

If not

The
or

character

of the
colour,

oil is then
more a

noted.

bright enough
and such

free from
resumed.

soda

lye is added,
more

the treatment

As
The

rule not
mass

than
to

one

addition is required.
The

whole

is
as

allowed

stand

to settle.

clear, bright
mass

oil is sold

cottonseed
matter

oil, while
soap

the

coloured

of soda,

and

is treated

in various ways.
and

One
a

colouring plan is to
greasy

treat it with
mass comes common

acid, when
up
to

it is decomposed,
top, which
can or

dark

the

be used

for making
means

very

dark-coloured
can

soaps,
out

by suitable
used
as
a

the

colouring matter
for this purpose

be taken

and

dye.

But

it cannot

compete

with

the coal-tar colours, in

a

while the fatty matter for

use

present
or

is recovered

form

suitable

in soap-making
cottonseed

candle-making.
to from
so

The

loss in refining

crude

oil amounts
oil

4 to 5 per cent.

The
amount

refined cottonseed
of stearin, and
By
a

obtained

contains

large

hence

will,in cold weather,

set almost

solid.
may

process of refrigerating and

and

pressing, this stearin

be removed,

is sold

as

cotton

stearin

or

oleo-mar-

COTTONSEED

OIL.

137

garine for various purposes,

under the The
name

while

the liquid oil is often sold

cotton

of non-congealable
cotton

oil.
0*928
a

crude

oil has

to 0*930.

Eefined but

cotton

specific gravity of from oil is a clear bright oil of

a

pale quite

yellow colour, colourless.

it
a

can

be obtained

almost,

if not

It has

pleasant, sweet

taste, somewhat

characteristic,

while

its odour

is but

slight, and

yet

characteristic.
at 15" C, much

Its specific gravity varies from

0*922 to 0*926 of stearin

depending

upon

the

amount

in the

oil, which

increases its gravity.

to 35"

It solidifies at from
common

0" to 2" C.
even

(32**
temperatures
contain.

F.), the

more

qualities at
the
amount

higher
they

varying Cotton

with

of stearin

oil contains

olein, stearin, palmitin, with

small

quantities of linolein.

In its general properties it lies between

the true non-drying oils, like olive, and the true drying oils, like linseed oil, becoming to the air by viscid on exposure

absorption of oxygen.
and Golourman's

Fox,

in

former

number gramme

of the

Oil

Journal^ 26*4 cubic

states

that

one

of cotton gas,
more

oil will absorb

than oUve

centimetres
so

of oxygen
as

oil will, but

not

much

quently linseed oil. Conseas

a

cotton
nor as
a

oil cannot

well be used

lubricating

oil,
for

drying

soap-making

oil for painting, but as a food oil and into rather extensive use. it has come
KOH,
or
a

It takes 19*5 per cent, of caustic potash,

cent, of caustic

14 per rather

soda, NaOH,
more

to saponify

it, giving
than

curdy soap.
sonae

It is

difficult to saponify
soap

tallow and
much,
so

other oils,and

the

retains the lyes very

the
soap

that it is difficult to separate and

to obtain
a

and

lyes completely

perfectly

neutral tallow

soap.
soap,

Cotton

oil soap

is

much
of the

darker

in colour than
matter
a

the small

quantity

colouring
to develop

of the

seed

which

is still left in
The soap

seeming
made

dark

colour with

the alkali.

from

this oil is comparatively

easily soluble
not

in water, long
as

and therefore

lathers freely and

does

last

as

138

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

soap

made

from

tallow oil soap

and

some

other
kept

fats.
for

Another
some

feature of cotton

is that when
a

tima it takes
fatty

it goes
some

rancid

and

acquires

peculiar
to develop

odour,

but

months

for this odour

itself.

The

solid acids, insoluble acids obtainable from cotton oil are in water ; at 100" C. they have a specific gravity of 0'8494y
and
melt
at from

35" to 44" C. (93" to 111" R).

ever,

Cotton
cheaper

oil is rarely, if
so

adulterated,

there
must

being be

no one

fat oil, and

any

possible adulterant
of which
or can

of the mineral the low

oils,the presence

be detected

by

flash point, which

will be about

less than F. The

400" F.,

while cotton
of such
tests.

oil does
can

not

flash below
course

475"

quantity

adulterant

of

be determined

by the usual

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 15" C.

OF

COTTON
.

OIL.
.

100"

(60"F.) C. (212" F.)

0*922

to 0-925.

0-8725.

SoUdifying
Insoluble

Point, Fatty

0" to 1" C.

(32"to 33"

F.).
to 19*6 per cent. KOH.

Acids Value

(Hehner Value),96 per cent.

Saponification Iodine
Value

Test),19 (Koettstorfer (Hubl Test),106 per cent.

OF
FATTY

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity

ACIDS

FROM

COTTON

OIL.

0-880. (212"F.), (89" F.). Point, 35" C. (95" F.). Melting Equivalent Combining (Molecular Weight),286.

at 100" C. 32" C.

Solidifying Point,

Iodine

Value

115. (Hubl Test),

LINSEED

OIL.

There

is scarcely

more as

useful plant grown

Linum usitatissimum.

than the flax

Its fibres the earliest

plant, known
are

to botanists

converted
under

into the textile fabric known

the
name

from

times
not

of linen,

one

of the oldest, if indeed

the oldest, of the

textiles, while

its seed is usable

wide

in

variety of ways.
yields
an

In

medicine

it has

appUcations.

It

useful properties, some of which oil that has many will be considered in the present article ; while after the oil

LINSEED

OIL.

139
was

has been extracted

a

there remains Hundreds

what

at

one

time quite
were

useless bye-product. thrown

of tons
;

of it

at

one

time annually well-known

cattle. and
one

into the river Hull

of
commerce,

it is

now

the valuable for feeding

oilcake poorer

largely used

The

seeds

give about

three parts of cake

of oil,and

the richer two

parts of cake

and

one

of oil.

The

value

of the cakes

is sometimes
three
was

greater than
times

the value

of the oil, as
,

oil is often not

the price of cake.

on

In earUer

times

this country

practically dependent
at the present

Eussia for its supply

isextensively grown

of seed, but

day The

linseed
greatest

in many

parts of the world.

now

bulk is grown

in India.

Eussia

holds the second

the

place,
seed

and the district of the Eiver

Plate

third.

The

is

flattish in shape, somewhat

some

oval, and others

are

varies much

in colour^

being

pale
some

green,

pale

brown,
white

some

reddish it is
on

brown,

whilst

others

nearly

; all of
can

somewhat looking at

lustrous
a

in

appearance. whether

Experts

tell,
on

sample,
Black

it has

been

grown

the

borders of the
or

Sea, the

Baltic, in Calcutta, Bombay,

from

on

the
can

Kiver

Plate, and
pretty

the

appearance
what

of each
of oil

sample

estimate

correctly

quantity

each sample largely with whilst others

will produce.
other

is often mixed very do not yield oil,, seeds, several of which

Baltic seed

yield oil with

quite

different quaUties

from

linseed. When
seeds of
a

linseed

oil of

high

and

pure

quaUty
from

is desired,
the Hnseed

different kind have

These

to be removed

before it is crushed. linseed are sometimes

same

admixtures

of foreign seed with

natural, that they

are as

is, they all grow

often caused

in the

field together ; but Some

through

wilfuladulteration.
more

low-class Baltic seed does not yield the highest

class seed

than

20 per

cent, of oil,whilst

(Bombay) occasionally
grown

yields 40
more

per cent.
any

All the

linseed grown

in India yields

oil than

of the seed

140

SOAP

MANUFACTUEB.

in Bussia.

The

difference in temperature
warmer

is supposed

to

affect the yield of oil, the

climate
makes
and

making

the

seed

richer in oil,whilst the colder is manipulated

io pressure

one

it poorer.

Linseed

in various

ways,

is afterwards

subjected
colour,
on

to expel the oil from

it.
a

Linseed varying
"are a

oil is
good

limpid

oil of

greenish-yellow
depends partly also
on

deal in shade, which in the

the

exercised
East

pressing of the oil and

its refining.

India

oil is usually paler than

darkest, although

other varieties, poor

while Black

Sea oil is the

very

samples
taste

of
of

Baltic

run

close in colour.

The

odour

and

linseed oil are

for any

peculiar and

characteristic, not to be mistaken

other oil. In specific gravity linseed oil varies somewhat,

the
to 0*937

average

being

0*935, but
temperature

the range

is from

0*932

at the standard

of 60""F. ; at the boiling

point, 212"

F., the

specific gravity

is about volume

0*881.

It is
at

soluble

in about

forty times
and

its

own

of alcohol

the ordinary
a.t the boihng to become

temperature,

in about

five times its volume

point.

When
a

exposed

to cold it does not begin

solid until

temperature

of

27" 0. is reached.

It is soluble in almost

all solvents, like ether, petroleum

turpentine, "spirit,

benzol, etc.
a

Sulphuric

acid has

powerful

charring

action

on

this oil,

great heat is evolved,

the

temperature

often rising considerably

above

the boiling point of water,

while
and
a

copious
mass

evolution of
a

of sulphur

dioxide
colour

takes place

treacly

dark

red-brown

is obtained.
upon

Nitric

acid oxidises it

readily ; much

depends

the strength

of the acid which

is used.

affinityfor linseed oil; it will absorb 156 per cent, of its weight of iodine and 98 In this respect hnseed oil per cent, of its weight of bromine.
Iodine
and have
a

bromine

strong

Jias

energetic properties than any other oil. Linseed oil is easily saponified by boiling with
more

either

LINSEED

OIL.

141

saponific caustic potash or caustic soda ; it requires for complete 18*9 per cent, of its weight of caustic potash or 13*25 per cent, of its weight With of caustic soda. potash

it yields

soft soap,

clear and
a

transparent,

of

brownishgood

yellow colour, possessing detergent properties.

are

peculiar

smell, and

having

When

the proportions
may

of alkali and

oil

carefully regulated

the soap
soda,

be obtained

of neutral
a

properties.

With of
a

caustic

linseed oil forms

; on

reddishseed lin-

coloured soap

buttery consistency
ever

this account

oil is rarely if
domestic hard

used

in making

any

of the ordinary into

a

soaps, although

it does find its way

few

of the special soaps.

Linseed
soaps of

oil is the

commerce

oilcan

be used

pleasing
odour, which

nearly all the soft which are made, and for this purpose no better linseed oil soft soap is of a good bright appearance in colour and free from any

basis from

objectionable
are

is not the

case

with
The

some

other

oils which

used for making

soft soaps.

soap

retains its consistency

a

for

advantage When

considerable period, which in soft soaps.

a

is

point of

some

little

linseed

oil soap is treated

are

with
; these

dilute sulphuric acids

are

acid the fatty acids buttery consistency, ordinary temperature

0*927, while 0*864. They
are

separated

out

of

melting

at from
a

22" C. to 25" C.

At the

they have

specific gravity of 0*924 to their gravity

at

the

boiling

point

is 0*861

to

insoluble in water, acid, ether,

but
and

dissolve readily in alcohol,

other

glacial acetic combining

solvents.

Their

equivalent

is very high, viz., 306, which

molecular
to show

points to

the presence
Some

of acids of high
researches

weight.
that there is present

recent

tend

in linseed oil an linolic acid having the same acid named formula as homolinoleic acid, which yields sativic acid when
acted upon by
an

alkaline

solution

of potassium

perman-

142
; the other

SOAP

MANUFACTUBB.

ganate

is named

linolenic acid, and

two atoms

differs from
haps Perof

the last acid in containing the

most

less hydrogen.

important

property

of linseed

oil is that

drying

upon

exposure

to the

atmosphere
no

; this makes
on

it very
in soap-

valuable

in painting, but

has

bearing

its

use

making.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.

OF

LINSEED
.

OIL.
0-932 to 0-935.
0-920. 0-881.

50" C.

100"

(60"F.) (122" F.) 0. (212" F.)

-

Solidifying Point, Saponification

Iodine Value

16" to

20" 0.
to 19-8 per cent.

Value

Test),18-9 (Koettstorfer
Test),170
FATTY
to 175 per cent.

KOH.

(Hubl

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity

OF

ACIDS

FROM

LINSEED

OIL.

0-928. (60"F.), 0-892. 100" C. (212" F.), Solidifying Point, 16" C. (62"P.). Melting Point, 20" C. (68"F.). Equivalent Combining (MolecularWeight),307. Iodine Value 179 per cent. (Hubl Test),

at 15" C.

CASTOR

OIL.

The

next

oil which

claims

notice is castor

oil.

This is
communis,

obtained
a

from

the seeds of the castor

where
one

oil plant, Bicinus

luxuriantly; conservatories
are

native of India,
pretty
to
common

it grows

the and

plant is
so

in English
The

is famiUar
large

most

persons.
a

seeds

of comparatively
and

size,

of

greyish-green
contain
a

colour

of

lustrous appearance
nearly 50 per
or

; they

large proportion by pressure

of oil,

cent., which

is extracted

in the

usual way
are

by boiling the seeds in water.

that

Several qualities

recognised;

extracted

by

pressure

is the

best and
commercial

sold chiefly for pharmaceutical

purposes from

; the

average

qualities are and France. What is known in quahty

to what

imported

Calcutta, Madras,

Bombay

as

first pressure
as

French

is about

equal

is known

seconds

Calcutta.

Castor oil

CASTOB

OIL.

143

is

thick, viscid oil ; in colour

product
to

it varies from
a

colourless in in
the

the pharmaceutical

greenish
from

yellow
0*960
are

poorer sorts ; its specific gravity ranges the average

to 0*970,

being

0*964

"

occasionally below

samples

met
are

with
rare.

having
The

specific gravity

0*960,

but

such

odour

varies considerably
sorts have
same

; the
a

best qualities
odour.

are

fairly
taste
a

free,but the poorer

nauseous common

The

also varies in the

way

; the

qualities have
are

pecuUar

nauseous

taste from

which

the best kinds

a

free.

It does not

begin to become

solid until

temperature

of

is reached, and even then only a few flakes are -18"C. (0"F.) deposited. This oil is distinguished from other fatty oils by its peculiar physical and chemical properties ; it has a very

high specific gravity,

of castor

high viscosity.
are

The
58*5

relative viscosities respectively, which

and

sperm

1248

and

idea of the viscid character of this oil. It is readily soluble in alcohol, 1 part in 4 of rectified
some

figures will convey

at spirit 15" C.

(60"F.) ; this enables

this is only correct
castor

any

addition

of other

oilsto be detected.
mineral oil, though
; on

It is insoluble in petroleum

spirit or in
tures temperaor

at ordinary

being

heated
petroleum

oil will mix

or

with

become
as

soluble in the
temperature

spirit

mineral
two

oil, but

the
out.

cools down

again the

liquids separate

Castor
out

when

oil consists of a little palmitin which separates the oil is cooled down and the glyceride of a

has hitherto been found pecuHar acid, ricinoleic acid, which in only in castor oil. This acid has the composition shown the formula C17H33OHCOOH ; it differs from the other fatty acids in containing three atoms of oxygen, and there is reason

for thinking
an

that this extra atom

of oxygen

is combined

with

in the form of hydroxyl, as shown in of hydrogen the formula an given above; ricinoleic acid is therefore hydroxy-fatty acid. The presence of this hydroxyl group gives
atom

to

ricinoleic acid the property

of forming

with

sulphuric

acid

144

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE,.

ethers ;

on

this property

is based

the

use

of castor

oil in the

preparations of oleine oil for calico printers* use. Castor oil jnelds about 9*1 per cent, of glycerine and 96'1 per cent, of fatty acids, these have a combining weight of
306 to 307 and
they
are
a

specific gravity of 0*950 to 0-951 at 60" F. ; of

an

thick, viscid and

oily appearance, palmitic acid.

and

besides

containing

ricinoleic acid contain

a

It yields saponified.

very soluble soap with

caustic soda and is easily

a

By

careful
at
one

treatment
was

obtained
cotton

which

time
the
name

be liquid soap may largely in use by dyers and oil soap

in

finishers under

of soluble oil ; castor

is very clear and preparing

transparent,

therefore it is largely used soaps, but in

use

the cheaper

kinds of transparent
such soaps
are

being
and

very soluble in water

very wasteful

while

this may
for the

be

very

good

thing

for the soap-maker

it

is not

soap-user. has often

a

Castor-oil soap
apt to go rancid
on

faint odour
a

of the oil and is soft soap, but 17'5 to 18 per

keeping.

It makes

good

is not much

used for this purpose.

It takes from

cent, of caustic potash,

from

12'5 to 13*3 per cent, of caustic the

soda to saponify

it, rather less than

majorityof
can

faits and

oils ;

stronger lye, from

15" to 18" Tw.,

be used, and it

is easily boiled up and

making with

lends. itselfto the cold process

of soap-

great facility.
not
a

Although
making
what

part of the

the subject,

use

of castor oil in

as oleine, soluble oil,Turkeyvariously known ,is is an oilybe touched upon. red oil or alizarine oil may .This dyers and calico printers looking product largely in use among

as

mordant

for many and

colours, and

is of great

importance

in the dyeing mixes

many

freely with
advantages used

and alizarine reds ; it printing of Turkey water in all proportions and thus presents
over

the

rancid

formerly

for this purpose.

were olive oils which by This product is made

taking at the rate of 4 lb. of castor

oil and

mixing

with it 1 lb.

CASTOB

OIL.

146

of ordinary commercial

sulphuric acid, with constant stirring, being to avoid any rise in temperature ; the mixture is the object then allowed to stand for not less than twenty-four hours, but
longer does not matter
; to it is added

half

gallon of water,

has a creamy this being well stirred in until the mass ance; appearthis mixture is also allowed to stand for twenty-four or
more

hours, when
upper
one

it will be found

to have

separated

into two

layers,an

is

now

run

of oil and a lower one off, and if a good quantity

a

of acid water ; this a of oil is wanted

strong solution, about half

gallon, of salt is stirred in and the

mixture again allowed to stand for twenty -four hours ; the bottom layer of salt water is aext run off; a lye of caustic,
soda of about 50" Tw. is then prepared, and this is slowly run in, with constant liquid is stirring, until a clear transparent

obtained.

The

oil is now
CONSTANTS

finished and
OF CASTOR
.
.

ready
OIL.

for

use.

Specific Gravity

at 16" C.

100"

Solidifying Point, Reichert

17"
c.c.

(60"F.) C. (212"F.) to 18" C. (1"to

.
-

0*960 to 0-966. 0-9096.

3"

F.).

Value, 1-6
Value

Tn-^^-^*
to 18 per cent. KOH.-

Saponification
lodine
Acetyl

Value Value,

IT'S (Koettstorfer Test), 83-6 to 84 per cent. (Hubl Test),

163*4 per cent.

CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity

X)F

FATTY

ACIDS
.

FROM
.

CASTOR
0-9609.

OIL.

at 16" C.

F.) J[60" (212" F.)

(27*6"F.).

100" C.

0*896.

Solidifying Point,
Melting
Point,

3" C.

13" C.

(67"F.).

Combining
Iodine

Equivalent

Value

292. (Molecular Weight), 90 per cent. (Hubl Test),

So far hftve been described all the fats and oils which
most largely into the composition

enter

of the ordinary

run

of soaps,

both soft and. hard ; there stillremain for description a few fats and are oils which occasionally used for this purpose, but owing to such circunc^stances as limited supply, higher price,bad colour, etc., are but 'rarely applied in soap-making.
10

146

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

As
a

an

and adjunct, words

to make

this series of articles complete,

few

will be said about rosin.

CORN
OIL.

into considerable prominence of late come as a soap oil. It is obtained from the seeds of the maize in America, plant (Zea Mays) and is extensively produced in the manufacture being largely made a bye-product as of
This

oil has

starch and of
a

glucose

from

Indian

corn.

It is
a

viscid liquid
peculiar
it

bright
and

amber-yellow
sweetish

colour, has

faint and

odour,

taste, recalling

that of corn-flour;

has

comparatively

high

specific gravity, being

comparable easily

with cottonseed

oil in this respect ; it is comparatively

saponified, taking from

saponify it, yielding
and of good
a

18*4 to 19 per cent, of caustic soda to

soap

of yellowish
very

geneous colour, very homoa

consistency,

closely resembliug

cotton-oil soap in its general properties. With caustic potash it gives a soft soap of a good, bright, transparent ance, appearand good
soaps
on

detergent

properties, and
of most

it is for making
The

soft

that

it will be found

service.

oil yields
at from

saponification and
and

acidification fatty acids melting

13" to 14" C.
OIL.

16" to 18" C,

solidifying at from
OF

CONSTANTS Specific Gravity

at 16" C.

CORN
.

(MAIZE)
.

(60"F.)

0-9203.

100" C.

Insoluble

Fatty

Acids
-

Solidifying Point, Iodine

Value

(212"F.) (Hehner Value),96 10" C. (14"F.).

.

0-8694.
per cent.

Saponification

(Hubl Test),116 per cent. Value (Koettstorfer 18*4 Test),

CACAO

to 19 per cent. KOH.

BUTTER.

In

the

manufacture
a

of

the

familiar
fatty

beverage

cocoa,

there
known

is obtained
as

quantity
cocoa

of

matter

commonly
a

cacao

or

butter.

This

is of

white

or

like somewhat yellowish-white colour, of a consistency butter, but perhaps a trifleharder ; it possesses an odour of

EAPE

OIL.

147
taste.

cocoa

and has

pleasant

and

agreeable bleached,

By there

exposure

to

light and

air it becomes rancid.

a

but

is Uttle

tendency to become

It melts at about
complex

30" 0. (86'*.). F

Cacao

butter

has

very

composition,

containing
and

the glycerides of stearic, oleic, lauric, palmitic, myristic

other acids, while
to the presence
some

authorities say that it owes quantities of theobromine. it could be

its odour
It is
so

of small

rarely used

in soap-making,

although

with
a

good results, only

its price is rather

against it ; it yields

good soap fairly soluble in water, good takes

a

lathering well and possessing

detergent

properties ; it saponifies fairly easily, but alkali than tallow.

littlemore

RAPE

OIL.

This

oil is pressed

from Napus,

the seeds Brassicce rape

a

of various

species
etc.

of It

rape plants, Brassicce

CampestriSy
in the
tone.

is

brownish-green
a

oil

(brown

or oil),

refined
It has
a

varieties

yellowish

oil having

greenish

peculiar and
a

characteristic odour.

Its specific gravity varies

little,ut usually ranges from 0*913 to 0*916, generally being b 0*914 at 60" F. it, it is converted By blowing air through

into what

is known

as

"thickened
a

rape

a oil,*' very viscid oil,

of specific gravity 0*970 and

peculiar odour.
potash
case or

Eape
12*5

oil takes

about 17*25 per

cent,

of caustic

per cent, of
are

caustic soda which

are

to saponify
a

it.

In each

soaps

obtained

of

greenish-yellow

colour

and

smell strongly of

the oil. It is in consequence : rarely used in soap-making but of then it is a costly oil. Further, the soda soaps are This oil is a too soft for hard soaps. pasty consistency, frequently adulterated, chiefly with
are

cotton

and

mineral
Eape

oils, oil

both of which

comparatively

easy

to detect.
"

brassic,rapic contains three peculiar and characteristic acids belong to the oleic and linolenic and erucic acids, which seriesof fatty acids, and
they^have
a

high

molecular

weight.

148

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

WHALE

OIL

OR

TRAIN

OIL.

This
the

oil used

at

one

time

to

be

largely
in
use

employed

in
the

manufacture

of soft soap,
fish oils, but

especially
late its

Scotland,
even

home purpose

of

the has

of

for this
or,
as

decreased

considerably.

Whale
from

oil,
the

it of
not

is often

called, train oil, is obtained

blubber

It varies very various species of whales. but in quality. There only in composition

considerably,
are

many

species of

of whales,

and
an

each

of these may
differs in

be reasonably
some

suspected
from

yielding

oil which

respects the

the oil

of other whales. products

Generally,

however,

whalers

mix

the

of different whales the oil from

together

indiscriminately,
ships,
Then,

consequently
a

different

whaUng

capturing
again,
vary
on

variety

of whales,

will differ somewhat.

the very

the

methods
much,

of extracting
and

oil from

the blubber

very the
care

this has Of

considerable
there
the

influence been
more

quality of the oil. exercised

the
in

late years
of
has

has

the

extraction
product

oil, and

consequently T.he old

extract

quality of the
used

much

improved. in tanks, and

not,

method

to be to store the
on some

blubber
or,

the oils either

land the
the

oftener than
was

when

the

ship
water

arrived
"

home,

when
to

blubber
top and

either boiled in

the

oil rising
on

being

collected"

or

allowed

to drain

racks, the

former

latter process the worst. for

some

This method extracting

the

giving the best oil,the of keeping the blubber

oil resulted
formed

time

before

in its decomposi
their it of
a

and
way

the products decreased

thereby

found

into the oil and

colour and

its quality by making

to it
a more

darker

imparting

powerful
the
a

odour.

As

rule whale

oil is extracted

from

blubber

by

the

process

of boiling it in water,
one
more

whereby
of the

better quality of being

that the

oil is obtained, ships

can

advantage

process
a

store

oil. Whale

oil is

reddish-coloured

oil

BECOVERED

GREASES.

149
taste

having

fishy odour

and* taste, the

colour, odour

and

varying in different oils. Its specific gravity is about 0'925. When

some

cooled

down
as a

many

samples

of
mass

whale

oil deposit
of fish.

stearin

brownish-coloured
to

smelling

It takes

about
to

18 14

19

per

cent,

of caustic
soda
to

potash,

about 18*5
The
potash

per
are are

cent,

of caustic

and saponify it.

and

soaps
;

of

browish-red

colour

have

fishy odour
have
a

they

very soluble in water.

The
are

soda

soaps soft in

dark-red

colour

and

fishy odour,

rather

consistency, and
used in the

ovnng

to this fact whale

oil cannot Whale

well be

preparation

of hard

soaps.

oil contains
of the volatile

notable quantities of valeric acid, which

is

one

members

of the stearic series of fatty acids.

RECOVERED GREASES.

In various industrial operations

are

fats and

oils and

soaps

used for

variety of purposes. oil, etc.,

are

In currying

leather, cod

tallow, castor oil,

used for the purpose

of softening
and

it. Some
as

of this grease is afterwards

In

recovered

sold

currier's grease.

wool

washing,

scouring
the waste

and

fulling liquors
cesses. pro-

soap is used in the process, and from

soapy

the fatty matter After

necessary
weave
raw

they

contain
has

is recovered been
washed

by
and

various
scoured

wool

it is

to oil it for the purpose

of enabling

it to spin and
out

easily.

This

oil

can

be and
which

is taken
are

of the wool
may

of the greases again. Some be applied in the preparation

requisite.
These greases

thus
a

recovered

of soap, but
very
to buy

word

of caution is
care
a

require

considerable
only after
to

in

buying, and
has been

it would

be advisable

sample

tested

in the chemical
and
then

laboratory
only For

ascertain its
on

fitness for soap-making, that the bulk

a

bought

condition
are

was

equal to sample.
as

these greases
seen

of
and

most

variable composition,
the
same

will be

presently,
vary
so

even

professedly

kind of grease

may

much

150
that

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

one

lot will make

fair soap,

the

next

lot may

not.

being cautious in his buynecessity for the soap-maker A few of these greases which may ings will be readily seen.
The

find their way

into the

soap-maker's

hands

will be briefly

described.
Currier's Grease.
"

This grease

is obtained

in the currying

of leather with oil, for which

purpose

but

tallow,
as

castor

and

other
a

oils

are

cod oil is chiefly used, The also employed.

and

grease,
colour

usually
a

sold, is of

soft consistency

varies in
a

from

pale

brown

to nearly

black.

It has

strong

and
very

usually fishy odour, mixed considerably animal

with that of leather.

It varies
or

in composition,

containing
animal
as
a

more

less

water,

oil, fish oil, tallow,

Its value

tissue, bits of
fat will vary

leather, hair, skin, etc.

very

soap

much.

In addition to the fatty matter also be

some

which
and

is present
possibly
a

there may
a

unsaponifiable
oil ; by

matter

small

proportion

of mineral

itself it gives

soft,

dark-coloured

soap, and it is rarely used alone in soap-making

but

always

mixed
over

with

other and

fats.

Before

using for

it should
some

be melted

hot water

allowed

to stand

time

for the impurities to settle out ; if these do not do so readily it is best to pass the melted fat through a sieve. In testing
such

greases the quantity

of actual fatty matter

they

contain

ether, with petroleum it is all saponifiable and this should be tested as to whether it contains any unsaponifiable fat, and as to what or whether

should

be

ascertained

by

extraction

kind

of soap

it gives.
Grease.
"

Fuller's

The

next

recovered

grease

which

is

sometimes
connection
as

is fuller's grease, and in offered for soap-making be made is known may with it mention of what
or

Yorkshire

wool

grease.
woollen
;

In the process of manufacturing has to undergo the

raw

cloth, the material

two

scouring

operations
from

in the first instance,

the sheep's

wool,

just as

it is removed

back, is

yOBKSHIRE

GREASE.

151 soda, to
remove

scoured, usually the natural

with soap,

or

with soap
and

and

grease, soapy
to

matters

dirt it contains ; after

this it is dried, and

it is oiled After being
has again
to

facilitate any

spinning
or some

operations
other

with
spun

olive

oil, oleic acid

and
remove or

oil.

into yarn
to to

woven

into cloth, the wool

from

be scoured
added

it the oil and

process

dirt of
the
to
a

which

had

been
:

got

into it in the
as

manufacture oil,etc., would

very material

this scouring
interfere degree. with

is necessary,
the

otherwise
of dyeing
are

operation

These

scouring

operations

ably invarialways,

done

with
a

the aid of soap, sometimes,

too much
on

but

not

aided by
as

httle soda, but

alkali must fibre.

in the
were

be avoided, At
one

it will act detrimentally

the wool

time

the liquors containing together with

all the soap and

used

operations,
sent

the grease
;

oil of the wool,

into rivers
some

the rivers to waste

were

the result being that the Yorkshire

of their polluted state. Then

notable bright genius

name, a

on
"

account
we

do not
we

think that history has recorded

never come across

his

at all events
recover

have

it
"

conceived
form, and

plan to

the

fat and

grease

in

usable

since then
recovered
many

many

thousands
the
more

of tons

of grease

have
scourer,

been
and

from

soap

Uquors
so

of the

wool

thousands

will be
run

in the future.

The

process

generally followed
where

is to

the soap liquors into large tanks,

to settle out.

all the dirt is allowed

In these tanks

the

liquor is first heated

run

by steam,
the

and soap

then

hydrochloric

acid is
causes

in ; this decomposes

in the liquors and

the fatty matter

to rise to

the

top, whence

it is removed, better process

pressed, and sent into commerce. is to treat the waste soapy calcium chloride
to

somewhat

liquors with
any any soap

just sufficient
and form

decompose

present,

thereby

lime

soap,
on

which
top

with
of the

fatty matter

will

in curds

the

liquor;

this lime

collect soap is

collected, while

the

liquor

will generally be

of sufficiently

152

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

clear

and soap

lime

good is now

acid, whereby and

'The river. heated with sufficient dilute hydrochloric liberated it is decomposed, the fatty matter

quality

to

be

run

into

the

collected, while the lime dissolves in the form

out

of calcium
more

chloride, ready to be used for precipitating lot of liquors. soap in a new

It may
of

lime

be obvious to most
are

pers'ons that at least two from

the
waste

kinds
the

greases

recoverable
The

liquors of

woollen

mills.
raw

liquors off
or

wool

"

firstis that obtained from the scouring shire Yorkthis is what is generally named

grease

The second oftenest. wool grease, the latter name is that obtained from scouring the cloth after manufacture fulled this is known as and after it has been
"

fuller's grease.

This latter will be considered first. Fuller's grease in appearance varies considerably
to
a

from

dirty yellowish-brown

dark-red

grease, of about
often sticky and

the consistency viscid.

of butter, pasty in feel and

If prepared

from

the waste

liquors of the fulling mills it will

consist simply of the oil used in the batching of the wool, free fatty acid liberated from the scouring soap and some colouring
matter;

much,

however,

depends

upon

the

care

with

scouring have been carried out, while the quality of the batching oil and of If these the scouring soap used has a material influence. be of are of poor quality, then the recovered grease must
which
the various operations of batching and
poor

quality too.
:
"

The

following

are

two

analyses

of fuller's

grease

The

first one
too much
a

is of very

good

quality, while
matter
to make

the second

contains
as

unsaponifiable

it serviceable

soap fat.

OLEIC

ACID.

15a

It

can

only

be used

in making
even

very
must

common

soft and

cheap hard
or

soaps, and

then

be mixed

with rosin

other fats in not too large quantity. is obtained from the Wool Grease, The grease which liquors of the first scouring operation is of variable quality,.
"

as

the following analyses

by the author

will show

"

The of
a

unsaponifiable body
This

matter

in this grease
raw

consists chiefly
and of
a

peculiar

present

in the

wool

known

as.

cholesterine.
character,
more

body

partakes upon

somewhat

waxlike
it is.

but

is not

acted

by alkalies, although
hence

or

less soluble in soap liquors and

is found in the
from them.

waste

liquors and

in the greases

recovered

It

imparts

to the grease

certain undesirable
a

properties, among
and
even

others that soap,

so

of forming

greasy-looking
recommended,

rather

sticky
a

that it is not
of
some

to be

if

fairly

large proportion
A
common

other fats be mixed

with it.
is to subject when Thi"

method

of dealing with

this grease

it to distillationwith the aid.of superheated

a

steam,

pale-coloured

somewhat

granular
;
a

grease

distilsover.

has been

used for soap-making

and has

it has

about

15 per cent, of

unsaponifiable matter,
odour
; it does
"

peculiar and

ant rather unpleas-

not

give any

satisfactory result.
as

Oleic Acid.
the manufacture

This product

is obtained

bye-product

in

of candlemaker's
steam,

stearin by
as

distilling fata

with the aid of superheated

in the process invented

or

by Mr.
with

Wilson,
under
now,

of Price's Candle
pressure

Co.,

by
as

lime
on

in the

autoclave,
treatment

saponification it is usually

carried
80

with

subsequent

of the lime soap

formed

with

acid.

154
In either
case means

SOAP

MANUPACTUEE.

the mixture of
an

of fatty acids which

is obtained

hydraulic press ; the oleic acid comes The in the press. out, while the solid stearic acid remains from the press is a dark-coloured oily oleic acid as it comes be refined into a pale yellowish-coloured, liquid, which can oily-looking fluid. It is sold commercially brown
a

is pressed by

as

pale oleic acid,

oleic acid, crude

oleic acid.

In

colour it varies from

pale yellow to a dark red, as will have been gathered from it may contain w^hat has previously been said; sometimes In specific gravity it small quantities of solid particles. varies from
some

will give

The about 0*889 to 0*907. idea of its composition :

"

following

analyses

The

free acid consists mostly

some

of oleic acid, but

there is

usually present

and

stearic acid, and generally acetic, suberic by the decomhave been formed position sebacic acids, which
of the fat during
the process

of manufacture,

this
hydrocarbons

decomposition
or

being greatest in the distillation. The

matter

unsaponifiable
of the formed

have

been produced
same

by the
;

decomposition

fatty matter
are

at the

time

the

hydrocarbons
series.

probably

members

of the paraffin

Oleic acid combines readily with considerable care is taken in mixing

caustic soda, but unless the liquids, and using a

mass

dilute solution of the alkali, a very granular vv^hich will require

homogeneous soap.
a

is obtained,

prolonged

boiling to convert

it into

an

"carbonate of soda soap is made

There of carbonic
.

Oleic acid will also combine with the to form soap, and a good deal of manufacturer's
in this way.
the operation
the

is during

evolved
mass

large quantity
very
con-

acid, which causes siderably, hence a capacious

to fob up

boiler is required when

soap is

ROSIN.

155

oleic acid and carbonate of soda. oleicacid and soda ash a fairly good soap can In the distillation of Yorkshire or wool
obtained
a

made

from

By

using pale is

be made. grease
''

there

an

analogous

body known

"

as

Oleine
are

this contains

large proportion

of oleic acid, but there

usually present

larger quantities of unsaponifiable

than
are

oils and of saponifiable oils

oleic acid,
:
"

contained

in ordinary by the author

,
.

commercial

as

the

following analyses
Water Free
.

will show

fatty acid

Unsaponifiable
Saponifiable

oil oil
.

These
used

are

mostly

used

for batching large

and

wool

they

are

rarely

in making

soap,

the

variable

quantity
them

of

unsaponifiable oils which

they contain rendering

rather

unsuitable for this purpose.

When

buying

the various kinds of recovered

greases

and
from

oleic acid and sample and

oleines soap-makers

should
an

always
to
see

buy
that

have

this tested by

analyst

it is

suitable for their purpose.

betw^een
and
one a

Ocular

inspection
a

guish will not distinsoap

as

grease which
so

will make

fairly good
matter

which

contains

much

unsaponifiable

to

render it useless for soap-making.

ROSIN.

Kosin

is the residual body

the

left behind

in the distillationof
is
run

turpentine from into barrels and

country
course,

resin of pine sent into commerce.

purely France of American and

trees ; this rosin

What

comes

into this
of

is almost
in both

origin.
are

It is made,

Eussia, which
what

tine-produci great turpenproduce

commerce.

countries,
used locally, but

but

rosin

they

is

littleif any brittle,

more

coming
or

into EngUsh
transparent,
to

Eosin body,

is

less

varying

in colour

from
a

pale

yellow

resinous The black.

colour of black rosin is really

dark red when

looked through,

156

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

but it appears is opaque,nand

of water,
for
a

black
not

on

looking at it. Sometimes

;

the rosin

transparent

this is due

to

the presence

which

may

short time.
"
"

be got rid of by keeping in a warm place Several qualities of rosin are distinguished
** *' "

in trade

black," etc. common," amber," This difference in quality is due partly to the quality of the the rosin is obtained, partly to crude turpentine from which
window

glass,"

the
"

amount
"

of

care

exercised

in its extraction.
**
"

The

best

virgin

gives window-glass
**
"

rosin, and scrapings but characteristic odour, which

on

vellow dip rosin, the black rosin. Eosin

gives amber has a faint

becomes

more

highly developed
in structure, quite

warming.

It is usually homogeneous
and
or

amorphous, fragments

very friable, readily breaking up into small into fine powder, which has a rather rough and

peculiar feel. Its specific gravity varies, but is about 1*07 to 110. It begins to soften at a temperature of 80" C, and It is quite insoluble in melts into a limpid fluid at 100" C.
water,

but it is soluble in acetone,

hot

alcohol

(on cooling

benzene, ether, petroleum crystals of sylvic acid deposit), oils fatty oils. Eosin may be distilled in a vacuum and most but if distilled under ordinary conditions unchanged, it is decomposed liquors, a limpid and yields acid aqueous
almost

and a viscid oil with smaller quantities of other bodies. spirit, The chemical of rosin has not yet been composition thoroughly on out, and authorities differ somewhat worked

this

subject. This,

perhaps,

is due

to

the

fact that from

there

will be several

varieties of rosin

prepared

different

varieties of pine resins, and those chemists who rosin have not made sufficient allowance
Some

gated have investifor this fact.

authorities consider rosin to be composed of two isomeric rosin acids, named pinic and sylvic acids, the former of which is soluble both in hot and cold alcohol, the latter only in hot alcohol.
To these acids is assigned

the formula

HC20H29O2,

while

EOSIN.

157

other chemists constituent

consider

that

rosin contains
This

as

abietic anhydride.

body, when

its essential acted on by

alkalies, is converted

into abietic acid.

Eosin
or

is easily dissolved by solutions of either the caustic

carbonate

alkalies forming

rosin soaps.
a

These

have
are

strong

detergent

properties, but have

dark colour and

soft and
no

sticky in consistency.

As the soap-maker
never

says, they have

body, hence
enters

rosin is

used

alone to make

soaps, but hard

soaps

it

into the composition of

commerce.

of most The

domestic

and

soft soaps

quantity of caustic soda or potash required to saponify rosin is very variable, ranging from 17 to 19 per cent, of caustic potash, and froon 12 to 13*5 per
cent, of caustic soda.

CHAPTER

IV.

PERFUMES.

In the scenting there

are
a

of soaps, etc., and

in the preparation

of perfumes,

employed

essential oils and

other substances The

derived
of the

from

great variety of products.

a

preparation

essential oils is
to obtain

comparatively
great

the best product and

though simple process, alhas to be taken care

out

in the

selection of materials,

in carrying

the

operations

involved

in extracting the oil or essence possibl ; thus it is imto obtain a fine oil of violets from faded flowers, otto
finest fragrance
are can

of

roses

of the

only

be obtained
are

from

flowers which

just ripe.
in
a

Generally
press
or

the oils

obtained

either by pressure
steam,

screw

by distillation with
same

the

oils in general
of being

possessing
over

the

property
or

as current

turpentine

distilled

boiling water

in

of steam. Those oils which

are

are

mostly

in

use

for perfumery

purposes

described

in the following
are

brief notes,

which
:
"

for the sake

of convenience

arranged

alphabetically
from
over
a

Anise.
anisum,
a

"

This

is obtained
grows

the

seed

of Pimpinella
ported and is exvant, Le-

plant which Eussia,

The

wide

extent,

from
etc.
cent,

Thuringia,

Moravia, from

Chili, Spain,

yield of oil ranges

1*3 per cent, to 3 per

Levant

giving

the

smallest, and

Spanish

anise

the

largest yield. Slight differences are observable in the odour in different localities. It is of the oil from seed grown fresh. On a faintly yellow colourless or at most oil when
keeping,

especially when

exposed

to the air, it becomes

dark

PERFUMES.

159

yellow in

colour.

Badly colom:.

made

and
a

inferior oils may

odour, and
on
an

also
aromatic

possess this dark

sweet

It has

pleasant

taste.
a

It solidifies at 50" to 59" F.

account

of its containing

stearoptene

known

as

anethol.

On

exposure

to air anethol
some

is converted

into anisic aldehyde

with

resinification,oxidation taking place. Its specific gravity is 0*980, and it is soluble in an equal volume of alcohol.
This oil must which
not

be confounded adulterated.
a

with

oil of star anise, with

other

it is often

Sometimes
or

oils

are

added, together

with

Uttle paraffin

spermaceti,

to bring

about the

solidifying of the

adulterated

oil at

lower

temperatures

Bergamot.

"

This

is obtained
a

from

the rind of the fruit

of the Citrus limetta,

species of lemon,

which
a

yields about
pale yellow

3J per

cent,

of the oil.

Wben

fresh
with

it has
a

colour, but may

often be met

of
a

greenish

tint, which
It has
a

is due to its having

strong and

been

kept

in

copper

vessel.

agreeable

odour.

Its specific gravity varies from

0-850 to 0-980 ; it boils at 118" C. and

solidifiesat 11" F.

It

dissolves freely in alcohol.

Bergamot

oil contains
of linalool. The
is present

terpenes, linalool

linaloolacetate, and
acetate is the

small quantity

odorific principle, and

and

to the extent

of 40 per cent

upwards.

It

can

be estimated

by

means

of Koettstorfer's saponification test.

oils, or oils used refined turpentine adulterants are derived from oranges and lemons, with rosin. It is advisable to keep it out of contact with air, as it

As

absorbs oxygen,
of turpentine.

and

thereby

loses its odour,

Oil of bergamot
scenting

acquiring that in the is largely employed

perfuming Oil
of

or

of soap.
"

Bitter

Almonds.
amare,

This
or

fruit of the Amygdale

18

oil is obtained from the bitter almonds. fruit The

oil it contains,
to

pressed

to

separate

out

all the
and

then

the

meal

is mixed

with

water,

warmed

106"

to 113" F.

160 for
some

SOAP

MANUPACTUEE.

hours

fermentative
present

principle, amygdalin,
constituents
and forms

action sets in, and a vegetable in the meal, reacts with other with
some

the oil together To

sugar

and

prussic
meal

(hydrocyanic)cid. a

obtain the oil the fermented

When
a

is distilled,1 per cent, being the usual amount obtained. pure it is a colourless, very refractive liquid, having

specific gravity of 1*04, so that it is shghtly heavier than It boils at 180" C. (350" F.). On exposure to the water.
air the oil gradually undergoes

decomposition,

and is changed

into benzoic
Bitter making

acid ; hence it must oil is employed almond

of perfumes,

be kept in air-tight vessels. in the to a limited extent

soaps, the

but

not

in scenting

like almondwhat is

odour known
as

of which

is commonly

obtained

by using

myrbane Caeaway.
well

(nitro-benzol).'
"

Oil

of
are

This
to

is obtained
and

from

caraway

seeds,

which

known

cooks

confectioners,
are

who

delight

to add tree

them
carui,

to their cakes.

These

the seeds of the

Carum
and The

which

Germany Eussia.

Holland, average

is cultivated in various parts of and while it is found wild in Norway

of the

amount

oil which

can

be obtained

is 5 per cent!, but it is curious that the seeds from the

wild variety yield 1 to 2 per
from
cent,
more

the cultivated varieties.

an

Caraway
and

oil than the seeds oil has a light yellow

taste ; its specific

colour, and

aromatic

odour

burning C.

gravity

is 0*960, and

it boils at 195"

(383" F.). It is
alone and in

largely employed

in the scenting other

as

of soaps, both

combination
an

with known

essential oils. Its odour

is due

to

aldehyde

carvol.
from

Cassia.'^" This
wood
of the
tree

oil is obtained
Ginnamomum

both
^

flowers
former

and the

cassia

the

jdelding
per cent.

about

2 J per cent, of the oil,the latter only about

fresh is of a yellow colour, but on keeping Oil of cassia when it becomes It has a specific gravity of a dark-brown colour. boils at 252" C. (485" F.). It has a pleasant of 1-06 and

PERFUMES.

161

odour

not

unlike It has
a

that sharp

of cinnamon,
taste, and

but

by

no

means

so

pleasant.

is employed

in the scenting

of soap and

Cinnamon.

"

in the preparation of many perfumes. This oil is obtained from the wood of the cinnamon
zeylanicumy

laurel, Ginnamomum

which
wood

grows

very 1

extensively in China
to

and

Ceylon.
Three

The

yields from

\\

per
"

cent,

of oil.

commerce

Ceylon
known

recognised in varieties are Chinese oil of cinnamon oil of cinnamon,

under the
name

(whichis also
cinnamon cinnamon
a
".

of cassia
as a

a oil),nd
**

oil of

leaves, the first being regarded This oil is rather viscid, of

the true

oil of
or

golden-yellow

golden-brown colour, according to the age, and has a burning but sweet taste. The specific gravity is 1*030, and it boils at 240" C. (464" P.), posure while at 21" C. (-6" F.) it soUdifies. On exto the air it absorbs oxygen,

becoming
The

thicker, darker stituent principal con-

in colour, while

its flavour deteriorates.

is cinnamyl

Chinese
and contains
come over over

aldehyde. has oil of cinnamon

specific gravity of 1065,

is sent oil.

It used to about 75 per cent, of the aldehyde. it very largely adulterated with rosin, etc., but now fairly pure. It is not equal in quality to Ceylon

leaves is a very inferior article,used for Oil of cinnamon adulterating the better grades of oil, and in scenting soaps. This oil is rather heavier (itsspecific gravity being 1*058)

oil,although not so heavy is largely employed Oil of cinnamon perfumes, and in scenting soaps, etc.
than Ceylon

as

the Chinese

oils. of

in the preparation

CiTRONELLE."
species of

In

India

and

Ceylon

are

gj:own

many

an yield oils having grass-like plants, which The oils from these are commonly known aromatic odour.

grass oils,of which the following are the chief : citronelle, lemon grass, vetiver, ginger grass. Citronelle is obtained
as

from the grass Andropogan

nardus,
11

largely grown

in Ceylon,

162

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

where

the oil is extracted

in large quantities, and

exported

to

this country.
odour.

It has

pale yellow

colour ; a peculiar, pleasant

It is very

largely

employed
of soaps. from

in the

preparation

of

perfumes

and the scenting

"

Cloves.

This

is obtained

the which

fruit buds
comes

of the

clove tree, Garyophyllus

aromaticusy

from

Am-

boina, Bourbon
cent,

and

Zanzibar. fresb

of

oil. When yellowish

about 18 per this oil is colourless, but soon

These

contain

becomes

to brown.

It is rather heavier than

water,

its specific gravity being

I'OSO, and

it boils at 268" C. burning

taste

(478"
and
a

F.).

It

has

an

exceedingly
;

strong

pleasant

spicy odour

it is largely employed
or

in the scenting

of soaps, either alone CoEiANDEE. coriander

"

in

common

with

other oils.

This

oil is obtained

from

the seeds

of the

plant, Goriandum

satriuniy which

per cent, of the oil. The tree is grown Italy, India, North Africa and other localities. It is of

yield from f to 1 in Eussia, Holland,

a

pale yellow

colour, sharp

It is rather lighter than

aromatic taste, and pleasant odour. water, its specific gravity being 0*875,
150"
to

while

it boils at

from

200"

C.

It is very

largely

employed Lemon

in the scenting

of soaps. oil is prepared

a

Geass.

"

This

from

the

lemon

grass, Andropogon

citratus,

native

of Ceylon,

while
are

it is

also cultivated in India.

From

these countries

exported

large quantities of these oils.

a

It is a colourless oil,possessing
a

pleasing odour
roses or

of lemon,
on

of

geraniums;
rose

of that slight reminiscence it is often substituted this account

with

for the oil of

geranium.

It is rather

lighter than

water,

its specific gravity being 0*870 to 0*898 ; itboils at 220" C.

(4'J8'
used

F.) and
in the

sohdifies at 22" C.
of soaps

(-8" F.).

It is very much

scenting various kinds.

Geeanium
and

and

in the preparation

of soaps of

oe

Eose

Geeanium.
roseum,

"

In
or

Southern

France

Algiers

the

Pelargonium

geranium,

is very

PEEFUMES.

163

largely cultivated, and

cent, of
an

from

its leaves is obtained

an

about

\
rose

per

odoriferous
the
reason

oil w^hich has

why

odour

not
as

unlike that
**
''

of roses,

hence

this oil is sold

oil of

geranium

to replace
a

the latter oil is

the true oil of roses, the where bar to its use. Oil of geranium
0*895,

cost

of
a

has

specific gravity

of

and

(480" P.).
Lavendeb.

It is very

largely used

boiling point of 220" C. in the making of perfumes

and in the scenting

"

of soaps.
no

Probably

perfume

is better known
vera,

than

that of the lavender,

the flowers of Lavandula

at

which

is

grown

very

extensively

Mitcham,

in Surrey,

and

in other

localities. The
of oil. The
most

flowers yield about

8 per cent, of their weight the best, having

condmands

Mitcham
perfume,

oil is considered and therefore

the best

delicate German

the

price.
An

lavender

oil is of good

quality, and is cheaper.

lavender, Lavendara

oil is also obtained

; this however

from is not

the
so

spike
as

spikum

good

the true lavender

oil,

although
has
a

it is sometimes
colour

supplied
and
a

in its stead.
sharp

Oil of lavender
taste ; it must

light yellow

burning

be kept in air-tight vessels, as otherwise it undergoes decomposition, losing its fine odour of lavender, and acquiring that
of turpentine.

Oil of lavender

is lighter than

water,

but its

specificgravity is very variable, ranging from 0*870 to 0*940, Oil of 186" to 192" C. and its boiling point varies from lavender is much and of perfumes, used in the preparation in the scenting of soaps, etc.
Nekoli.
tree and
"

This is obtained
from the South

from

the flowers of the orange

where the orange

comes

of France,

tree is cultivated

for this particular

purpose.

The

oils obtained

tree vary a little in different species of orange quality; that from the Seville orange tree, Citrus vulgaruSy is

from

considered

the

best.

On

exposure

to

the

air they undergo ought

to be kept

oxidation and become of a red colour; in a cool place in well -closed vessels.

they

Oil of neroli is colour-

164 less, having

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

an

odour

of orange,

and
a

possesses

bitter taste.

It is lighter than and

a

water,

having

specific gravity of 0*889,

boiling point of 175" C. in the scenting of soaps

(337" F.).
and

This

oil is employed
of

in the

preparation

various perfumes.

be confounded with the oil of neroli; while the latter is obtained from the flowers, the former is pressed from the rind of the fruit. Orange oil
Obange.
"

Oil of orange

should

not

has

golden-yellow It has
a

colour, with

an

odour

and

taste

of the

specific gravity of 0*830 to 0*860, and boils at 171" C. (330" F.). Two varieties are met with in commerce,
that
from

fruit.

the

rind of the

bitter orange
there

and

that

from

the

rind

of the

sweet

orange;
are

between
perfumes,

them.

They

is very little difference in the preparation of employed

mineral waters, and in scenting soaps. Sassafeas. This oil is extracted from the wood
"

of the

sassafras tree.

Sassafras which officinalis,

a

yields about

2|

per

cent, of the oil; it has

odour

and

taste.

peculiar but pleasant It is rather heavier than water, its specific

yellow colour,
a

gravity being 1*082.

It contains

is also contained safrol, which sassafras is largely used for the

peculiar principle named in oil of camphor. Oil of

scenting of soap and
other

articles.
Stae
Anise.
"

This

oil is extracted

from

the

seed-pods

of

Chinese

tree

(lUicium anisatum); it
having

oil of anise in all particulars, and It is lighter than water, perfumers.

of 0*982.
These

closely resembles is generally preferred by

a

pods

yield about

specific gravity 2 per cent, of the oil. A

similar oil,but to a smaller extent, is obtained from the seeds tree (Illicium of a Japanese religiosum)that possesses family
to the resemblance so good in quality. WiNTEE Geeen.

Chinese

tree.

This

oil is, however,

not

"

This

oil is extracted

from

the leaves

and

twigs of the winter

green, Gaultheria

procumhens.

This

PERFUMES.

165

oil consists essentially of methyl

gravity of 1-173, and freely with alcohol

salicylate ; it has C.

boils at 220^
other

(428" F.).

specific It mixes

and

solvents.

It is largely used

in the scenting of soaps, imparting a pleasant fragrant odour. Musk. One of the most delicate perfumes is that know^n
"

as

musk

; quite

number

of plants

and

animals
common

have

this
musk and

odour.

favourite

windovsr

plant

is the

(Mimulosa moschatus),with its bright

fragrant odour.

yellow

flowers

Others

are:

Erodium moschatel

moschatellina, the
mansiy the

tuberous

; Adoxa moschatum ; Nardostachys juta-

spikenard

of the ancients ; Eurybia

tree

argophylla, Moschoxylum

the

silver-leaved

musk wood

of

Tasmania
;

swartziiy the
and

musk

of Jamaica

Guarea woods

trichoilides
of Guiana

other

species of Guarea,

the

musk

and the West

are

valuable seed.

musk

other plants Among

must

Indies, while the seeds of Hibiscus abelnioschus for perfume, and are known as commercially With the exception of the last, none of the are cultivated for their odour.
which
to

animals
accorded
source

have musk musk

be

the

musk-like odour, first place deer (Moschtos

of
commerce.

moschatus),
There
are

which

is the
ox

of the

{Ovismoschatus), noted for its skin ; the musk rat (Hiber zibethicus), also valuable for its skin ; the Indian musk rat (Sorexindicics) the alUgator of Central America ;
and
the
are

the musk

crocodile

of West

Africa
and

also have

musk
as
a

glands, perfume^
a

which The

occasionally extracted

employed

excrement

of the

gazelle

dorcas)has (Gazella
of
an

musklike
to

odour, alcohol The of

commerce

and

yields 7 per cent,

odorous

extract

musk

it may be 8000 feet, and

on

which nearly the whole of the musk is obtained, is a native of the Himalayas, where found on an every hill having altitude of over lives
on

deer, from

the underwood
range.

of the forests abounding

an

the Himalayan

It is

animal

of about

the

166

SOAP

MANUFACTUKE.

size of

nocgreyhound, shy, but very agile,and somewhat turnal in its habits. The musk pod from which the odorous secretion is obtained is found only in the males, the
a

of any odour ; the pod is found near the navel between the flesh and the skin, and is composed of several layers of thin skin in which the musk is found in the
form of grains, of irregular shape, roundish and ovoid, varying in size. The pod is developed before the animal is born ;
years after birth,the contents of the pod are soft,milky in appearance, and have rather an unpleasant odour ; at the end of the two years the contents change into
at first, and for two

females being devoid

and increase in quality afterwards ; at firstthe weight averages ^ oz., and at full growth may reach 2 oz. ; the It varies also with the average is, however, 1 to IJ oz. musk

^v*

being greatest in the rutting season. The animals are usually snared in specially constructed snares of fences and ropes, then killed, and the pod extracted
seasons,

and dried in the adopted. Musk

**

sun,

although other methods

are

occasionally

musk

makes its appearance in two forms in commerce in pod "and ** musk in grain"; the former is the
"

material in its natural receptacle, while the latter is that from the pod. It is imported from (1)Tonquin, removed China, and Tibet in small chests, containing twenty-five packets of musk encased in lead. This is considered the best quahty, and
the highest price, but is most adulterated. commands in bags packed in a box, (2)Assam, which comes containing 200 pods, rather irregular in size and form, and
a

strong odour. (3)Kanardin or Eussian, which is very inferior in quality,poor in odour. Musk for use in perfuming is prepared as an extract or having tincture by
of alcohol ; it is rarely used alone, but in manent with conjunction other perfumes. It is an exceedingly perperfume ; one grain of musk will emit its scent for
means

PEEFUMES.

167 of its permanence

to

years, and

it appears
It

to

impart

some

other perfumes.

cannot
some,

be mixed
such
as

without

deterioration ;
it, while
much.

all substances with bitter almonds and

ergot, destroy character very Tincture

camphor

and

valerian

change

its

of musk musk
musk

is prepared

in the following
oz.

manner

Take Grind

oz.

in grain, 10
vnth
a

alchool,

oz.

ammonia. mix
all

the

little of the
for several
the

alcohol then
days, shaking
5
oz.

together and
then

allow

to digest

tervals at in-

filter.

Add

to

residue

alcohol

and

digest again for three days, then Add another 10 oz. the first lot.
repeat the operations.

strain and
alcohol

add

tincture to and
this

to the residue

The

weak

tincture

made

with
a

third extraction

is in place of alcohol

for extracting

fresh

batch.
Another
2
oz.

method

is to grind together add

a

oz.

musk
oz.

in grain,
pearl-ash.

sugar ; then
for

quarts

alcohol,
at
use.

Allow to stand
when weaker

week,

shaking
for

intervals, then This

filter,

the tincture will be ready than

the above.

vnll be rather

Aetificial
there has
a

Musk.

"

Under
into
a

the

name

of "Musk

Baur" 1890,

been introduced
which
has

commerce,

since about
odour
a

white

powder,

strong

of musk,

and

it

has been largely employed

in imparting been

musk

odour

to soaps.

The production
the discoverer, rosin spirit formula
a

of this has

patented There
can

(No. 4963, 1889) by

be isolated from
has
the

Albert

Baur.

hydrocarbon,

butyl
The

toluene,

which

C6H4(CH3)
from

(C^Hg).

simplest method
the

for making

artificial musk
toluene to drop of
one

this is to allow
into five times

hydrocarbon
of
a

butyl
mixture
parts

slowly

its weight

part of nitric acid of 15

specific gravity, and

two

of fuming

sulphuric
the

acid, containing
on
mass a

16 per cent, of anhydride,

and heating

mixture
the

water

bath
a

for eight

or
mass

nine
of

hours.

On

pouring

into water

crystalline

168

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

impure

nitro compound

is obtained.

This is renitrated, and

the product Musk form

water,

recrystallised from

alcohol.
toluene,
occurs

Baur,
a

the trinitro iso butyl

in the
in

of

creamy

crystalline powder,

which

is insoluble

but

is easily soluble

in alcohol, ether,

chloroform, It has
a

petroleum
most

spirit,benzine.

It melts

at 96" to Q?*" C.

intense odour
Its odour

of musk,

and
so

may

be used in perfuming
as

soaps.

is not

quite

pleasant

that

of true

musk. the
form

It may
of
a

be added
solution
Baur

direct to the soap in methylated

is at present
commerce,

or

preferably in

spirit.
the only

Although musk
mostly
are

Musk
to be met

form

of artificial

with in

yet other compounds,

trinitro derivatives of aromatic organic compounds, known, which have a musk-like odour, and may probably
or

be

sooner

later placed
"

on

the market.

Myebane.

This product
products

is largely used

in the scenting
a

of soaps

and

other

which

require

cheap

material, owing to its pleasant odour of almonds, Chemically soaps, etc. strong agent for perfuming having
the formula

scenting while it is a it is nitrobenzene,

in

C^HgNOg,

aud is mauufactured
the benzol

large quantities by treating benzene,

of the coal-tar

distiller, with
crude
product

mixture is mixed

of nitric and

sulphuric

acids.
excess

The of
pale

with

water
or

to free it from

acids when

distilled. Myrbane, liquid having

an

nitrobenzene,
of almonds;

is

straw-coloured

odour

its specific

it gravity is 1'209, so that it is heavier than water, in which freely with oils, fats, spirits, It mixes is almost insoluble.
etc.

It boils at 207" C,
a

while it can

be cooled

down

until it

It is capable solid, having a melting point of 4" C. of being distilled in a current of steam, a property which may from be taken advantage of to free the crude nitrobenzene

forms

unchanged the

benzene

or

other may

hydrocarbons.
be
made

commercial

product

by

valuation of its determining

treated with

specific gravity, which

ought

to be exact.

When

PEEFUMBS.

169

mixture of zinc and hydrochloric acid it ought to yield hydrocarbons should be left nothing but aniline, while no in a retort with steam. behind on distilling some In the soap
trade myrbane

is very largely used for scenting soaps. Being very strong, it takes but littleto develop a pleasant almond It retains odour, while it mixes well with other perfumes. itsodour for a long period.

CHAPTER
WATER

V.

AS

SOAP

MATERIAL.

ubiquitous substance and finds so many that much applications in industrial and domestic uses may be written about it of a very interesting character and which here it is appeal to almost Qvery person ; however, would
a

Water

is such

simply

proposed

to consider

the most

valuable chemical

compound

which is known. is a compound Water

elements,
oxygen

and

hydrogen,

by weight of the former its chemical formula is HgO.

is
a

non-metallic in the proportion of 16 parts to 2 parts by weight of the latter ; Under

ordinary

of the

two

gaseous,

conditions it

colourless heated passes

liquid, perfectly neutral

to
a

When
and

temperature
of
an

in all its properties. of 212" F. (100" C.) it boils, The

tempera"
one

off in the form

water
as

invisible gas.
to

ture at which

boils is found
one

be

constant

and

hence

is taken
the

point

in the graduation
on

mometers, of the therscale, scale.

boiling point, 212"

scale, and

the
on

Fahrenheit
Eeaumur
a

100" When

on

the Centigrade
water

80"

the

is cooled down
at which

it sohdifies into

solid white ice;

a

the temperature and

and

it solidifies is also
or

constant

one,

is taken the

as

the

zero

starting point
is 32"

on on

the the

Centigrade Fahrenheit

Eeaumur

scales, 0", and

as

scale.

Water

is taken

the
on

standard
account

of specific gravity of
of the fact that it can

solids and

liquids; this is

in a state of purity ; its specific gravity be obtained anywhere is 1*000. Ice is Ughter than water, having a specific gravity
of 0*9; it will therefore float upon
water,
a

property

of im-

WATEB.

171

mense

natural

importance.
some

When

water

is transformed
When

into
vv^ater

vapour it expands

1500

times in volume.

is rendered solid ice it absorbs heat which latent or imperceptible, not being capable of measurement by is 142 1 units of the thermometer; the latent heat of water
is changed
from heat.

In

similar into gas

manner

when

liquid water
up and

is converted
latent
a

by heating

it also takes

renders

large quantity

of heat, the latent heat

water

of water

gas being 966

units. When

gas is converted
out,
a

back

into liquid water,

on

this latent heat

the employment

is given
of steam

property

which

depends

for heating
when

soap pans, evaporating liquid water

These

liquids, drying

stoves,

etc., and

is changed propertieswater to
as a

to solid ice its latent

heat is dissipated.

have

very

important
; it

bearing

in relation to
not

motive

power
more

is, however,

the

intention
water

discuss

thispoint

fully here.
or

When

pure

the atmosphere passes away One

one

heated

without English imperial

it is converted leaving any residue behind.

gallon of water

is exposed to into vapour and

United

States gallon of water

weighs 62*3 lb.

weighs

weighs 10 lb.,while 8"33 lb. ; one cubic

foot of water

When

water

is viewed
a

in large

masses,

as

in deep

tanks, the

and lakes, it has deeper and

blue colour, and

the purer

the water

brighter is this colour.

The

most

important

feature
are

about

water

substances willnot dissolve in this liquid. There is,however,

in the degree which calcium
vnll dissolve of solubility ; there
are

solvent properties ; there

few

is its great indeed which,

much

tion varia-

some

substancea such
as

in their

own

weight

of water,
are a

chloride, caustic soda, while there will form a solution with less than their own
other hand
some

few

which
the

weight

; on

bodies, such

as

calcium
are

sulphate, strontium sparingly

the

sulphate,

ammonium Temperature has an

oxalate,

but

soluble.

important

influence upon

degree of

172

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

solubility, the rule being that with

"there is
an

an

increase of temperature
of substances

increase in the quantity

the
case

dissolved ;
oxalate,

"thisis notably

with

such

bodies

as

ammonium dissolving

potassium
more

bichromate,
water
;
on

boiling water
cooUng When
hot
a

much

than
the

cold

solutions
solution
the water

of these
contains

bodies
as

salt crystallises out.

a

much

of

substance
a

dissolved in it as
saturated

solve, vdll dissuch

solutions to be

it is said to be
the

solution ; from
on

substance again

will
on

crystallise out

re-dissolved
The saturated
TABLE

the

original table

cooling being temperature

the

regained.

following
of
some

gives

strength
:
"

of

solution
OF

important

substances
AT
16"

SATUBATED

SOLUTIONS

0. (60" F.).

Water
soap
one

plays

very important

part

in the manufacture agency enabled

or

of

; it forms

the medium the alkali

on

through

whose
are

the fat on the

to unite and

hand

and

the other

form

soap ; vnthout

water

this combination

union

cannot

"take place.

be
due

no

doubt

In addition to thus being the medium there can that water has other influences in soap-making
It is a well-known

entirely to its great solvent properties.

or

fact that the grains from the

same

textures

of soaps made

in different works
process often differ

materials and

by the

same

WATEB.

178

unaccountable likely to be caused by a

water which

in

rather

manner;

this difference is most

character

difference in the

of the

is used in the various works. There is no such thing as pure water in nature.

The

purest

is rain water, but this always contains some gases dissolved in it,derived from the atmosphere during its passage through that medium; the next then come purest is spring water, river waters,
water.

lastly the

most

impure

natural

water

is

sea

Spring, river, and sea waters contain dissolved in them varying amounts of inorganic or mineral and organic matters derived from the rocks over they or through which which
may

have

flowed.

It may

be inferred

that

on

this account
and
our

such

waters

will vary

considerably
are

in

the

character For

extent of the matters

which
may

contained
sea

in them.

present purpose
as

we

leave

water

entirely out
soap, and

of consideratio

it is not

used

in making Now

simply

deal

with spring and

that
are

river waters.
from
or
a

it is found

that waters

derived

district in which

the rocks

consist
small
more

chiefly of granite

other

quantities of matter

silicious rock dissolved in them,

contain
perhaps

but
not
an

than 4 to 6 grains per gallon, and

character.
or

these chiefly of
a

alkaline

Waters

which
rocks

flow through predominate

region where

stone lime-

liable to contain in rather large in solution, sometimes hme or magnesia more The presence of these bodies imparts a quality proportion. known is more to the water, hardness a as quaUty which
magnesian
are

easily demonstrated
are

than

described; with.

at all events

such

waters

very difficultto wash

Besides

lime and

magnesia,

often, in fact nearly always, contains small quantities It is not needful here to discuss in of salt, iron, silica,etc. detail all that may be found in water.
water

Lime

and

magnesia
; the

exist in water

in two
are

forms, carbonate almost

and sulphate

carbonates

of these

insoluble

174

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

bodies, and

to any appreciable will not dissolve in pure water the other hand they are extent ; on soluble in water which contains carbonic acid in solution, in the form of the less bicarbonate, and as all natural waters or contain more

carbonic

acid it follows

that

such

waters

will take
and

up

the
By

carbonates of lime and magnesia boiling such waters the carbonic

the lime and will be thrown

from

rocks

soils.

magnesia

sequently acid is driven off and conwhich are held in solution

down
''

out of the water.

"

The

latter having

lost

its lime becomes

the carbonates
to

softened of the two

; any

metals
".

which is due to in question is therefore said

hardness

be

''

temporary
are

hardness

The

sulphates
own

of Ume

and

magnesia

soluble in water
therefore
are

of their

inherent
when

properties;
water

they

not

thrown

down

is boiled ; hence
*'

any hardness

which

is due to them

is known

as

permanent Now

hardness

".

it is these lime and in water which

magnesia

compounds

which

are

present

will exert

the greatest amount

fluence of in-

in the manufacture
that they soap
and
a

of soap.

This

is due to the fact with

the

have

the property therevnth

amount

of entering

into action
lime and

forming
very small
a

insoluble

magnesia
will

soaps ;
react

of these substances of soap ; it is

no

in water
uncommon

with

large proportion

thing

to find waters

containing

30 grains per gallon of lime

carbonate
Now

and

sulphate.
to the equation
2Na0i8H35O2
Soap
=

according
CaCOg
Calcium Carbonate +

NaoCOg
Sodium Carbonate

Ca(Ci8H8502)2
lime Soap

we

see

that 100 parts

of soap

of calcium 606

carbonate
parts

612 soap;

parts

to form

of

an

will react with insoluble lime

this latter is the curdy

masses

which
supposing

form
we

when have each

soap
water

is mixed

with limey

water.

Now

that contains

30 grains per gallon of lime, then

gallon

WATEB.

175

of that water

the formation of 183 grains of lime will cause dealing with 6000 to are soap, and if in a boiling of soap we then the

7000 gallons of water

lime in that water

will result
getting
the texture

in the formation

of 16 to 17 lb. of lime
must

soap, which

into the finished soap

of that soap. For
to have

have

some

influence

on

all practical purposes the

same

the sulphate

may

be

considered
which
In
contains some
as

action

as

the carbonate.
use as a

The
as

soap-maker

will desire to
magnesia

water
can

littlelime and
help
He

he

get.

cases comes

he cannot
to

himself, but must

can,

take

the water

it of

him.
or

however,

adopt
the

some

method

softening
water.

otherwise this purpose

removing

lime, etc., from and appliances

the
are

For

several methods

available.

original Clark process may be adopted, which hardness of the the temporary consists in first determining
water

The

and

then

adding

so

much

quick-lime
when

as

will combine

with the carbonic

of lime
or

acid in the water,

of magnesia added

both the carbonate originally present in the water and

the Ume

will precipitate out, and on allowing the precipitate to settle in tanks the water becomes clear and is is tedious, is softened. A modification of this plan, which
process, where
the water

the Porter-Clark

and lime

are

mixed

together in proper
a

proportions

and

the mixture

sent

through

filtering apparatus. A better method is the ArchbuttDeeley process, in in a tank with which the water is mixed the requisite amount of a mixture of carbonate of soda and lime, and the blown with air for a short time, after mixture
the precipitate is allowed to settle and the clear liquor drawn off. This process works ness well ; it will reduce the hardfrom 16" to 17" down to 3" with ease of a water and have also been devised for softenrapidity. Other methods ing

which

water,

and

it would

be worth
a

while
water

for the
to

soap-maker it before

if he is working

with

very

hard

soften

176

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

using.

It does would
out.

not

cost much,
a

while

the operation

of making

the soap

be easier and
Then for
where

be turned

better quality of soap would is also used in the the water

another advantage
would
a

steam-boiler
accrue,

and

raising steam that is the reduction

of scale in the boiler and

necessary

reduction

in the coal bill.

CHAPTER
SOAP MAGHINEBY.

VI.

The

plan

on

which

the present

chapter

is based will be that

of following the materials, the fats and

oils and

alkalies, used
needful
to

in soap-making,

through

the
a

various

operations

their transformation
various machines

into they

bar

of soap, and

describing
that

the

pass

through

during

process.

Incidentally,

little may

be

said about
the operation

soap-making,

but

it
or

is not. intended

to describe

of soap-making

the process of making that

any

kind of soap in any

detail, reserving

chapter. portion of the subjectfor a subsequent Care will be taken to point out the principles on which the is based, and to show the best working of the machinery methods It is
a

of working.

difficult matter
of
a

to give
so

general
much

advice
depends and

on

the construction

soap
as

factory,

upon

local

features, such

site, relations to railways

area

waterways, have

proportion of floor
a

to vertical height, all of which

material influence on the planning of efficient soap works. It is always best to have as much floor area as possible, so
great

that the
one

majorityof
One
so

the factory

buildings
should

shall kept

be in

storey and

in height.
that
as

little point
the

be

mind,
works soap

is to

plan

various

portions

of the

that

the operation
they

of making

fats and
room

alkalies into
to
room

progresses

will travel

from

in

steady way,
gone
over.
as

without
Another

having
point

to traverse

any
as

ground much

previously of

is to take

advantage

gravity

possible in the transference

12

of oils,fats, and

alkalies

178

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

from labour

one

place

to

another

it

comes

much

cheaper

than

in carrying
"

about.
The
soap-maker

The Alkalies.
or

caustic soda
a

receives his caustic potash in large iron drums, containing the alkalies

solid form ; this it is needful to reduce to a liquid form by dissolving it in water. In many soap works this is done by breaking out the caustic from the drum, which by-the-bye is a most unpleasant operation for the workmen engaged, into an iron tank usually placed the lumps and throwing
somewhere
mass on

in

the

ground

floor ; water

is

run no

in and
means

the the

boiled vnth

the aid of steam.

This is by
defect which the

best method
met

of working. in old soap

Another

is sometimes
tank
as

with
or

works,

is having
floor.

top of the
a

level

nearly

so

with

the

This

is

bad

fault,

in the way there is great liabilityfor accidents to happen operatives falling into the lye with disastrous results.
the usual plan of dissolving the caustic,
one
source

of

In

of trouble

is met

into a solid cake with, that of the caustic forming at the bottom of the tank and refusing to dissolve, the lye thereby being weaker than it would otherwise be.
The

best method
a

of making
a room

the soda
or

or

potash

lyes is to

provide

tank

put in

place above

the soap-boiling

kettles ; part swing syphon

of running

of this tank

tube should
off the lye.

be placed below the floor ; a be placed in the tank for the purpose
may

For this purpose

or

sjrphon tube
on

has many

a simple advantages over A grating should side of the tank.

fixed tap placed

the

be fixed in.the top of the in the extend

tank

justbelow

the

surface

of the liquor contained

on

tank ; this grating may from

be placed

supports

which

On this grating the drums side to side of the tank. out, are placed. of caustic, which have had the ends knocked The water penetrating into the drum gradually dissolves out the caustic ; the solution, being heavier than the water, sinks
to

the

bottom

of the tank,

constant

circulation of fresh

ALKALI

TANKS.

179

water

or

weak
so

liquor passing

through

the drum

becoming

of the goes to the bottom solved. tank. This goes on until all the caustic in the tank is disless labour in the This method means of working handling of the caustic, which is of some ; there advantage

stronger in

doing, which

then

is

no

undissolved

caustic formed

at the

bottom

of the tank,

while the operation is done somewhat quicker. Figure 25 is an illustration of a tank constructed

on

these

principles.

Fig.

26.

The

following

table gives

some

idea of the

most

useful filled

sizes of tanks, with

to within
one

their capacities in gallons, when

top, a^nd the

foot of the

weight number

of caustic of

77 per cent, strength contained lye of various strengths.

in the

of gallons of

180

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

Sometimes
mechanical

using

such

cylindrical form, fitted with in stirrers, are used, but there is no advantage over the form just described, and the stirrer
lye tanks

of

absorbs

power

to drive it, which

it is desirable to avoid

if

possible. Fat-melting
small

Tanks.

"

Although
open

it is

custom

with

some

soap-makers
as

to break

the casks

of tallow, oil, or
the contents

other soap-stock

they receive them,

as

and throw

into the soap-kettle

not to be commended,

is required to make soap, such a course dirt, as the fats, etc., may contain much
Then,

all of which

goes into the soap-kettle.

again, the casks

Fig.

26.

are

liable to be broken rosin out.

trough The

up

in getting
course

and
a

best

to

solids as tallow is to provide pursue

such

shallow

and

about the width sufliciently long to accommodate

the
on

of the
a

length

of

cask

number
two

of barrels.
stout

Along

top

of this trough
the barrels

are are

placed held

wooden the
the

supports,

which

trough, bunghole bunghole,

the tallow

downwards.
a

in position over Into each barrel, through

from and

is

run

steam

or

other

pipe, the steam fat to melt soap

the melted

which causes into the run

trough

below, from

whence

fat flows

into

large

settling tank into which

all dirt, etc., drop

out, while the clear

FAT

TANKS.

181

melted fat is run

shows

as

required into the soap-kettle.

Figure

26

this arrangement.

it is possible to place the fat tanks above the soap-kettle, so that the fat can flow by gravity into is not always the kettle. This, however, possible, and then
It is best wherever
some
means

must

be found

to transfer

the melted

fat from
means

the tank
a

to the kettle above.

This

may

be done
on,

by

of

pump,

such

as

will be found transference

described later is effected by

but in many
of what

soap works

the
a

means

is

often named

stock-blower.

Fig.

27.

The

stock-blower

is shown

in figure 27.

It consists of

be made can air-tight and placed cylindrical vessel which upright ; a little above the bottom is placed a dished false bottom with a hole in the centre ; this is for the purpose of allowing bottom,
kettle.
any

dirt and
prevents passes
steam

water

to

settle out

under

the

false soapto the

which A pipe
A

them
the

from

getting

into the

from

bottom
steam

of the vessel

soap-kettle.

pipe passes

into the

top of the

vessel, and the pressure

of this forces the stock into the soap-

kettle.

182

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

Soap-boiling
soap, alkali and

Kettles

or

Pans.

"

In

the

manufacture

of

fat

are
are

commonly

boiled together.
These
can

This
are

is
most al-

carried out in what invariably made

other materials.
the

called soap-kettles.

of iron, although size

can,

they

be built of
to

The

of

course,

be proportioned
made, and

quantity

of material
on

which

has to be

something

will be said soap-kettles soap from

works
a

were

this point shortly. In olden times these by fire, but in modern heated always
heated

they

are

by steam,
may

sent
or

into the
not

kettle

steam

boiler.

This

steam

may

be super-

FiG.

28.

heated.

Steam

heating

has

many

advantages

over

fire
to

heating.

It is cleaner ; then

again

less labour is required together

"

keep the materials in the pan well mixed of the steam heated
nearest

the passage

through

the
a

mass

ensures

this.

Then

in

fire-

pan
to

there is
or

risk that

those

portions hot

of the kettle

in contact
and

with the
any soap the

fire or

fire gases
thereto thereby
a

will will

become become

overheated,

contiguous
pan

burnt
The

or

charred, and
great

of soap

discoloured
of

difficulty there

is in keeping

pan

pasty

soap

well stirred up by hand

adds to this danger, which

SOAP-KETTLES.

183 Then
over

is quite
another only

absent point.

from

steam-heated

pan.

there

is

Soap

is very liable to froth

and

fob, the

and
case

for which is to draw the fire or shut ofif steam In the allow the kettle and its contents to cool down. of a fire-heated pan this is by no means easy, and should
remedy
of the
no

any

soap

materials

boil

over

and

get into the

fire,

With a steam-heated might happen. pan, shutting off the steam is all that need be done. Figure 28 is a drawing of a fire-heated kettle. The kettle
there is

telling what

Fig.

29. Steam

Soap-pan.

A may

by brickwork B size ; it is supported to serve the as B, the upper portions P P of which are made the contents of the kettle are working platform from which fireplace C is at one The side, and the heat manipulated. be made
of any and gases from E is the ashpit. As the fire pass
round
the kettle in flues D

D ;

fire heating is going

to describe such

out

of

use

not needful

heated

in soap-making, it is detail. kettles in more

Steam

is

now

almost

pans, except

perhaps

universally used for heating soapFigure 29 is a drawing in small works.

184
a

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

of

steam-heated shows

soap-pan, the
manner

made

by

Messrs.

W.

Eraser pans

"
are

Co., which
usually

in which

steam

constructed.

This pan

is made,
a

riveted together ;
centre
serves

circular in shape, of stout boiler plates flange running round the pan about its
as

to act

its support,
from.

and

for constructing

platform
and

to work

the pan

It is fitted with

both open

closed steam

coils.
The open

This is almost

absolutely necessary during

the

in soap-pans.

coil is employed

first

portions of a boil, while the closed coil is used at the last. The pipe fitted with a chain on the left of the figure is a draw-off pipe (theskimmer pipe as it is called)for the finished
soap,
convey

and

is connected
soap
to

with

pipes
or

outside
crutchers

the
as

pan, which may

the The

the frames
at the

opening
lyes, and

bottom
that

of the pan purpose

be required. is for running

with

off the
valves and

is for

connected

pipes leading to the spent lye tanks. It is customary with large pans to fix two open
coils,so that the degree
under of boiling
can

and

two

closed steam regulated

were

be better
steam

and

control than is possible if all the

one

sent

through

coil, for it must

certain amount pressure

steam.

of pressure

of the

materials

is required in the pan

be obvious that a to overcome the back

against
on
a

that

of

the

If

one

large coil is turned

full

then

the bpihng
were

might

be too strong ; if the steam

might
not

in such

coil

turned

partly off the pressure

materials in the pan, whereas

small
steam

by

be sufficient to work having one large and full

on

the
one

either, there
overcome
a

the valve is turned coil, when is certain to be sufficient steam

in
to

pressure small
a

that of the soap in the pan.

With

the

coil

gentle

boil

can

boil. A pressure
at.

be obtained, with of 45 to 60 lb. is a

the large coil very good

one

strong

to work

It is not

customary

to enclose

the soap-pans

in any

way.

SOAP-PANS.

185
hood
has been

but in

one

or

two

soap

works

wooden

fitted

above the pan

up to
a

in prolongation
the
pan,

floor above
through

of its sides ; this is continued this, floor rises a while from

shaft, passing with the hood

of conveying
away from

to the outside, and

in communication
serves

below.
the
steam

This chimney
which

shaft

the purpose

rises from

the

boiling soap
of the
over

the pan, and The hood

therefore adds
serves

to the comfort

workmen.

also

to

prevent

boiling

should the soap To prevent these may

begin
the

to fob very

much. the

loss of heat

from

sides of the

pans,

be coated This

with is not

with boards.

composition non-conducting done, still it is a always

and
very

desirable addition, and facilitates the separation of the lye from the soap by enabling the latter to retain its heat, and
so

keep fluid longer.

In
are

some

soap works

instead of being made

far
as

circular the pans is concerned

over

made

square.
no

So

practical working
of
one

there is

material
the
to

advantage

form

another.

As regards
any dimensions

size of soap-pans,
suit

these
of

may

be

made

of

the

quantity
large

soap

which
are

it is

desired to make.

Generally

soap-pans

easier to

manipulate and deal with than small pans ; the yield of soap is usually greater, while it is of better quality and freer from
enclosed lye. There

is

maximum

about 30 tons capacity, beyond It may be taken as a general rule that

a

size, however, a pan of it is not wise to go^ which

1 cwt

of fat requires
proportion lye

pan of about

40 gallons capacity

to boil to soap, that

room

being

required

to give

for the
room

aqueous

which is added, with A pan of about 15

the

necessary

for boiling.
same

feet deep, and

of the

diameter,

26 to 28 tons of soap in at one to make willbe large enough batch. A pan of 7 feet in diameter and 6^ feet in depth, wall be large enough to deal with 1^ tons of fat, giving about 2 to 2 J tons of soap. figures. These are but approximate

186

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

The

soap-pans

should
the

not

be
or

placed

too

far from

the

boilers supplying risk of condensation this condensed

the

steam,

otherwise

there

is

great

occurring

in the connecting
into the pan
an

pipes, and and weakens the

water

finds its way

lyes, while increasing

The

to too great
to objection

extent
as

bulk of

the contents.

main

the pan

constructed

in the

manner

in the way

in figure 28 is that the various coils are This, however, is not of the pan being cleaned out.

shown

Fig.
an

30.

insuperable

and objection,
are

much

depends

on

the

manner

in which

the coils

made
out

and placed in the pan ; besides it

the pan
every

is not needful
whatever

to clean

time

it is used, as
or

soap remains coils goes change

adhering

to the sides of the pan

on

the

steam
a

into the

next
one

batch
soap

and
to

so

is not lost.
the pan

When
must

is made

from

another

be cleaned out. The steam which is passed

through

the closed

steam

coil

SOAP-PANS.

187
and the water
so

should be

passed

through

condensers,

tained ob-

again returned the caustic lyes. Steam

employed

to the

boiler, or employed

in making

jacketed soap-pans
in soap-making.

have

been
are,

made

and

are

Such

pans

however,

only

suitable in small sizes, say up to 500 gallons

capacity ; large
than
a

jacketed pans
pan with
a

become
coil.

much

more

expensive

simple

steam

Fig.

31.

Figure

30

shows

Dopp's

seamless

steam

jacketed pan.

This pan has the jacket cast along with the pan proper, and hence is stronger than pans in which the jacketis fastened 1 to in all sizes, from to the pan with rivets. It is made
500 gallons

capacity.

The

stays

which

join the
the inner

inner

pan

with the outer

they
serve
as

shell materially
conductors

strengthen
to the

vessel, while
pan.

of heat

Thus

188 these pans

pans.

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

are

more
can

economical

in
an

use

than

plain
as

jacketed
in

They

be fitted with
very

agitator,
to check

shown

figure 31, and

to mix

will be found the soap ingredients

of the troubles

useful

fobbing and

together.

One
as

of the soap-maker of the soap

mass

is that of fobbing
at the beginning

it is called, the tendency

to froth
or

of operations
by turning

boil up.
and

This defect is best remedied

the froth by
means

off the steam

beating down

be employed. of paddles ; better still a whirling wheel may in figure 32. It is attached to the sides of Such is shown
the soap-pan handle
at
one

by

means

of loose of the

brackets and
It acts

is turned breaking

by

end

axle.

by

up the

Fig.

32.

foam,

or

froth, and
a

so

preventing form

it increasing

in quantity.
consisting of
are

Sometimes
a

more

elaborate revolving

is employed,

pair of paddles
at
a

in opposite

directions ; these

suspended

revolution

the

suitable point in the soap-pan, and by their creasin froth is broken from inup and prevented
paddles
are

The

held

in

Y-shaped

support, the
a

legs of the connected motion

forming

the

bearing gearing

for the overhead

more

paddles,

pulley

with

suitable

to the paddles.

Although
more

communicating doubtelaborate it is ful

the reel described

whether

they

are

effective than

above.
A great
deal

of soap is

now

being made

under

pressure

in

suitable boiler.

SOAP-PANS.

189
a

Messrs.

W.

Fraser

"

Co.

make

high-pressure

soapboiler,

which
diameter and

is shown

in figure 33.
and

This boiler is 4 feet in

of steel boiler plate ;
cover.

8 feet high

is made
and

it is fitted with usually attached

steel manhole
are

The

fittings

and

valve

shown

pipe and valve, outlet pipe charging mometer at the bottom of the illustration, therthermometer,
a

tube

and

safety

valve

which

is

usually set to blow is set in

a

The boiler off at 65 or 70 lb. pressure. fireplace, the fire playing at the bottom brickwork

Fig.

33.

and
on

portion

of the

side.
are

The

the side of the

boiler

which for supporting it on

brackets

are

fitted

work. the brick-

by putting in the charge of fat, the right quantity of alkali and water, then heating and maintaining
pans
are

These

worked

the pressure
when
soap
as a

at 60 to 65 lb. for about

four to five hours,

rule
next

the

saponification
run

will be

complete.
the
scent,

The
etc.,

may

be

off into

crutchers,

mixed

with

it,and then

it is framed.

The

pan

is ready

for

190

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

a run

new

charge, off.
Two

which

is

run

in immediately
may

the

old

one

is
one

batches
of
a

of soap
day.

thus

be

made

in
charge

pan

in the

course

The

weight

of the

is

1 ton.

The

soap

as

made

in this is no

manner

contains
nor

the whole
are

of the

ingredients added
to
run

; there

salting out
success

there any lyes

soap by

away.

A great deal of the

system

of making

this high-pressure proportion if too much

An

depends

upon

employing
quantity

the right

of alkali to fat and

the proper
out

of water

be used the soap

a

comes

too soft.

analysis of

sample

of soap showed

made

by the high-pressure
:
"

system

by the author
20*70 per cent, 5-66 per cent,

it to contain

of water. of combined

sodium.

"36 per cent, of free alkali.

68*00 per cent,

of combined

fat.

"20 per cent, of free fat. 5*09 per cent,

of glycerine, saline bodies.

The shows
as

sample

was

firm

and

of excellent
can

quality, which
as

that the high-pressure

system

system

make
use,

good soap
a

the low-pressure of soap other

can

commonly
out

in
a

while

larger

quantity
Some high

be turned
of

in

given time.
under

forms

apparatus devised,
some

for saponifying

pressure
a

have

been

consist of

boiler fitted with

as

agitators ;

practically these have in practice

the boilers difl"cult advantage.

of which

become
to

obsolete,
out

the

agitators made
of
no

clean

and

were

material

SOAP

FRAMES.

The the old soap

names

next

kind

of soap
as

plant
are

which

frames

they

called.

merits description is It is astonishing how

of machinery,
ever how-

still adhere they

may
was

to modern

forms
the

much

differ from
due.

original form
are

to which

their first name

Soap

frames

case

in point.

SOAP

FBAMBS.

191

In the early days, they

the soap
was
a

were

frame-like
Now
name

structure,

allowed
more

to cool.

they would
soap

take

in which box-like

form, and Figure

appropriate
an

be soap coolers.
such
as
was on

34 shows

old wooden
an

frame had

used in the soap. These

old time
frames
were

when
are

excise duty

to be paid

made

45 in. long by 15 in. wide.

one on

number
one

of them

placed

top of another,
were

pegs in through

fitted into holes in the other,

one

or

rods

passed

the lot to form

to 11 cwts.

large box The

of about

45 in. deep

holding
were

of soap. wooden

dimensions
soap frames

here
are

given

fixed

by law. in
a

These

now

only employed soaps,

or

limited

manner,

chiefly for making

mottled

soaps by the cold process.

^
"Fig.
34.

^
a

The

modern
on as

soap frame
small
may

usually consists of
so

wooden moved

base
from

board, placed
place to place is built four

wheels

that it may

be

be convenient.
or

Upon

this base board

so
as

sides of wrought
are

cast iron

to

form
nuts,

box ; these sides

fastened apart

together
whenever of
a

by bolts and required. frame

as

so

that they
Figure

can

be taken

35

is the

drawing
"

soap

made
are

by

Messrs. E.
of cast
on

Forshaw
and

Son,

the

sides of which strengthening

the

made
cast

iron
The

have

diagonal

bars

them.

mode

of fastening

sides of the

frame

together differs in different makes portions of the sides through which rods
are

of the frames

; sometimes

prolonged

into lugs containing

the
ends

holes frames
screw

pass,

binding

of the

against the sides, the ends of the rods being secured

by

192
The

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

nuts.

ends

of the frame
so as

are

generally made
as

to fit into

grooves
thus

in the sides

to make

tight

as joint

possible,

preventing

the leakage of soap.

In the frame

illustrated
All

the ends fitinto grooves

which
so

are as

planed
to
ensure

into the sides. the frame

edges and bottoms

perfectly tight when

are

planed

being
fasten

fitted together.
have
square

The

bolts which
It
can

the frame
round
on

together the two

threads. and
moved

be swivelled direction.

centre
are

wheels made

in any

These

soap

franies

to hold

from

5 to 10 cwts. of

Fig.

36.

Iron

Soap

Frame.

soap ; small sized frames

are

allow the

soap

to cool quicker and

than large frames, in which the advantageous In the making of mottled soaps and slower. cooling is much kinds, slow cooHng is a desideratum, and sundry other special large frames. therefore it is worth while to employ the sides are made The thickness of the metal of which

thus

more

has also the

material

influence
the
rate

on

the

rapidity of coohng.

metal

be thick
to

of cooling is slow metal of

a

ever, ; it is,how-

necessary

have

the

certain thickness to

withstand

the pressure

of the soap

in the frame.

SOAP

FRAMES.

193 patent soap frame.

and

Figure 36 represents Whitaker's frame is made

This

with

wooden

bottom

sheet-ii:on sides, quickly, and with thick iron sides ribs of in the drawing.
are

which being
80

thin allow

the heat

to pass away

the soap gets cold quicker than in frames plates. To give the necessary rigidity to the as shown corrugated iron are fastened to them
The ends
are

made

of wooden

planks and

tightened

of clamps, which are easily worked, against the sides by means out in a few and permit the frame to be built up or opened

Fig.

36.

Whitaker's

Soap

Frame.

minutes.

In

such

frames

soap

cools sufficiently in from

thirty-fiveto forty-eight hours, according to the time of year, to strip and follows : A good frame may be made as slab. The sides are made of steel plate of about ^ in. thick, the ends sides
are are

made

of wood

of

IJ in. thick, along

irons, the
web
so

the ends
that

of the

placed

1^ in.

angle

projects
the

being tapered from

the top

to the

bottom,

that when

frame is built up, the bent clamp forced down, the tapered irons Close to the top press the sides and ends together. fastened angle irons which and along the sides are
13

project

194

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

beyond,

these

serving projections
or

as

handles
apart

to manipulate

the sides with in building up

these,
two

taking

the frame
are

sides ; be-

other

longitudinal
of
of

angle

irons

fixed to The

the

sides

for

the

purpose

strengthening
a

them. of about

bottom

of the firame is made

piece of wood

IJ

Fig.

37.

Morgan's

Soap

Frame.

to 2 in. thick ; in the centre

a

of this is fixed
the frame
are

an

axle carrying

pair of 9 in. wheels,

near

on

which

can

will ;

each

end

and
to

in the centre
on a

be moved at fixed a pair of 4J

in. wheels, these small

fro of the

arranged end

move

swivel like a caster wheel;

wheels
and

much

facilitate the it round

moving

to and

frame

turning

if desired.

Such

SOAP

FRAMES.

195

frame 55 in. in length, by

these measurements

40 in. in depth

and

15 in. wide,
10 cwts.

being inside, will hold about

of

soap.

Figure

37

is

drawing

of

soap

frame

made

by

Mr.

H. D. Morgan,
country

of wrought

steel, which

is patented This
frame

in this is made
stiffened

and

in

the

United

States.
hammered
and

of special
at the
a

mild

steel plates

flat, and
along the

upper

edge
to

by

flanging,

beaded
so

flange

prevent

is

formed the
end

that, should and thus

a

The warping. any soap leak past

sides by flange beaded

the

tween jointbe-

side, it is cooled

in the

cavity before it
The

can

get away,

preventing

the

leakage.

sides and
to receive

ends fit into

cast-iron base

iron plate grooved

them.
Bolts and
are so

nuts

are

entirely dispensed
that they both
the

with.

The

clamping

bars

shaped pull

bind the sides against against

the

the ends

and

ends

tightly

beaded

It is

good ends.

plan
Then

to

have

two
one

bottoms
bottom

to each

pair of
and

sides and
soap
on

while

is in

use

the

it is being

slabbed

and

barred, the
and made

other

bottom
a

is
to

being fitted to the sides and be filledwith soap.

In
some

ends

into

frame

factories they
of the frame fit

have
so

tracks

of
can

rails to- which be

more

the wheels moved

that

they

easily

about. All iron frames

should would

be coated

inside with

Ume
This

to

prevent rusting, which

discolour the soap.

defect

of iron frames

is absent with wood ones ; these gradually get their pores filled up with soap and the sides become

in the stripping of the soap, while leaving the sides of the soap smooth and glossy. Iron frames iron would be found of service in soapmade from enamelled

smooth,

which

aids much

making;

there

would

be

no

tendency

to

rust,

while

the

196

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

smooth

impart a gloss to iron would sides of the enamelled the soap, besides allowing stripping to be done more easily. if when an In framing soaps it will be found advantage into the frames and has set on the the soap has been run top, a board which justfits the frame be placed on the top
of the and soap and of then
a

weighted;

thereby This

the soap

is pressed
of the soap

becomes

better grain.

weighting

is not always

done.
SLABBING

SOAP.

After the soap has

been

framed

and

it has become

sufficiently

cool for the purpose,

the next

proceeding

is to cut it

"J
Fig. 38.

up

into slabs of about 2 inches thick, or for the particular size of tablets which
to send out.

as

may

be required

the soap-maker

proposes

Slabbing
machine.

may

be

carried
a

out

either

by

hand the

or

by
of

Figure

38 is

drawing

showing

method

slabbing soap by hand. The by means of a scribe along cut ; this scribe is a wooden
proper

block of soap has its sides marked it has to be the lines of which
rod containing

iron points at the with

a

distance apart.

The

workman of which

is provided
are

long

piece of steel wire, the ends

to two

sometimes
to
one.

fastened
This

handles,

or

in

some

instances

wire
drawn

is fitted to the

mark

made

by

the

scribe, and

then

SLABBING

MACHINES.

197

through, thereby

dividing

slab

of soap

from

the

is repeated operation until the whole has been so slabbed. is very simple This method of working but effective ; it is still largely employed in preference to
using machines. Ralston's

block. This

main block

slabbing which

machine
shows

is represented

in the

grammati dia-

sketch

the principle of the machine

and
can

figure 39). It is a portable machine, (see

be wheeled
It consists

about from

place to place

as

occasion

may

demand.
at

of four

pillars, one

at

each

corner,

such

distances

Fig.

39.

apart that

block

of soap
can

can

be

placed

between

them,

or

rather that
one

the machine
a

be placed

round up

the block.

At
on

end is

block of wood

which

takes

the

pressure

the block of soap

while it is being cut.

a

The

cutting arrangement wires placed at

that

consists of
the proper
means

frame

carrying

horizontal
so

distance
and

apart ; this is

made

it

can

by

of chains

windlass

be drawn

along

the machine,

and

wires cut the soap up into slabs. The is fairly quick, and is capable of doing action of the machine a large form of slabbing machine Another of work. amount therefore
the

198

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

sold by Messrs beams of wood

trolley provided the

A.

Saalfeld

"
on

Co.

consists of two
on

parallel
runs a

supported

tressels;
on

this

with soap.

wheels,
In the

this trolley being of the

block
a

of

centre

placed is machine
can

stretched

wire, the
so

height

of which

above

the trolley
can

be regulated
The

that
on

slabs of various thicknesses

the trolley is pushed

be cut.
direction,
the

block of soap
and then

first in

one

after raising the wire

to the right

extent

is reversed and another direction of the machine slab cut. These operations are repeated until the block of soap is cut into slabs. A similar machine has been made to Ealston's and sold by some The other firms of soap machinists. construction There is a bed be briefly described. of this machine may
formed carrying
At

of

grooved

girders, in

which
and
a

wires,

travels backwards end

upright forwards.

an

frame,

the of
an

opposite
upright working chains

is fixed

triangular

arrangement

formed during with

frame

the

block, against which the soap is There of the machine. that passing
over

is pressed
a

windlass the wire

attached through

pulleys draw
so

the block of soap, and of this machine

The

working
the

from

frame

is placed

on

is simple. the bed of the

divide it into slabs. The block of soap machine,

then

the triangular winding properly

has

gear is placed the windlass

and

in position, the chains When

are

a adjusted,nd

turned.

the soap

been

slabbed

the windlass
away

chains

removed,

the

slabs of soap taken is ready for another

Another Saalfeld
"

to be

barred, when

the machine

block

of soap.

is sold by Messrs. Adolphe machine which to cut a block of soap up Co. is constructed
in
one

into bars
one one

operation.

It consists

of

table

near

end

of which

is

frame

carrying

two

sets

of wires, end

the

At vertical, the other horizontal. table is a rack and pinion, which

the
on

other

of

being

worked

SLABBING

MACHINES.

199

causes

block of soap which

may
so

forced against the wires, and machine is not, as a rule, found of soap, power.
In
as

be put on the table to be Such a cut into bars.

for large blocks
great

well adapted

the power

required

is then

too

for hand

all modern
so

slabbing

machines

the

wires

are

made
to cut

movable,

that they may

or

be set at any

gauge

apart

up soap into slabs

bars of any

convenient

size.

It is im-

FiQ. 40.

Soap

Waggon.

portant that these wires should be tightly stretched, so that into contact with the soap they will not they come when sag or bend in any way, such bending if it occurs spoiling the slab for cutting into bars or tablets. is the best material to make wires of. Stout piano wire

Figure
of soap
to

40

shows

soap

waggon

for wheeling

the

slabs
are

the bar-cutting the

machines.
swivels round

The
on

wheels

so

arranged

that

truck

the

two

large

200 in
a

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

wheels

the

direction,

middle, feature of
waggons.

and
no

allows

easy

movement

in any

little importance

in the construction

of soap

BARRING

MACHINES.

After being them

cut into slabs, the next

proceeding

is to cut
have
;

into bars.

The

variety of machines

devised to carry out this operation hand-power are machines used, but
also made.

which is fairly great

mechanical

been

generally
ones
are

Fig.

41.

Figures

41 and
common

42 show

the most works.

"

different makes of what form of barring machine in use

made

is perhaps

in soap

Figure

41 is the form

by Messrs.
by

W.

J. Fraser

Co., while
"

figure 42

is that

made

Messrs.
a

William

Neill
an

Son.

This
on

machine

consists of
near

upright with

frame;

the table about

a

the

table carrying front is the long

that

rest

notches

at

2 inches

apart, From

being
back

the

usual

thickness machine table;

frame

that

bar

is made.

the

of

the

to the

framework, springs another this in its normal position previously

referred

which
rests

is hinged

upright

to, forming,

against the it were, as

BABBING

MACHINES.

201

slab of soap is placed the rest at the front of the table, and the with one edge on The cutting frame is now other against the wires. released from the hook or catch which keeps it up, and pressed down
an

hypotenuse

of

triangle.

The

through the soap, whereby the latter is cut into bars. These bars fall upon a rest which is fixed to the back of the cutting frame, and when the latter is returned to its normal position
are

removed

while

another

slab is being

placed in position.

Fig.

42.

Generally these machines

are

provided

with

drawer
are

placed
always

under the table to receive the scraps of soap which in cutting up soap. These made scraps are thrown

afterwards

into the

next

boiling of soap.
are are

These
and
out

work very well and machines being simple in construction

not

very

expensive,

not

liable to get

of order.

London

firm supplies

barring

machine
so

in which
when
a

the

wire frame

is made

to travel to and

fro,

that

slab

202

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

of soap is placed in front of the frame, and has been cut up into bars, these may be removed and another slab put in

their place.

Then

cuts this second

back again and the wire frame is moved This machine a saves great slab into bars.
is of comparatively

deal of labour, and A barring

is in use which not only cuts the slab up into bars, but separates

machine

simple structure. in some soap works them

from
Thi"

one

another

afterwards, thus facilitating their removal.

the cutting

is effected by having
a

table.
a

On

one

wires fixed in the centre of half, the slab to be cut is placed ; by means-

of

wheel

and

cut.

The

chain the slab is forced against the wires and bars are received on the other half of the table,,
up of wooden
are

which
soap.

is made
These

bars of the width

together

of

bar

of

connected

receiving the soap they are is in position the webbing

separated.

While webbing. the Soap close together, but when by is stretched, and
so

the bars

are

After being cut into bars, the soap is often cut into tablets ; this operation is carried out in the barring machines described
or

which

are

adapted

for the purpose,

the distance apart of

the wires being

altered.
a

Figure
cuts

43 represents up

machine

worked and of

by power,

slabs of soap
that
to
one

into bars
two
;

tablets.
placed

which It will be
at

noticed
angles
that

it has
another

sets

wires
are

right
so

these

wires

their
and

distance
tablets,

apart, may

and

-made therefore the

as

movable size of

the
A

bars

be

regulated

required.

end of the machine and slab of soap is placed at one forced against the barring wires; when it has travelled to in that direction the full length the of the machine

tablet-cutting wires by mechanism By the time the at right angles. working is ready to receive another tablets have been cut the machine
of soap
are

bars

forced

against

the

slab.

This

machine

is capable

of turning

out

very large

BAKBING

MACHINES.

203

of quarirtity soap, something like 15 tons per day, and saves a great deal of trouble. Other forms of tablet-cutting machines have been devised,

but the above will be found very efficient machines and itis not needful to describeany other forms.

Fig. 43.

SOAP-STAMPING

MACHINERY.

when soap was sold by the makers to the in retailer the form of bars,in boxes of 1 or 2 cwt., and the cut the bars up into pound pieces and sold them retailer eitherin that form or in the bar form in which he received
was

Time

of the maker of the soap he used. Now, however, matters have alteredin done in bar soap, thisrespect,for while a good trade is still and those consumers who are able willfind itthe best to buy
consumer

it. Often the

did not know the name

the soap in this way, the custom

has

now

grown of selling

204

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

in packets,
the
name

or

tablets, and maker

these
of the

are

invariably stamped
some

of the

soap, although
the

with large
own

retailers by
names

arrangement
on

with

maker

have

their

stamped
a

the soap.
use

This

stamping

of soaps

has
and

led to these

great increase in the

of stamping

machines,

be described. will now At first, now, a great deal of soap and even hand
a

is stamped
a

by

stamp,

such
The

being
letters

usually made
are

like

brass box

with
and

handle.
means

formed
are

these, by

of thumb

screws,

of separate pieces, fastened in the box slow

one,

in the required order.

an

This

system
a

is

although of tablets

expert stamper adopts

a

will get through

system

large number

if he

good

large quantities of soap have

to employ
a

But very where of working. to be dealt with it is imperative

makes

stamper, mechanical to be bought ; some work

of which by hand,

there

are

many
steam

others by

press, so far at any rate as the appearance of the finished tablet is the soap is pressed. concerned, is the mould or die in which

by steam to work power, and others are constructed A brief risuntA of such madhines will be given. important One of the most parts of the stamping

direct.

Generally in most
to

form

the

this takes the form of two pieces, machines upper and lower surfaces of the soap tablet,
a

together with
the

tablet.

loose ring which to form serves the body of By altering the form of the ring, and by the

shape which
mould

of the upper and lower dies, the shape of the tablet This form of is formed can be altered to any extent. with loose ring is perhaps not the best that could be
tends
to stick in the ring.
a

devised ; the soap by moistening time.

The

This is

come over-

it with

little salt water

from time
to
remove

to

delay, however,
them

caused

by having

the

soap tablets from

presses.

reduces

the working

output

of the

in

one

This is avoided by making the ring and bottom die Ufting piece and fitting the press with an automatic

STAMPING

MACHINES.

205 during will be

apparatus

which

presses the tablet out

press.

the upstroke

of the
on.

This

of the mould lifting apparatus

shown

later

With pieces and

some

presses
are

the

tablet moulds
on

are

in

separate The

the sides

hinged

to the bottom

piece.

press on this is to press all the sides up, and When for the soap. the tablet has been 80 form a mould formed and the press returned, the sides fall down leaving
action of the

Fig.

U.

the tablet
a

to be removed.

With

moulds

made

in this way

much Hand

larger output

of tablets per machine

"

is obtained.
soap presses

Soap

Presses.

Several forms The

a

of hand

are

made

by various firms. Figure

Neill "
44 shows

principal forms
of press
made

noted.

form

will be here by Messrs.

can

William
grasped

Son.

The

action

of this machine

be

by

an

inspection

of the drawing. the ring

or

A plunger

carrying

the upper

surface die and

mould

for the sides of

206

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

the tablet is connected

with
on

pair of weighted

levers, the
on
a

pulling

down

of which

the

piece of soap placed

the

bottom
quantity

die presses
of soap
one

the tablet.

With

this machine by
a

large
works

may

be got through

boy, who

the press with

hand,

while with

the other

he places the

Fig.

45.

Soap

Stamper.

it when in position and removes stamped. for automatically there is no arrangement machine
soap the

In

this

removing

tablet

of soap

from

the

press

or

mould,

and,

as

stated, the Messrs.

tablets sometimes
E. Forshaw

stick.
make
are

"

Son

the

soap

press shown
a

in figure 45.

In

it the levers

replaced

by

pair of fly-

STAMPING

MACHINES.

207
to be

wheels,

the

use

of which

brought

to bear upon
a

enables a greater pressure the soap during the pressing.

can

With

i;hismachine
and

fairlylarge output
This is
makes
a an

light to work. press. In some

be obtained. It is easy favourite form of soap-stamping arrangement is provided

for

lifting the tablets out of the moulds after stamping. been The presses hitherto described have worked
hand,
lever.

by foot H. be

but

presses
46

are

also
such

made
a

which

work by

by

Figure
Dopp

shows

press made

Messrs.
can

Wm.

" Son, the

general

construction

of which

Fig.

46.

readily foot
on

gleaned
the

from

the

drawing.

The
on

pressure
the
on

of the
of soap

on

lever brings thereby

down

the die

cake

the

mould,
the

stamping

it,while

releasing the

die rises and at the same comes time a cam into action and forces the soap cake out of the mould, this first introduced Since it was action being a noiseless one.
pressure

this machine
the

working

undergone parts have been

perfected.

has

some

improvement
and

in design ;
the working

strengthened,

of the machine

208

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

The
a

same

firms make
14 in. long.
come

press which

is capable

of taking

bar of soap We
now

to

those

stamping
presses
reasons

presses
are

which

are

worked

by

steana

power.

Such

into vogue

than

formerly,

but

for

coming have which

more

just

Fig.

47.

Steam

Soap

Stamper.

been

pointed
manual

out,

it is doubtful

whether

they

will supersede
are

presses.
:

Of steam

stamping in which

presses there
the steam

at

least two

types

there

is

one

is applied

is carried through a direct, while in the other the power band and pulley. Of these two types the latter will probably be the one largely adopted, not that will be most which

STAMPING

MACHINES.

209

it is capable of doing better or more than can able work be done with a direct driven press, but that the necessary

presence

having to be
rather

pipes, and the possibility of these distance, make the former carried for some
of steam
many

from objectionable
there
a

points
a

of view.

Over

long

distances of piping
through
condensation, in the pipes which of the presses.

is

considerable

loss of power

great deal of water

being

formed

interferes sadly with

the efficient working

One

of the best of the

steam

presses

now

being

is that of Messrs.

E. Forshaw

" Son,

and

shown

made in figure

Fig.

48.

and works well constructed automatically. It requires the aid of two boys to work it ; one boy places the plain tablet on the table of the machine, the other boy removes it as it comes from the niachine stamped. The

47.

It is very

machine

feeds

and

discharges

itself, it works
out 1600

noiselessly tablets of

and smoothly, soap per hour.

can

and
Any

is capable of turning

kind

of moulds

be changed
and who

very

has

readily. The been adopted by many

of it.

be used and they is rigidly constructed, machine

may

large soap

manufacturers,

speak favourably
a

Figure

48 shows

steam

soap
most

stamper

made

by Messrs.
construction.

Neill "

Son,

which

is of

substantial

14

210
It

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

works

automatically,
on
a

only

needing

be

placed

feeding

table, and machine

plain tablets to it discharges at the

the

back
out
a

of the machine. large quantity

This

is capable

of turning

of work,

forty to fifty tablets per minute

being

the rate of speed.

49

Figure
made

shows

by Messrs.

W.

belt-driven revolving soap stamper The soap is delivered to Neill " Son.
a

Fig.

49.

Revolving

Soap

Stamper.

this machine
passes

at the front by

an

automatic
and and

feeding apparatus, is delivered

turns at the
a

through
stamped.

the

dies

or

moulds,
to

back

It is easy

work

out

large

quantity Moulds

of tablets.
used
and made and

in stamping sizes and

to

soap

are

made

in great variety
of all kinds.

of shapes Some are

stamping

produce sides which

designs

with

loose

fall down

after the
;

permit

the soap

tablet to be readily removed

SOAP-MILLING

MACHINES.

211

the most them by Some

a

common

are

solid, and

the

tablet is forced out of

suitable contrivance.
other forms
serve

of presses
as

are

.made,

but the above

will

be sufficientto

types.

TOILET-SOAP

MACHINERY.

Time

was

when
or

all kinds

of soap,
uses, were

whether produced

for toilet,
solely by

ordinary domestic the aid of such Now, however,

a

industrial
as

machinery

has

hitherto

been

described.

great deal of the best quality of toilet soaps

the

is produced

by

aid of elaborate which

to
seems
a

machinery,
a

the
or

main

principle underlying of the

soap,
so
as a

to be
more

grinding
homogeneous

milling
mass,

produce

thereby obtaining

harder

and

more

durable
so

soap
a

and

completing

the saponification soap is formed

at the
same

of the fats

that

more

neutral

time.
first developed
where

This

system

France, where

was milling soaps it is largely applied, and

of

in

the construction
to
a

of the necessary

machinery

has been

brought

great

perfection. It
remembers
early London
a

was

early introduced
a

into England.

The writer
one

seeing

soap-milling

machine

at
never

of

the

Exhibitions,

but until lately it

;

obtained
however,

great footing

in this country

soap-makers

are,

beginning to give more attention to the system. this system has been largely used.
The need
must

In America

It starts with a ready-made soap. milling system be, nay, hardly be pointed out that the soap should hardly be expected be, of good quality, for it can that
can

first-class toilet soap

quality of soap, At a future time
preparation The

be made
the

by its
process

means

from

poor

although
some

much

improves
as

it.
the

particulars

will be given

to

of soaps for milling.

first operation
To

is to cut
a

the

soap bars up

into shavings.
one

effect this

cutting machine

is used,

form

of

212

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

which Wm.

is shown
Neill
of
"
a

in figure 60 and which is sold by Messrs. Son. The portion of this cutter working

disc carrying six steel blades placed against radial slits in the disc ; the bar of soap presses against the disc by its own fed in the two weight, the bars being
consists

troughs
The

which shavings
trays

are are

seen

on

each

side of the machine.

next
room

dried ; this may

heated

be done

by placing
room

them

on

in

by steam

pipes, the

Fig.

60.

Soap

Cutter.

being
soap

filled with

racks

on

which
the

to

place

the

trays

of

In this room shavings. The amount sufficiently dry.

about

is left until it gets left in should be of water 10 per cent. ; at all events it ought not to exceed 16
soap

per cent.
Messrs. Beyer Freres This make
a

continuous
a

automatic
heated
one

drying

machine.
pipes.
a

consists
the
two

of

closed chamber

by

steam

On with

top
or

of the
more

machine

at

end
at

is fitted

mill

cylinders

revolving

TOILET-SOAP

MACHINEBY.

213

differentspeeds,
hopper
cause

is a hopper. which above is fei the soap. The revolutions of the

and

Into

the

the

deposition

of the
Here

soap

in fine shavings
on

cyhnders into the

drying chamber
placed
one

below.

it is received
and

endless bands, of
one

above

the other
These

extending

the full width

the machine.
end

bands
to

continuously
other,
the

travel

from

of the

machine

the

motion

being

in

The soap shavings opposite directions in each pair of bands. drop on band, and are carried by it to the the topmost they drop off on where opposite end of the drying chamber,

Fig.

51.

Soap-Crushing

Machine.

to the band

below, by
machine.

which
From
so
on

they

end of the

band until

band number
when

three, and

carried to the other they fall to two number the last band is reached,
are

they will have

become

dry enough

operations.

This

machine

works
one man

attention ; its capacity

being
of
one

for the subsequent httle very well, and with ton of toilet soap per day,
and
an

requiring the attendance

assistant.

The

214

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

machine
machine. The
where
a

is rather costly.

M.

Wallois

also makes

similar

dried soap

is next

transferred
a

to the crushing

mills,

it is passed
is shown

between

machine

of granite rollers ; such number in figure 51, that being the form sold

by Messrs. Wm.
rollers and
two

Neill " Son.

This machine
a

has four granite

hoppers

divided by

slide.
hopper,

The
and

dried soap
travel
over

shavings are thrown the four rollers and

a

into the bottom

fall automatically scrapes

into the top hopper,

steel comb

which

the slide the soap

is allowed

off the top roller ; by drawing to fall into the bottom hopper

Fig.

52.

and

again

through

the

rollers.

When

the

soap

has

thus
are

passed
added

twice
to the

through
mass

the rollers, colour hopper

the
a

and and

perfume

in the bottom
four times

the

soap, etc.,

worked

three

or

through
and

mill to thoroughly homogeneous

to
run as

amalgamate

the materials

obtain

mass

of soap.

One

cwt. of soap requires ten minutes

through
often
as

this machine. The required. but

the machine
The

The

operation
shows

may

be repeated

drawing

the gearing-wheel

uncovered, dents. acci-

is provided
runs

with

cover

to prevent

machine 62

almost

noiselessly.

Figure

is

large soap-crushing

mill made

by

M.

TOILET-SOAP

MACHINERY.

215 13
to
to

Wallois
diameter
can

with
and

four
two

granite
hoppers
at
one
a

rollers of
;

16
cwt.

inches

in

from A

IJ
ton

IJ

of soap day
can

be dealt with
out

time.

of soap

per

be turned When crushing which

with
soap
a
new

such has

crushing been

machine.
worked
come

the

thoroughly
to

in

this

mill

scraper
soap

is caused in
thin

into action,
down
a

transfers

the

shavings

tin-

lined shoot, the tin lining being

for the purpose

of keeping

Fig.

53.
a

the

soap clean, into the hopper

of

often called, a plodding machine, 53. The plodding machine is provided

screw

squeezing, is shown which with

an

or,

as

it is

in figure

archimedean
and
at

whereby
same

the soap

is gradually
a

driven forward
degree and

the

time the

to subjected

considerable consolidated

soap

being
of The
a

thus the

pression, of comfirm, made

the

parabolic

form

compression

cylinder

bringing
is at first

this pressure. double, thus forming about

cylinder of the machine jacketin which cold water

circulates

216

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

for the purpose

pressure

of keeping
a

the

soap

cold, the friction and

to be generated
cause a

causing

great deal of heat

to accumulate

; this

heat might

if allowed

and

colour

in the soap.
as

The

known
The

the

cannon,

loss of perfume is commonly end of the machine charged. from it the soap is disas hot

mouthpiece

is kept

by

means

of

gas

jet, which
soap.

is usually

supplied

of heating The
6
cwt.

being

the- purpose with each machine, to impart a gloss and finish to the
very

soap per

travels

fast through
the

this machine, of
such
a one

about

hour

being

output

Fig.

54.

as

is shown
Son.

in figure 63, which

is made

by Messrs.

William

Neill "

Figure M.

64 is

large plodding

or

squeezing

mill made

by

will turn out 6 cwt. of soap per hour. As long as soap is supplied to the plodder through the in hopper it will issue from the mouthpiece of the cannon the shape of a continuous may be rope, the form of which

Wallois

which

varied
or

"

round,

oval

or

square

"

by using various shaped

dies

fixed in the mouthpiece. This enables tablets of to be formed the minimum any shape with of trouble. Further, by means of an and gauge fitted to the apparatus
moulds

CBUTCHING

MACHINES.

217

stand placed in front of the rope

are can

cannon

to receive the soap, the

be cut
stamped

into convenient by
the

lengths

for tablets, which

next

stamping

press, various

forms

of

which

have

already

been

described.
stopped
remove

When

the plodder

has
To

working
this
a

some

soap

will

remain

in the

cone.

small that

is turned
that is left in. In

into the
some
so

mouthpiece
of these

paratus piece of apforces out all

the
cone

forms
as

machines

is made it from

to turn

down

to be

able to clean it and

free

any

adhering

soap.

Combinations
are

of the
so

crushing
no

and

plodding
be

constructed

that

labour from

need
one

machines in expended
to another.

transferring

the crushed

soap

machine

Fig.

55.

CRUTCHING

MACHINERY.

In the manufacture fillingthe common and

are

of many

soaps

with

varieties of soaps, notably in fuming silicate of soda and in perthere the

are

colouring
as

toilet soaps,

used

what

known

crutching

machines,
various days

objectof
of

which
the
was

is

to

thoroughly

mix
the

the

ingredients

soap
an

together.

In

early

of soap-making

this

by hand, instrument operation usually performed with an known as the crutch, the operation being termed crutching, has come down to modern times, although and the name
now-a-days

the operation

is done

by machinery. of wrought

The

commonest

form

is

circular vessel, made

iron

or

218

SOAP

MANUFACTUBB.

boiler plate. which

In the centre

of this is fixed
a

mixing

apparatus^

usually consists of

central

shaft which

is made
arms

ta

revolve by suitable gearing, this shaft carrying

some
cases causes a

and

in

of soap
mass.

through the mas" chain, the motion of which it to become and form a homogeneous mixed

Figure

55 is

drawing

of

pair of soap-crutching Neill

"

machines

made

by

Messrs. of
a

Wm.

Son.
on

These
the

are

driven

by

means

donkey

engine

fixed

side of

Fig.

56.

one

of

the

machines,
on

this

being
are

in

connection
wheels

with

an

overhead

shaft

which

bevel

working

the

central shaft of the crutchers. the

An

opening

in the bottom
closed
when

of
a

machine,
allows

and

which
soap
to

is ordinarily
run

kept

with

valve,

the

into the

frames

it is

properly

mixed.
66

Figure by
Messrs.

is

drawing
"

of Son.

pair
These

of
are

crutchers

made
a

E.

Forshaw

fitted with

special

driving

engine,

friction clutches

for throwing

the

CBUTCHING

MACHINES.

219

agitators in

and

out

of

gear,
are

outlet

valves,

etc.

ally, Gener-

crutching

machines
are

but, occasionally, such

and enable

without desirable to keep

made

steam

jackets,
warm

the

soap

it to mix easily. Crutching is a very simple

and there should

operation

and purely mechanical,

be

no

trouble in crutching
plenty

soap ; the
to do

only thing is to allow

work.

the machine

of time

its

Sometimes

this operation
and
a

is carried
good
many

on

in
makes

conjunction
of modern

with that of remelting, mixing machines

machines.
DOPP'S
are

really combined

remelting

and crutching

REMELTING

AND

CRUTCHING

MACHINE.

This consists of
H.

steam

jacketed pan.
have
a

The

firm, Messrs. of casting

Wm.

Dopp
and the

"

Sons,

special method
The
the
steam

the pan

supplying machine,
steam

jacket in one piece. jacket are fixed to

are

pipes
side
of

for
the

front

while there
condense

also suitable outlet pipes for exhaust The

and
of
an

water.
screw

mixing working

arrangement

consists

archimedean

in

cylinder, the

action being to draw

and
cause

the soap
over

up

through

this central cylinder back

it to flow

the top and

into the main

body

of working. effectual manner again ; this is a most The driving gear for the screw is on the top of the machine, and is so arranged that the direction of motion of the screw

be reversed, and in place of the soap moving down, this arrangement also bringing about a
can

up it
more

movea

perfect with

admixture

of the

soap.

There

is another

feature

this

machine, and
of soap, and

that is it may the

screw

be used in

for remelting

old scraps

working

with conjunction
has

the

cylinder (which, it may

as
a

be remarked,
and
so

open

it sides), acta
ments, to frag-

cutting apparatus,

easily reduces the soap and mixing

the remelting and thus facilitates

of the soap.

220

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Another
a

form

of crutcher

which

is sometimes according

made

with

steam

jacket, and
of the
users,

at others without,

to the requirements

has

shaft is in the centre,

a
as

the cylinder horizontal ; the central it extends From and is also horizontal.
are

number
they
to

of

arms

which

arranged
up the
one

spirally, their action

soap end

revolve
cause

being

to mix

and

at the

same

time
whence

it to travel towards flows mixed

of the

it

back by

to

the
a

other

end,
at
one

crutcher, it is when
end

thoroughly machine.
out

opening is forced

valve

of the
arms

The

soap

by

the working
ready

of the

into the frames

Crutchers

which

are

placed

to receive it.
as

they

have

require to be strongly made, to deal with is very stiffand by

require
some

the
means

material
easy to

no

stir; they

power

to drive, say about

two-horse,

hut

of

course

this will vary

Some

machine.
some

to the size of the according fix an of the makers eight-horse engine to

of the

larger machines

they

make

; the

power

thus

supplied is rather
excess

in

excess

of actual requirements,

and

that

may

be employed

in other

directions if needful.

REMELTING

MACHINES.

In preparing them them from soap

toilet soaps
of various then
may

it is
kinds

common

plan to prepare

already

made,

by

melting
other

by

heat

and

ingredients A very
pan

which

in the perfume mixing be required.

of remelter has

and

convenient
the

form

consists of

jacketed

previously cut into The thin shavings, has been put. pan should be provided be that the soaps, etc., can so with a stirring arrangement bad conSoap is, however, together. a thoroughly mixed
in which
soap, which

been

heat, and in a steam jacketed tents pan, unless the con"ductor of kept well stirred, the outer portions might be melted are while

the inner

portions

are

still cold
as

and
as

solid.

It is advisable

therefore, to bring the heat

soon

possible to the

SOAP

PUMPS.

221

-wholemass by having

of soap.
a

in This is effected one

number of upright steam the machine ; the heat is thus brought very quickly to the very centre of the mass of soap, and so the operationis soon

form of remelter pipes or tubes fixedin

done.

The time ittakes to remelt a batch of soap depends upon the state of dryness of the soap ; the more water there is in

itthe quicker is the operation over. Should the soap be too dry it is often advantageous to send in a current of open
steam, whereby both heat and moisture
same are

supplied at the

time.

FiQ. 57

SOAP

PUMPS.

For the purpose of transferring the soap from one place to an other as, for instance,from the soap pan or crutcher to the frames, the best plan is to take advantage of gravity and run the soap into the place where it is required to go.
J

inasmuch But this is not always possible, the placing of the plant or machines one always be done.
Where

as

it necessitates

above the other,

the machines are and this cannot on a levelitis necessary to employ some mechauical means for conveying the soap from one machine to the other ; this

222
may
a

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

labour, using ladles or scoops, but such missible. plan is tedious and costly, and in large soap works is inadThe best method is to use pumps which are made

be done by hand

specially for the purpose. Soap pumps are of the ordinary direct acting plunger in figure 57, which represents a soaptype such as is shown This " Son. pumping engine made by Messrs. E. Forshaw
is
a

very

convenient
form

Another

form, and quite satisfactory in use. is largely adopted of soap pump which

Fig.

58.

it does not necessitate the employment of a separate engine, but may be attached to the ordinary shafting of the The feature of as rotary pumps. works, is of the type known

because

circular cast-iron box with an inlet and outlet. In the box rotates a blade of a spiral form, which, catching the soap as it flows in by the inlet, forces it out by it is required. the outlet pipe and so as to place it where this form
of pump
a

is

In making

toilet soap it is found

very desirable that the

tablets should be dried a littlebefore stamping, as then a better impression is obtained, an important feature in connection fancy designs on them. Then with tablets having

c
SOAP-DRYING

-;,.;^:'^"v
^^
MACHINES.

UNIVERSITY

223

for other
sent out.
one

reasons

tablets may
convenient

have

to be dried

before being
is
"

very

machine by

for this purpose

shown

in figure 68, made

is well of

Messrs.

W.
the

J. Fraser
drawing.

Co.

Its construction
a

shown

in
or
a

It

consists of in a drying
through

number chamber. by
means

shallow
one

trays

drawers

placed

At

end
a

is

heating

chamber
from
the

which,

of and

fan, air is drawn into the drying through

surrounding
where

atmosphere
are.

sent

the drawers the

In its passage
warm,

chamber the heating

for holding
from
the
the

chamber
water

air gets thereby

and

its capacity
up
water

being

increased

it takes

soap and

dries

it during
machine

its passage
may
or

through

drying

chamber.

This

be

used

for drying

all kinds

of soap, in tablets, bars So far has

shavings.
all the

been

described

different forms
of soap.

of

machines

employed

in the manufacture

Of

course

the machines

another will vary from one in minor details, although the forms bear a close resemblance. It is practically impossible to describe in detail the machines

by different makers

of every maker, that may

so

what
as

has been types.

done

is to mention

those

be regarded

CHAPTER
THE

VII.
OF SOAP-MAKING.

TECHNOLOGY

WIDE
:
"

and

yet only

suflScient classification of soaps would

be into
A.
B.

Domestic

soaps.

Toilet soaps.

C. Industrial soaps.
D.

Special soaps.
soaps
are

Domestic
scouring, etc.

those soaps
"

used
those

in the house
better toilet.
as
"

for washing,

Toilet

qualities of soaps Industrial

wool used
soaps

which
"

are

employed employed
etc.

solely in the

those

in

the

trade, soaps

in

washing,
for specific
etc.

calico printing,
purposes,
as

Special

those

for medical classes may

purposes,

shaving further

purposes,

Each
writer

of these does

be

even

divided, but the

a

not
as

believe in systems
has

of classification into
some

great variety,

been

done

by

v^iters

on

soaps.

A.
Soap
to enter

Domestic

Soaps.
an

is prepared

by

causing

alkali and

fat

or

fats

the alkalies used are combination; has but little action on Ammonia solely soda and potash. because the soap it forms is fats, while lime is of no use, insoluble in water.

into chemical

When
of either

fat

or

oil is brought

into contact

with

solution

these

(the carbonates of caustic soda or caustic potash be used action and cannot alkalies have but a weak
ordinary
to

in the
begins

process

of

soap-making)

then

saponification

take

place ; the acid constituent

of the oil enters

into combination
the

with

basic

constituent,

the soap, while alkali to form glycerine, is set free. This reaction the

DOMESTIC

SOAPS.

225

is shown

in the following

equations, which
on

show

the action
"

of both caustic soda and caustic potash

CigHggOj CigHgsOg
stearin, +

typical oils :

3NaOH
Caustic Soda.

aNaCisHa^Oa + Soap (Sodium Stearate).

_ ,.

CsHb(OH),
Glycerine.

CJXOa CioHo,0,
Linolin. iinolin.

3K0H
Caustic Potash.

SKagHjiO^
Soap

C3Hb(OH)3
Glycerine,

(Potassium Linoleate).
on

The firstone the principal

second
one

represents

the action of caustic soda of which

tallow,
the

constituent
the

is stearin, while
on

shows

action

of caustic potash

linseed

of which is linolin. If these equations are studied they will be found to be built upon lines, and further that there is an common exchange of

oil,the principal constituent

constituents reaction ; the

between

the

bodies of the

which

take

acid portion

fat takes
the

part in the the basic metal

of the alkali to form

the soap, while

glyceryl, C3H5, takes the alkali to form the glycerine, or,

to speak

of the fat, the

the
as

basic constituent hydroxyl, HO, of prefers

the chemist

of it,the glycerol, which

is set free.

reaction between the fat and the alkali is a chemical one, and like all chemical reactions takes place in definite that is, a certain quantity of fat will always proportions; take a certain quantity of caustic soda or caustic potash to
in their another oils differ from one composition, one oil or fat will take a different proportion of alkali than another, thus, for instance, castor oil takes
as

The

saponify it; and

18 per cent,

of caustic potash
cent., and
coconut

to saponify

it, while

tallow

takes 19

per

happens
natural products,

however,

as

that

the

same

It unoil 26 per cent. fortunate is always the case with oil varies in the amount

of alkali it requires
amount

the although with different samples, The following table compiled of variation is small.
sources

from several

gives the

percentage

of caustic potash
:

and of caustic soda required to saponify various oils and fats 16

226

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

Oil.

Per cent, of Caustic Potash, KOH.

Per cent, of Caustic Soda, NaOH.

Lard Almond Sesame Rape Poppy seed Niger seed Cod Whale Butter Palm nut Tallow Palm. Sperm Olive kernel Olive Arachis Cottonseed Linseed Hemp seed Walnut Seal Porpoise. Coconut Lard Dripping Bone fat Castor Bosin
. .
.

19-1 to 19-6 19-6 " 19-6 19 19-4 " 17-1 " 17-9 19-8 " 19-6 18-9 " 19-1 18-5 ,, 21-8 18-8 " 22-4 22-1 " 28-2 22 24-7 " 19-3 " 19-8 19-6 ,,20-2. 12-3 " U 18-8 19-1 " 19-6 19-1 ., 19-6 19-1 ,, 19-6 18-7 " 19-5 19-8 19-6 18-9 " 19-6 21-6 24-6 " 26-8 19-2 " 19-6 19-6 19-1 17-6 17
" " "
"

18-6 to 14 13-9 " 14 18-6 " 13-7 12-2 " 12-8 13-8 " 14 18-6 " 13-6 13-2 " 15-2 13-4 " 16 16-8 " 16-5 15-7 " 17-7 13-7 " 141
14
" "

8-8 13-4 13-6 13-6 13-6 13-3 13-8

14

14-4 10 14 14 14 14

" "
"

"

13-5
15-6

"

14

17-5 13-7
14

" " " " " "

19-7 19-7 18-1 19-8

13-6
12-5 12-1

17-7 14 14-1 14 13 14

As

regards

the

quantity

drlring the reaction, Allen

of glycerine which
Bottlenose Northern
"

is forraed of glycerine which in his Commercial alysis, Organic Anas

vol. ii., gives the following figures may

sperm

to the proportion
"

be obtained
oil
...

from
.

various oils :
3*10 per cent. 11-96 11-09
11*10

whale

oil

...

Porpoise

oil
oil

Menhaden
"

Lard
Tallow Butter fat

10-83
1000 11-06
11-40

t^

Olive oil Bapeoil

oil Sottonseed oil Linseed oil Sesame

9*82

9*94 9*60 9-39

9-13
12-11

Castor oil Coconut oil

Palmnut oil

11-70 9-71

Palm

oil

METHODS

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

227

It will be
can

seen

that from

the proportion those fats and

of glycerine

which
used

be

obtained

oils commonly

in soap-making
The
methods

is from

10 to 12 per cent.

employed

in the

manufacture
:
"

of soap

of

any kind may

1. Boiling

be divided into three groups

the fats and

atmospheric

pressure

alkalies together under ordinary in open boilers the ordinary process

"

of soap-boiUng.
2. Boiling the
fats and

alkalies together

under

pressure

in closed boilers. 3. By
"

mixing

the alkalies and

fats at ordinary

tures tempera-

the so-called cold process.

The

first method

is by far the oldest and

most

conmionly
a

employed.

In this method

is the(soa^ boiled with

for hard
;

solution
for

of the alkali (caustic soda soft soaps) until it is saponified

soaps salt is added, which
curds, which
are

soaps, caustic potash

then

in the

case

of hard

throws

out the soap to set

in the form

of

collected and

allowed

into the form

with
what

which

the public
as
*'

is familiar.
lye,"
an

There

is also obtained liquor containing

have

is known

spent
excess

aqueous

the salt used, any

and

of alkali that may

was

been

used,

also the

glycerine which Formerly

for the

formed
was

during
thrown

the process
away,

of saponification.
now

this

but

it is treated

recovery

of the

glycerine

it contains.

In the second

method
a

the fat and alkali are

or

boiled together
when

under pressure

in

closed vessel the soap

boiler, and
on one

fication saponi-

is complete when cold it is ready

is set

side to cool and

for sale. the fat is just melted

In the third method

and

then mixed

with the alkali in the form of a strong solution, the mixture being placed on one time to allow the saponifiside for some cation to become the soap is ready for use. complete, when
In both the second

and

third methods

there is

no

salting

228

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

out, while

the glycerine that is formed

remains

behind

in the

soap.

Each
Hard

of these three

methods

will be discussed difficult to

in detail.
any

Soap.

"

It

is extremely

attempt

and classification of hard soaps ; the varieties are numerous, by simple modifications of the process of are many produced

making

and

of the

materials
or

employed.

Then

again
can

some

kinds of soap, grain

made best

curd
"

soaps for instance, process.

It

by
to

one

"

the

boiling

describe

in detail the

processes

only be will therefore be in the employed

soaps, and
they
are

manufacture

indicate adapted.

various grades the various kinds of soap

of the

of domestic for which

best

SOAP-MAKING

BY

THE

BOILING

PBOCESS.

Probably
country

90

per cent, of the

soap

which

is made

in this
as

is made

by the boiling process

in open

pans, such

have
steam,

been
the

described

in the last chapter, heated

the
most

by fire or by
In

latter being

modern
are

plan.

this

method

of boiling the fat and

alkali

brought
as

together in
has
are

the presence

of water

in such
to make

proportions

experience

shown
not

will enable them

soap, but the quantities

to

definitely proportioned

one

the

other;

the

boiUng

brings about the saponification of the fats and forms the soap, then be finished in any way can that is desirable. which
There
way
are

three chief varieties of hard upon

are
"

soap

dependent these
"

certain
known soaps.
as

modifications

produced in this in the finishing

operations;
"

"curd," "fitted,"or, in America, of

course
are

settled," and

run

These

independent used.

by varying of varieties of soaps produced In starting a soap boil it is advisable

the materials
to
see

that the pan

is quite clean, while the inside should be well white- washed or lime-washed ; this prevents the iron of the pan from affecting Then its corrosion. the soap in any way and prevents

SOAP-BOILING.

229
2" Tw.
;

small quantity

of weak

lye of about

is

run

in, filling

up the pan
means

to about

one-tenth
steam

of its depth

this is he,ated by
boil, and
then

of the

closed
a

coil to

near

the

there is run

fied, portion of the fats which are to be saponithis fat having been previously melted in separate tanks ;

in

the quantity is not of much

consequence,

but about

one-third

is then run There of the total charge is a fair proportion. in soda lye at 10" Tw. ; a stronger lye than this should not be difficultiesin soap-boiling is to start the saponification of the fat ; if the lye be too strong this starting
used.

One

of the

does not take

place readily enough,

and

other

difficultiesare

introduced.

By

using
;

weak

lye, however,
15

if there is little any

may The

difficulty experienced
every 5 cwt. of tallow
on

about

gallons

be
steam

allowed

to

run

into the pan. The

is turned rise up being

at the

to bring

the

mass

to the boil.

material

may

in the form known

of froth very
as

considerably, fobbing. running be

paddle

this proceeding
occurs

to soap-makers
a

This in
more

only
or
mass

starting of
it happens beaten down
to itself for

boil,

or

when
must

fat

alkali ; if
of fob
left

the

steam

turned
or

off, the
and

by the
a

hand

beater

the pan

few

hours, when

the boiling may the

be resumed.
now

It will probably

be

found

that

boiling will

proceed

very quietly and without

further trouble ; during

the time
reacting

the pan

has and

standing the fat and alkali have been another. with one entering into combination

been

It

is this hability to fob that renders

it undesirable

that

soap there

pan should

be fully charged

to start with.

Sometimes

appears very little difficulty in starting the saponification, at other times there appears
on

great difficulty. fat

;

Much

will depend
then

the condition

of the

if this be

very

neutral

it

will not be easy to start its saponifying ; on the other hand if it contain some free acid this will at once enter into combination by increasing an with the alkah and form soap, which

emulsifying

tendency

of the fat enables

the alkali and

fat to

230
more

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

thoroughly

amalgamate

together, and

therefore view

tate facili-

the process of soap formation.

With

this action it is the

a

custom

of many

of imitating and it is soap-makers,

a

custom

worth

following, to throw
scraps

into the pan

.on

its being
may

first charged

all the
scraps

of soap

which
weak

they

have

about ; such
the

dissolving
a

in the

lye help forward

saponifying

of the fat to

great extent. that

are

There

are

ways al-

plenty of soap scraps about

the

produced
;

in cutting
should ways al-

blocks of soap up be placed

on

into slabs and

bars

these

one

side and

sent

into the

soap-boiling

house

for this particular purpose. the first lot of fat and lye appears
then there
to

When
thoroughly

have been be
run

amalgamated
or

together,

may

in
now

ton

of oil, then,

better simultaneously,
say 17" to 18" Tw.,

lye ; this may

was

be used
and

stronger,

than

firstemployed,
one

of it 200 gallons
lot is
now

fat.
rarely

This
occur

will be required boiled up for two hours.

At the end
run

for

ton of

Fobbing

will

at this stage.

of the time

given the

rest of the

charge

may

be

It is advisable to keep
and
open

it well
union.

the boiling continued. stirred so as to bring the fat

If the boiling be done

in and

alkali into intimate

steam,

with

then

the steam do

itself passing
this.
In

through
case,

the soap however,

is almost

sufficient to
some

this

there will be
the

considerable
must

condensation
for, and

of the steam
rather

in

pan

; this

be

allowed

stronger
a

alkali, 23" to 25" Tw., employed

steam

coil be

employed,

then

in the last stages. If be kept the soap must

or

closed

stirred

by
end

means

of the hand

of the boil very

very

stirrers. At the mechanical little stirring will be required ; the soap paddle
known end that
as

will boil up
roses

and

are nicely and gently in what this gentle boil is some sign that the

is approachi
cannot

Soap-boiling be taught
the changes

is

one

of those things
the
a

by books

owing

to

difficulty of describing all

charge of soap during
the

in appearance

of

SOAP-BOILINa.

231

process of boiling it up.

takes to finish depends
treated and
may

The

length
on

of time

pan

of soap

entirely
from

the weight

of soap being
charge
to

vary

five hours
a

for
one.

small
The

twelve

or

fifteen hours

for by

large
out

end from

of the time
to

operation is ascertained time by

have would
a means

taking

samples
them.

of the paddle

and examining
any

It should

firm
show
a

consistency,
that
more

be free from

oil
and

or

fat, which tasted

alkali is required,
on

when
;

has only

faint biting sensation

the tongue

in slight excess, show that the alkali was which Then again the appearance of the soap is some guide.
properly saponified
transparent

this would it should be.

Wb^n

it will have

look, smooth
on

semiand glossy, and fall off the paddle in

and hand

homogeneous

clear flakes ;

the

other

if it be opaque
then
or
an

in looks

and
that

rather granular there is either

an

in appearance,
excess

it is
excess

an

indication

of fat
other

of alkali, which

will be

shown there

by
are

the

tests

previously
are

alluded

to.

Sometimes
fat present

signs that

there
same

free alkali and

free

in the

soap-pan

at the

time, which been

some

shows
conducted

that the saponification

; the

of the fat has not

a case

properly
water

remedy

in such

is to add

and

proceed

with

the boiling.
stated here that roughly
to

It may

be

100 lb. of fat require

100 lb. of lye at 32" Tw.

complete
more.

saponification

; coconut

oil takes about

one-fourth The
next
'*

Salting Out.
as

"

it is sometimes called, by throwing into the pan brine liquor. This throws
form
of grains
or

operation is that of salting out, or, **' the soap ; this is done graining
either
the
common

salt

or

strong

soap

out

of solution

in the
from

the water
the
excess

the soap curds and thus separates in the operation of boiling and employed of alkali used, process
out

from

and

from

the

glycerine
This

formed of

during

the

of
the

saponification.
soap
from the

property

salt of throwing

solution

in

which

232 it exists in the

soap

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

soap-pan

depends
yet

upon

the

fact that while

in solutions of
to
a

is soluble

in water

it is insoluble

therefore such are added alkaline salts ; when out of solution. of soap the latter is thrown
makers

solution
soapsalt is

Some

prefer to is commonly quantities

a

use

brine, but
The

ordinary

common

what

used.
at
a

salt is thrown soap

into the pan in

forms

small

time

until the

in small
the paddle
very

grains and

quantity

of lye is clearly visible when

and
the

is placed practice
reached.
too large

in the
soon

soap

then

lifted out.
when
not

little
is

shows

soap-maker

this point

Care must
a

however
at
a

be taken
and

to add

the salt in

quantity adding
an

dissolve before
liabilityto get
two
reasons
"

excess

portion to there is a another portion, otherwise of salt in, and this is undesirable for
time
to allow

each

because

it is not
to

economical
do the

to

use

more

material
second,

than
excess

is necessary

required

work,
overcome

and

of salt introduces
operations. The

difficultiesto be
soap

in subsequent
smoothness

in the
more

pan

loses its
and

and

transparency,

becomes
rather

opaque

grainy ; the boiling also becomes

to
occur

irregular, and
a

tends
to boil

in bursts, and

sometimes

there is

tendency

over.

When the
pan

sufficient salt has

separate
out
on

been

added into
the

and
a

the contents

of

the paddle off and

grainy

soap and
to remain

clear lye, the

at rest

steam

is shut
to

pan

allowed
to

for four

five hours

according
here that

the size of

the batch.
to state

It may

be inaentioned

it is impossible

definitely the quantity

any

of salt which

to salt out

given batch
upon

of soap.

This

be required will be found to

may
"

vary and is dependent

the action of several factors

the

strength been
the much

of lye used in the saponification, whether

or

there has

littlecondensation
any

of water

from

the steam

in

pan,

whether

coconut

oil
as

or

palmnut

oil has
are

been liable

used

in making

the soap ; and

all these

factors

SOAP-BOILING.

233

with every batch of soap it is not possible to state any definite quantities of salt for salting out.
to vary

On

standing

for four to five hours

layers
or

the

mass

in the pan
one

separates into two

portions ; the upper

about
40
per

consists

of the

soap

holding

perhaps

cent,
'*

the as while the lower layer is a liquid known This is more less dark in colour according or
of the
excess

of watei?*, ". spent lye acter charany

to the

fat used

in making which
may

the

soap ; it contains

of caustic

soda
out

have

been

used, the salt

any

added to separate which soda and

may

the soap, sodium

carbonate,

impurities

have

been

present

in the original caustic glycerine which

has-

in the

fat, together

with

the

been formed
now
run

during

the saponification of the fat.

so
as

This lye is
to

off from the soap into storage tanks

treatment

be ready
of the

for subsequent

vnth

view

to the recovery

glycerine and This

salt it contains. the

concludes
it is from

first stage

in the preparation

of all

soaps, and

arise to produce

this point that differences of treatment The operation of various kinds of soap.
to be

soap-boiling requires
and every

conducted be made

vdth
to
see

care

and

attention,

effort should
a

that the boilingon

is complete. and

This makes
of the
or,

considerable

demand

the skill
an

experience

soap-boiler.
as

Too

strong

alkali

should not be used,

start the

stated
yet

above, it will be difficultto different fats will require

saponification, and

different strengths different of lye or will saponify with strengths. Thus oil,cottonseed oil and while tallow, palm some others will not work with lye stronger than 10" to 12"*^ Tw., coconut oil and palmnut oil will take lye up to 20" Tw.,
indeed

saponifying

best with
best with fats take for
or

the
a

strong

lye ; linseed

and

olive oils usually work Then of course some this must place ;
a

lye of intermediate

strength.

more

alkaU

than

others, and

be allowed

imperfect

littleexcess

of alkali should

saponification will take be used, but too much.

234

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

should

be avoided,

as

such

excess

tends

to retard saponification

rather than Boiling

on

assist it.

Strength

or

Clear
now
run

Boiling,

"

The

soap

from
a

the salting-out operation

small

is

into the pan

run

and then

quantity

of caustic lye at 20" Tw.

in and

the soap

boiledon this for three to four hours.

should
not

Duringthis

boil the soap

remain

open

and

clear lye always

a

thus

present

itself,then

visible; if it should lye should be little stronger

a

added.

Some
and

soap-makers

give

preliminary

boil with

littlewater

thereby close up the soap before they

add the

caustic to open

it again, and
course.

there

can

be

no

doubt

but that
on

this is the
strength the

preferable

The

object of
and
to

this boil
ensure

is to complete

the saponification
any

that

soap is quite

free from

unsaponified

fat.

For

this

purpose

any stronger lye than is advisable to use absolutely necessary for the purpose of justopening the soap; is harmful it tends to as any excess rather than otherwise,

it is not

retard rather than

a

assist the reaction, while

tendency

to

be rather

paid to this boil, as

and

Some caustic. it has a material influence

the soap exhibits attention should be

on

the grain

quality of the finished soap. After boiling for three to five hours, according
made,
the
steam

to the size

of the batch the pan

of soap being covered

is shut

off,and

of soap

up and

left to settle ; this takes from

thirty-six hours to three days, according to the amount of soap At the end of this time the contents in the pan. of the pan
will have divided into two
"

portions
lye
"

"

one

of soap

at the top,
contains still

the other of lye,

some

half-spent

it is called.

This

caustic soda, although possibly it may have a dark the colour, especially if poor fats have been used in making It should be stored in a separate tank and used in soap.
the first boil of
a

new

batch
away

of soap.
from

The
means

soap is taken
and

the

lye by any
and
set,

convenient which
will

placed

in the

frames

to cool

SOAP-BOILING.

235
to the
room.

take from
year and The

three days to

week

according

season

of the

the relative coolness

of the frame
as

soap

as

so

made

is known from
a

"curd

soap"

(see p.
what

241). It may
"

be made
"

number

of fats, but

is

sold

as

curd soap

Curd

from tallow. is generally made soap, while it possesses excellent detergent sharp and

properties,

is apt to be rather alkaline and

not suit everybody
as
"

therefore does

toilet soap.
of the most
common

Fitted

Soaps.

In the manufacture

kinds of domestic
of boiling
treatment,
on

soaps, the soap, after undergoing

the process
a

strength
extent

and

salting out, undergoes

may

further
to

the

of which
and

be varied according

special requirements

the ideas of the soap-maker.

The

firsttreatment

consists in giving what by running

is known
a

as

ing cleansadding

boil; this is done

some

the soap into

pan

and

sending steam through ; there is then run in a strong brine liquor in justsufficient amount to open the soap, and the boiling continued with either close or open
water

and

steam

for three

to

four hours

or

even

longer

the size of the batch

to settle for about
on

of soap, after which hours, when

according to the pan is allowed

will be found off when cleansing
the

twelve

the soap
run

the top and

the brine

below,

this being

soap is ready helps in the

for the finishing operation.

The

boil

completion
of
a

of the saponification, and

more

therefore

in the production
wash
out

perfect

any

excess

of alkali that
on

soap, while it tends to hold the curd soap may

so

from the "boiling soap.

even a

strength,'' and

make

more

neutral

Some
second

soap-makers

cleansing

will, with' their best qualities, give boil. The brine liquor may be used

is to the quality of the soap which several times, according being made. If from good, clean fats the liquor may be used
several times ; if from poor, dirty fats it cannot
as

be used

more

than

once

or

twice,

it becomes

too

highly

charged

with

dirt to work

satisfactorily.

236 The done

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

next proceeding

is to close up the soap again.

This is
to it
a

by placing

the

soap

in the pan,

sprinkling coil ;
more soon

on

little water

and heating

by the close steam and

the soap

loses its granular

and

appearance

becomes

transparent

homogeneous.
and the

When
pan

this happens,
to

continue the boiling is disor

allowed

cool,

the soap

may

be

run

into the frames

to set, after which

it is cut

up into slabs

and

bars and tablets, ready for sale to the pubUc. is a general description of the ordinary process of Such It is to soap-boiling. subject a littlemodification here and
to the

there, according soap being made,

fancy
the

of the soap-maker,

the kind

of

and

fats used.
to discuss the methods

We various

may

now

proceed

of making

kinds of domestic
Pale

soaps.

Common
country

Soap.

"

The

soap

which
made

is made
from soap,"

in this

in the largest quantity

is
as

one

tallow and "XX

rosin, and
soap,'* etc.

is variously
In making

known

"pale

pale

of several methods

this soap the soap-boiler has a choice cate. we of procedure which will briefly india

First, however,
used.

few words

as

to the tallow and

rosin

For

this kind

of soap

the tallow

need

not

be of the

best quahty and the cost of the soap may be reduced to some by employing A medium a cheaper extent grade of tallow. Too dark a rosin should quality of rosin may be employed. not be used, as, although out in most of the colour comes
the process, yet the soap is apt to The tallow is saponified in the salted out.
ready
come
manner

out

of

datk

colour.

justdescribed
along

and
now

The

soap, after running

to

off the spent lye, is

the soap pan
as

for the rosin ; this is added the

with

fresh alkali, and

boiling continued Eosin

before until the

much easily

rosin becomes lye to saponify saponified.

This

saponified.

it

as

does

practically takes as tallow ; it is,however, more

boil is known

as

"the

rosin

boil"; when

it is

SOAP-BOILING.

237

finished the soap

spent lye does not

is salted out contain

any

as

before.

In

this

case
a

the dark of

glycerine ; it will be of
of the colouring
away.
so

colour, for it will contain the rosin ; it may

much

matter

be thrown

Plenty

of time should

be allowed
as

for it to settle out,

any

that

the lye may

or

be

as

free

possible from
soap from

particles of fat, rosin,

soap.

When
of

making
the pan
as

rosin, and after salting out, the contents into three layers, sometimes
on

usually separate
:

four,

follows

layer
sent

of light, frothy soap

next

the top

"

this is
a

collected and layer of good

into the

boiling of soap ; second,

as

soap, which
a

is finished
curdy

usual ; third, under

mass,

this

layer of
"

dark-coloured

the

"nigre,"

as

it is called
extent

this varies very much

in colour, consistency

and

according
the soap.

to the quality of the rosin and

fats used

in

making

It is rather

troublesome

product

to deal

with ; if not
and

too strongly

coloured
next

it may

be left in the

pan

worked

up

into the
matter
;

batch

of soap, for it consists

largely of soapy
along

if it be too dark then it may

be used

brown The soap. with other dark fats in making lowest layer consists of the spent lye ; this is dealt with as
mentioned After strength above.
the

rosin boil, the

soap

is finished by described.
In

boiling

on

and
the
"

fitting

as

previously

all these

operations
"

neat

soap

or

with; in running nigre will.be met the spent lye it is important not to

off the
run

any

it would as of the nigre into them, affect the grain of the finished soap or interfere with the treatment of the lye.

Some
add

soap-makers tallow

saponify
soap.

the rosin with they

are

lye before they working

it to the

Unless

with

poor grades

of rosin and

mixing
in this

with
course

the

other

before desire to purify it somewhat advantage constituents, there is no

of procedure. the rosin

Although

and

the

tallow
so,

may
as

be

saponified
the spent

together, yet it is not

advisable to do

thereby

238
y

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

lye is increased in bulk without

of glycerine, and

increasing its actual contents this increase in bulk leads to extra cost of
matters

boiling down;
of the

then again the colouring

and impurities

rosin getting into the

lye add

to

the

difficultiesof

refining and extracting the glycerine, and it is desirable that be minimised these difficulties as as much possible. The following are some this class of recipes for making
soap
:
"

White

Castile,

Golden
16 cwt. 6
"

Pale

Soap.
6 cwt. 6
"

mutton coconut

tallow.

bleached window

palm

oil.

oil.

glass rosin.

Golden
20 cwt.
tallow.

Pale

Soap.
7 cwt.

bleached

palm

oil.

7 cwt.

window
Pale

glass rosin.

Crown
10 cwt. beef tallow.

Soap.
6 cwt. 5
"

10

,,

bone

tallow.

palmnut bleached

oil.

palm

oil.

74

cwt.

rosin.

Primrose
10 cwt.

Soap.
10 cwt.
mutton

beef tallow.
6 cwt.

tallow.

rosin.
or

Golden

Primrose

Soap

Castile Soap.
bleached
palm pahn oil.

10 cwt. beef tallow.

6 cwt.
1
,,

10

mutton

tallow.

oil.

Cottonseed

oil is
soaps

now

coming

largely to the household

use,

front for
the

making
the

pale

for ordinary
have

great

improvements oil having

which

been made

of late years in refining

rendered

this possible.

easily saponifiable ; it is not so it produces but on the other hand

easily.

oil is fairly easily salted out as tallow is,

Cotton
a

soap

which
use
:
"

lathers

The

following

are

some

recipes for its

DOMESTIC

SOAPS.

239

XX
10 cwt. 6
"

Crovm
oil.

Pale

Soap,
1 cwt.

cottonseed tallow.

palm
rosin.

oil.

"

Golden

Soap,
76 lb. best rosin.
3
yj

IJ cwt.

cotton

oil.

18 lb. tallow.

palm

oil.

Common
1 cwt. 1
,,

Soap.

cotton

oil.

bone

grease.
Brown

i ^
Soaps,

cwt.
"

rosin.

palm

oil.

1. 7 cwt.

tallow.
cotton

2. 4 cwt.

tallow.

3 6

"

oil.

4 2

,,.

palmnut
cotton

oil.
oil.

"

rosin. palm oil.

"

"

"

rosin.
palm
oil.

"

recipes will probably be sufficient for the ordinary soaps; the practical soap-maker will know makes of household how to vary them to suit his special requirements.
These Mottled known.

Soaps, is
a

"

There

are

two

kinds
a

of mottled

soaps

One

very old kind,

having
;

faint grey mottle originally alkalies. A more

a

scattered through

its substance

this mottle

was

obtained
modern
mottle

fats and by using rather impure kind of mottled soap is that having
or

prominent
which is

grain

of

blue,

red

or

other

colour,

We artificially produced. The mottle is produced

fats and

will speak of the grey kind first. in the following manner : The
early days
matters
were

alkalies used with

acting

in the
earthy

often

largely

contaminated
these

and

metallic
metallic

impurities;
soaps,

upon

the

fats formed

body of soap which differing in colour from the main was formed by the alkali. These came beearthy or metallic soaps in the frame in the soap as it cooled down entangled
and

imparted
of which

to it

mottled

appearance,

the character and

and

extent

depended

upon

the

character

amount

of the impurities
To

present.

produce in

mottled

soap

of

good

grain requires
usually

some

experience

soap-boiling.

The

method

followed

240

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

is to

make

soap

out
common

of

bone

grease,

kitchen
low

grease,
grades

bleached

palm

oil

or
a

tallows, using
excess

of

caustic and

adding

large

of this.

The
some

soap

is well

boiled, and then it is well boiled down it begins to curd out ; it is at once run
these
are

with

lye until

into the frames, and

to

covered

over

with

cloths

keep
tend

the
to

heat

in.

During
together

the and
a

cooUng
so

the

metallic

soaps

aggregate

produce

the mottle.
lies in the the mottling

One

of the chief arts

in making
long

mottled
soon

soap
and

boiling ; if boiled too

has not
then

it sets too

time to form

properly, while

if not

boiled long enough,

the

it is apt to
too

contain

an

excess

of lye, and

mottling

settles out

quickly.
It sometimes

happens

that

the

soap
there

will
are

not

mottle

properly

on

account

of the fact that

In such
a a

not

sufficient

impurities
the mottle
or

present.

case

the soap-maker mottle

a

imitates

by

adding

for

grey

little animal

black,

even

black oxide of manganese.

some

What

is known
soaps
to

as

Castile soap, and

a

makes
turns

of the red
near

Marseilles
exposure the end
to

have

green

mottle,

which

on

the

this is produced
a

by

adding

to

of the
200

air; boiling

little copperas

(ferrous sulphate), lb. i

this
produces So

lb. of soap
a

will be
of green

sufficient ;
hydroxide
to

in
long

the
as

soap

deposit
unexposed

of iron.

this remains
colour,
soap

the

air it keeps
fresh

its green
of the

but

when

exposed

by cutting

surfaces

it turns red, added

that in

which
making

remains
these

permanent.
soaps

It may

also be

green

olive oils form

the
use

the

chief

basis

for them,

with

occasionally
sesame

of hemp

seed, poppy

seed, niger and Common

than

oils.

Blue

Mottled soaps

Soap.

"

Of

more

recent

introduction with
a

the mottled

just described
in households purposes.

is

soap

large blue
floors and

mottle,

much

used

for scrubbing These

soaps
are

other rough

cleaning

CUBD

SOAPS.

241

very strongly

detergent, and
on.

contain

silicate of soda ; they

will be described later Curd

Soaps. without

"

Curd
the

soaps

are

chiefly made
or

from

tallow,

with
are

or

addition
down

of olive

other

oils, which

employed

to tone

the hard soap. For

and
a

difficultlylathering curd
soap the fats

are

properties of a tallow melted in the soap-pan

strong, using small

and

saponified with
at
a

lye of 10" to

12" Tw.
care

quantities
what

is to be taken
is
a

to produce

time ; considerable is known as close

" "

soap, which

homogeneous,
or

pasty

mass,

free from

any

dicatio in-

of fatty matter

separated
a
"

is formed
condition.
the
'*

soap containing The soap is next

"

At this stage there littlefree fat in an emulsified

lye.
"

grained

or

"

"

cut

by salt, and

is allowed to settle. The curding forms grain soap The the final operation. grain soap is first boiled up with
a

littleweak

alkali and

wet

steam,

so

as

to again

"

**

close

it and

complete

the saponification, after which the

mass

stronger lye
when
to

is added
soap
some

and

heated curd

with

dry

steam,

the

opens
of the

and
soap

the

is formed.
out

From and

time

time
when

paste is taken

cooled, and

it sets properly
to settle out,
are

the steam
then
run

is turned into the

off, the curd frames. the Curd

allowed soaps

and

made

from
them

any and

kind

of fats, and

only

difference
of

between

other soaps
out.

lies simply

in the method

boiling and

curding

Soaps, Paraffin
by crutching oil.
appears The

Petroleum
a

Soaps,

"

These

soaps

are

made

into

soap

paste 10 to 20 per cent, of petroleum

addition of these products to a laundry soap to increase its detergent effect, and in particular
are

greasy clothes than

more

reaHiTywashed

with

paraffin soap

with soap do not

an use

ordinary

oily paraffin
Filled

wax,

Some makers of this class of soap. the oils,but a soft, low class, and somewhat on account of the odour being less.

and

Sophisticated
16

Soaps.

"

Several

varieties of

242
are

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

soaps

made

which
to the

sell at
common

low

price.
pure

These

are

duced pro-

by adding previously
cost

but bodies

grades

of soaps

described

certain while
not

which
the

cheapen appearance

their
of their

of production, soap.
may

altering
these

the

It is obvious

that
a

fillers, whatever

nature
can

be, must
In the

answer

few requirements
should
or

before they
not materially

be used.

first place they

interfere with

the solidity, appearance,

some

keeping

properties

of the soap, although

; then

do not

answer

ments all these requirethe

uses
or

they should
way.
as

not interfere with

of the
are

soap such

in any

Among

fillersthere have
soda,

been,

used, starch,

bodies

silicate of kieselguhr,

silicate of potash,

French
or, jelly,

chalk,
as

silicious substances, in

petroleum soap

it is called

America,

mineral

stock,

Glauber's
used;

salt, soda
not
even

crystals.

Silicate of soda is very largely

the

it does soap,

detract

from
not

detergent
them;

properties of
it
can

the

if

it does

increase

only

be used
of the makes
cannot

in the very cheapest of domestic soaps on account fact that it makes them strongly caustic ; it also in water. Too the soaps much rather wasteful
or

has

be used, been added

the soap

is liable to be too with

mass

thin.
and

Starch in the

to soaps
a

; it forms

water

presence

of alkali

stiff gelatinous
therefore The

which
to soap

is freely

It can soluble in water. altering its appearance.

be added

without
are reduced

detergent

properties

by the employment
The

of starch.

addition

of such

chalk, silicious matters, this country,

the
as

such

a use

appearance
to the

and

practised in sophistication is readily detected in These bodies do not of the soap.

of the
soap

substances kieselguhr, is not now

mineral

as

French

add

cleansing

properties

in any

respect,

it more while they tend to break the grain of the soap, make to wash unpleasant with. wasteful in use and sometimes Glauber's
salt and
soda

crystals

are

sometimes

added

to

SIIilCATED

SOAPS.

243

soaps to make

them The

harder, which former

they do by their property the detergent properties

of crystaUising.

reduces

One defect of the soap, the latter tends to increase them. tion they have is that they are liable to bring about the formaof

which

white saline efflorescence on the surface of the soap is not at all desirable, while further they make the
a

soaps very wasteful

in

use.

Mineral

soap stock, which

is

kind of impure

vaseline

or

jelly,ffects the soap simply by making it more a petroleum It is greasy to work with. pasty in consistency and more used in this country, but in America, where rarely if ever
they
seem

to

have

particular penchant
to
common

for sophisticated

soaps, it is often added

soaps.

Having
which
are

thus

briefly discussed
we

the various

filling agents
of

used,

may

proceed

to describe the methods

using them.

Silicated
soaps

Soaps.

"

These

are

frequently
or

known
**

as

run

Their

and the silicate of soda is due introduction to

"

potash

as

runnings*'.
; Messrs.

Messrs. this

Thomas

Gossage
largely.

Sons

have

also made

class of soap

very

Silicate of soda

is sold usually

in the form

of

viscous
some

hquid
grades
the

having
reach

specific gravity
140"

of 100" Tw.,
method of

although

Tw.

The

mixing

and

quantity used vary very greatly with different soapbut little use There are some make of who makers.
"
"

runnings
all their

; there

are

others

who

make

great

use

of them,

common or

grades

of soap

containing

silicate of soda

in

more

less quantity.

The
soap
to

method

be

of using filled is run

then

this material

is very simple. heated in.

The
steam

into

crutcher,

by

until it is pasty, and

the silicate run

A
soap

good
made

grade from

of silicated soap rosin, cottonseed

is made
oil and

by taking
tallow

neat

in the

244 usual
manner,

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

and

adding

to it in the

crutcher

1 cwt. of
a

to each ton of soap. silicate at 100" Tw. a will be stififernd harder after the fillingthan a good quality for ordinary use.
X

Such

soap

before ; and is

When

it is desired to make
1 ton of neat 32" Tw.

very weak

soap, then

there

is taken

soap and

there is crutched

in 5 cwt. of soft and

silicate at
very

This
A

soap

will be thin

and

wasteful
ton

in
soap

use.

more

limited

use

is to add A
few

IJ

cwt.

per
use

of

of

silicate at 10"

Tw.

makers

2 cwt.

of siUcate at 120" Tw.

are

per ton of soap. sold

as
*'
"

Usually
"XX,'*

.silicated soaps etc., household soaps.

pale/'

primrose,"

To

into

silicated soaps appear harder, they are often put drying oven and dried quickly for a few hours ; the
make

outside thereby
the soap keep

becomes better.

covered

with
plan

skin which
the

makes
same

Another
a

of obtaining

effect is to soak the soap in

or

of Glauber's tends
an

salt.

One

strong solution of soda crystals is that the fault of such methods

soap

to become

covered

with

powdery

coat, which

gives it
not

unpleasant
see,
as

appearance
as
an

which

the customer
an

does

like to

he takes it

indication of

inferior

make

of soap. analyses
may
now

Some

of silicated soaps will be given later

devote
a

on.

We
have
i

few words

to other methods

which

been

employed

for filling soaps. added

to be

Starch
rather
when
mass

is sometimes
are

when

highly
It has
a

watered
the

and

caustic soaps

made.

property

boiled with

caustic soda

of forming

thick glutinous

present in soap, acts as a binding material which, when It dissolves freely in and helps to keep the soap together. water, and while it does not add to the detergent properties Two from them. of the soap in any way, detracts but little per cent, is
French
a

fair quantity
or

to

use.

chalk

ground

talc, a silicate of magnesia,

may

COLD-PBOCESS

SOAPS.

245

be added

to

the extent

of 5 to 10

per

cent,

without time

being
it
was

readily detected largely used It has

no

by simple

inspection. but
and
now

At

one

for this purpose,

it is rarely met

binding

property

simply

with. in acts mechanically

filling the soap.

Soda soap, to
crystals
"

washing

soda.

This

salt is often added

soap ;
a

to

the

extent

of 6 per
as

cent,

of the
cause

larger

quantity cannot
on

be used,

it would
both

much

efflorescence

the soap.
and

This material
adds
one

cheapens

the cost of production

to the detergent

properties of the ^oap. with

the
use

There

is

feature in connection it softens purposes

"

of soda

crystals in soap, used for laundry

hard

water,

and
a

when

this is

its use

leads to

Glauber's
hardening properties
Borax
one

salt

sulphate
on

of soda. It does

This
not

saving of soap. has substance

action
nor

soap.

add

to its detergent

does it soften hard

water.

may

be used

as

filling, but it is rather

and

therefore cannot

is an

addition properties, while it exercises slight bleaching with

excellent

be used to cheapen to soaps, as it possesses good

expensive It soaps.
detergent
on

an

effects

the clothes washed

it.
of potash.

Pearlash sometimes
them,

"

carbonate
to soaps

This

substance of hardening

is

added

first for the purpose

a

second

for giving them

finer texture.

This

latter is the soap

brought
and
and

about

by

double

decomposition

between

the pearlash, resulting in the formation of a potash soap improves the texture of sodium carbonate ; the former

the soap, rendering

it smoother it.

and

more

transparent, pearlash

while
not

the latter tends to harden

Too

much

should

be used

or

the soap will become

BY

too

soft and
AND

pasty.
FBOM SPECIAL

SOAP-MAKING

SPECIAL

PBOGESSES
MATEBIALS.

Cold process
In these two

and pressure processes

an

process. attempt is made,

at all events

246

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

in theory

in practice, to employ the fats and alkalies in the proportions in which they combine to form soap ; the

if not

glycerine which is formed in the finished soap. The

many

is not

separated
has

out

but remains
in
use

cold process

been

for

years, and
no

being

comparatively
employed
own

simple

process, requiring
users

special plant, is much

desire
more

by small
The

of

soap

who

to

make

their

soap.

pressure

process

is of

modern

introduction

and

requires

special

plant for it to be carried out.

We
some

may

before describing the practical operations devote

to

attention
of which which

the

theory

of the processes, the

ment employ-

has

been

ment greatly facilitated by the improve-

has taken

place of late years in the manufacture

of caustic soda. The

idea of the

process

whether

it be

cold

process

or

pressure is to bring the fat into contact of alkali that will

a
ensure

with

justthe

amount

complete

saponification and produce

excess

neutral

soap, although

alkaline soap may

by using a slight if so desired. be made showing

the

of alkah

an

Although
place during
yet here.
on

equations

reaction

which

takes

the saponification
to
save

of fats have

been

viously, given pre-

reference

it may
the

be well

to repeat them

The

first equation

shows

the triglyceride, olein, which

OigH^Oa CisHjjsO, ClgHggO. ,_^ _.^

action of caustic soda is chiefly found in oils.

rOH OH IOH

3NaOH
Caustic

SNaCigHsjOa
Sodium Oleate

Soda.

CgHj-^
Glycerine.

blein.*^'* From this equation

(Soap).

it is easy
take

of olein and
are

alkali which

proportions These part in the reaction.

to

calculate

the

884 parts of olein to 120

7"4 to 1, while

parts of caustic soda, the ratio

are

being

there

formed

912

parts of sodiDin

oleate (soap) and

In the
many
case

92 parts of glycerine.

of stearin, the soUd

constituent
:
"

of tallow

ana

other fats, the equation

becomes

COLD-PROCESS

SOAPS.

247

Stearin.

Prom

this equation

we

can

calculate

that

890

parts

by

weight of the glyceride require 120 parts of caustic soda to 918 parts of soap and 92 parts of saponify it,and produce glycerine. Palmitin, the glyceride of palm in the equation : soda, as shown
"

oil,saponifies with

caustic

fCieHaiO^

CsHg-^
Prom

CieH3i02 iGijjHgjOa

3NaOH
Caustic Soda.

aNaCigHsjOa
Sodium
Palmitate.

OH CaH^-^ I OH
Glycerine.

fOH

Palmitin.

which

it may

be

calculated

that

806

parts

of the

glyceride require 120

parts of caustic soda, and there will be

produce^ 834 parts of soap and 92 parts of glycerine.

Laurin,
as

the principal glyceride of coconut

fied oil, is saponi-

shown

in the equation

"

DjHg-^

GiaHjgOa

3NaOH
Caustic

SNaCi^HagOg
Sodium Laurate.

VC12H28O2
Laurin.

Soda.

roH OH C^B,AC ^OH l(

Glycerine.

638 parts of laurin require 120 parts of caustic soda, and produce
666 parts of soap and
92 parts of glycerine.

If all fats and it would

a

oils were
matter

composed
to make

simply

of

one

glyceride
of soap oils and

be

an

easy

the manufacture the

has

truly scientific proceeding, but unfortunately fats have not the simple composition which

been

assumed

above, they being

two
or more

mixtures

in various
Thus

proportions

of

different glycerides.

tallow contains

both

stearin and

olein ; palm
even

oil,palmitin, stearin and complex, it contains Then

vary

nut olein ; coco-

oil is

more

laurin, caproin,

caprin, caprylin, olein, stearin, etc.

of these various constituents
cannot

again the proportions from

that

time his

to time

hence

the

soap-maker

assume

fats will

248 always
have
a

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

constant

composition,

and base his method

of

working on that assumption. As the process of soap-making

systems
excess

under
on

the cold and pressure

must,

or

should

be, carried

in such

way

that

an

of alkali be avoided, the soap-maker

ought

to be placed

in
or

position to ascertain the

any

amount

of alkali, caustic soda of fat he

caustic potash
can

lot

or

parcel

take ; this he

do by ascertaining

by

means

is using will of the Koett-

storfer test the proportion of alkali required to saponify any given fat or oil. The method of carrying out this test we

will now The

describe.
Test Koettstorfer
"

To

carry

out

this test there is

4 to 6
a

required first a wide-mouthed

capacity, fitted with glass tube
also
a

glass flask of about

oz.

cork, through

which

passes wide.
a

piece of will

about

3 feet long
a

and

inch

There

be required

water

bath

heated

by

bunseri burner
in
use.

for the purpose

are

of heating
a

up the flask when

c.c.

There
and 30

also required The of pure

burette, 25

pipette and
are a

balance
of

weights.

chemicals

required

solution

grammes
a

caustic potash

in 1000

c.c.

of alcohol and

standard

as

solution of sulphuric acid, or better what is known of strength, that is, containing 24*5 grammes seminormal

pure

sulphuric acid per litre. into the flask 2 grammes Weigh

c.c.

of the oil

or

fat to be

tested, add 25 and

heat
on

of the alcoholic solution of caustic potash the water bath for half aij hour, shaking up at
the end of the

intervals. been

At

time

completely
the
test

saponified, and
excess

stated the fat will have what remains to be done is This is done by

to determine

of the alkali used.

a

diluting the
drops of
an

solution with

little water,

adding

few

phthalein, which will impart a red coloration, then carefully from the adding burette the standard acid until this red colour disappears, The flask is noting the number of c.c.'s of acid required.
alcoholic solution of phenol

"

COLD-PBOCESS

SOAPS.

249

well rinsed out and into it 25 c.c. of the potash

next

blank

test made

by
on

measuring
the water the phenol the

solution, boiling up
water,

bath

as

before, then

diluting with

adding

phthalein solution and

standard acid. The

titrating from

the

burette

with

objectof
in the

standardise the potash

and any

this blank test is to making solution in terms of the acid solution,

manner

this is best done

error

justdescribed,

as

then

which
on

may

be caused

by impurities in the alcohol

the boiling is eliminated. of caustic potash

used acting To

the alkali during

calculate the percentage

required of
from

to

saponify the fat from

of acid used

the data obtained, the number

test with

c.c.'s

in the

the oil is subtracted

test;

the

number

used

in the

blank

the

difference multiplied required to saponify by 50 gives

2 grammes

by 0*028 gives the weight

the 2 grammes the percentage.
tallow
c.c.'s we were

of alkali,KOH, and

of fat taken, To
take
a

this multiplied
example
:

concrete
as

of

described, the number of of acid used being 8*2, the blank test taking 22 '1. Then
taken and treated
:
"

have

Blank

test

22-1

Oil test
DifEerence 13-9
X

8-2

13*9 0-028
=

0-3892.

0*3892

is the

weight

of

KOH

required this by 60

to
we

grammes

of tallow.

Multiplying

2 saponify have 19*46,

to saponify

the percentage
tallow.

of caustic potash,

KOH,

required

Should
soda

it be desired to ascertain the quantity

the

of caustic

required, then

difference in the
In
the

standard
we

is multiplied
13*9
X

by
=

0*02.

above
x

case

acid use should have

as

0-02

0*278.

0*278

50

gives 13*9

the

percentage

of caustic soda required

"

to saponify

tallow.

In the

same

way

the Koettstorfer oils may

equivalent

of other fats and

value or saponification be obtained, and having

260

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

got these, and of the sample

soap-maker

knowing

the

actual

strength

of commercial caustic soda will be in a position to calculate the quantity of

or

in real caustic he is using, the

caustic soda

of caustic potash of fat

or or

he

must

use

to

convert

given quantity
the cold process Thus

mixture

of fats into soap process.

by

either

the pressure

supposing

the

soap-maker

wishes

to make

soap

from

:
"

1 cwt. kitchen fat having

Koettstorfer

value of 13*5

cwt.

of tallow with

Koettstorfer
a

value of 13*9

2 cwt. of coconut
and 95*5

oil with

Koettstorfer

value of 18*4

is using

74

per cent, commercial

of real caustic soda;
:
"

caustic which
then
we

contains
to

per

cent,

shall have

make

the following calculations

"

The

kitchen fat will take : 100 : 13-5 : : 112 : 15-12 lb. of caustic soda.
tallow will take
100
:

The

"

1319

: :

112

1556
:
"

lb. of caustic soda.

The

coconut

oil will take

: :
:
"

100 Then
we

18-4 have

224

40*21 lb. of caustic soda.

1512
15*56

40-21

A total of 70*89 lb. of caustic soda required to saponify weight of fats given.
Next soda
to
; :

the

we

have

to

calculate the this

we

quantity
the

of commercial

be used.
:

For

have

proportion

95*5:

100

70-89

74*3.

There

will therefore

be

lb. of 74 per cent, caustic soda to saponify be made In a similar way calculations may
other mixtures

required 74*3 the fats taken.

concerning

of fats and

oils.
or

The

Koettstorfer

values

various

oils have

already

been

saponification equivalents of be taken given ; these may

COIiD-PROCESS

SOAPS.

261 is recommended
to

without much

error,

but the soap-maker

fresh batch

separately test each

as

of fats that he may

be using,
of testing

The method considerably. commercial caustics for their real strength has when dealing with alkalies.
they

often

vary

been

given

There

is another

point which

requires attention in making under

soaps by either of the two

and that is the proportion

processes

consideration,
contain
when

of water

they must

finished ; for it must

added during and
cannot
or

be borne in mind
of manufacture

that whatever

water

is

the process

remains

in the soap
has been

used,

be conveniently removed added to if too littlehas been

must,

if

an

excess

employed.
a

The

soap-maker
a

therefore, if he desires to produce

of water,
use

soap with

given proportion

only that quantity

he adds this result, and this of course along with his caustic in the form of lye. Thus supposing that in working up the fats given in the example above he which

will give him

wishes to produce
to make

soap with 30 per cent, of water, he would

add then
: :

his calculations
and
:

the weight work

+

of fat employed
sum
"

to

that of caustic used

70

the proportion
:

30

446

74-3

223-9

he will therefore have

to add

223*9 lb. of water

course

in making

his soap.
soda.

This

water

he

will of

add

to the caustic

THE

COLD
now

PROCESS

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

The

process

to be considered

is perhaps

the simplest

of all processes

justheating
melted mixture

of making the fats from

melt them,

soap.

It consists essentially in the soap

which
then

is to

be made
the

sufficiently to
fat with
to stand

thoroughly
then

mixing

strong
for
at
a

caustic lye, and few

days.

allowing

the

The

fats proceeds, complete, and

and

the

end

of the
The

saponification of the time stated is fairly

plant required

the soap

is made.

is of

262

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

simple
process
The
may

character,

and

having

come

is probably into use.

the

inducemeut

for the

advantages

of the up.

"cold

process"

of soap-making
and

thus

be

simimed

It is very

simple

easily
quantities

carried out, requiring

can

littlelabour
means,

and

plant. is not
a

Small
the
case

be made

by its
The

which
too

with

the

boiling process.
a

soap

has

better appearance better and

does

than
not

boiled spap ; further it keeps

so

its form

crack

readily

as

boiled soap.

It is therefore better purpose

adapted

for making

tablets of toilet soap, for which

is chiefly employed. The yield of soap from any given weight of the fact that of fat is larger on account the soap remains in. all the material used in making The disadvantage of the cold-process soap is that it is
the cold process

difficult,indeed of the
these
they

impossible, to

secure

complete always

whole soaps
a

of the fat used.

There
^

saponification is present in
Then

small
a

but variable quantity

littlefree alkali, which
to many

of free fat.
causes

also contain harsh and

the soap to
presence

work

feel sharp

skins.

The

of

the free fat may

sometimes
when dry up

lead to the soap becoming exposed

more

rancid.

Cold-process
to sweat

soaps
they

to the air

are

and

therefore does not

more

easily than a look well when old. It however

and

rather liable boiled soap ; it

dissolves
;

freely in water

therefore lathers
a

better

for hard

waters

it is better suited than

boiled soap.
are

As all the ingredients

which

used

remain

in the soap,

it is evident that all the materials used should be of the best quality if a good grade of soap is to be made. The fat most soap by used and best adapted for making this process
that
a

is coconut
soap

oil.

At

one

time

it

was

considered

without this oil could not be made This however forming fully one half of the fats used. was at highly causticised lyes were the time when and not made howNow unknown. when caustics of high strength were
cold-proces*

COLD-PROCESS

SOAPS.

263

ever

any

kind

of fat may
one

be

employed,

still coconut

oil

remains the chief it saponifies more

have to be used

used.

Its merit with

other

lies in the fact that

readily
any

strong
fat.

alkalies such
a

as

than

It yields

soap

of

fine colour, it dissolves easily in cold water and lathers very freely; on it is apt to be harsh and feel the other hand
sharp to dehcate Tallow

skins.

is also very largely used for cold soaps, giving good white soaps of a firm texture, durable in use. oil is also largely used, indeed may use soap-maker any
Palm
when
he vdshes
to produce
are
a

as

is also castor oil

or

The

fat

admixture

of fats

soap having

desired properties.

should be of a good quality, free from any foreign matter It is advisable to and be fresh. to a clarifying process before using them ; this them subject Whatever
used they process may
or

fats

take the form

the

fat may
case

and in each
top.

allowing to settle, be melted over a salt lye of about 10" Tw., using only the clear fat which rises to the
of melting and
to
use

It is of great importance
any

fresh fats and

fats

free from

great proportion

tends to the formation

of free fatty acid, as such of soap which is not uniform in grain,

the free fatty acids, when the alkali is mixed with the fat, immediately combining with it to form soap which separates from the rest of the mass in the form of grains and curds ;
the presence of the soap.
destroys of which If it be suspected

the

homogeneous

character of

that any particular batch

fat contains too much free fatty acid, such may by heating the fat to just about its melting
thoroughly

be removed
point, from
out

then

mixing
2" to

it with 3" Tw.

little weak
; the

lye made

soda the

ash of about

strong

alkali takes
By

acid in the form

the
mass

of soap, which F.

dissolves in lye.

keeping

at 130" to 150"

the purified fat will rise to the used.

a

top and

may

be skimmed

off and
the

If any

difficultybe

experienced

in separating

clear fat

Uttle brine added

264
remove

SOAP

MANUFACTURE,

will fat.

it. It pays

best to

use

only the best grades of

alkali used must be the highest grade of caustic that be bought, either the 77 per cent, solid caustic soda or can hquid The the 100" Tw. caustic soda. strength of lye
The
most

commonly

used

is 70"

to

72"

Tw.

32 to 33 per cent, of actual caustic.

The

containing alkaline lye should

Low

and

be made
caustic

with
are

as

soft

water

as

can

be got.
soap

grades of

by the cold process, inasmuch the foreign salts and impurities they contain as interfere with the complete saponification of the fat and lead
to the production

not suitable for making

of free fat and caustic

were

of a soap which free alkali ; then

contains again if

a a

large proportion
very

low

grade

used the impurities and

on

salts would

be liableto

spoil the appearance of the in which it may be placed. soap and of any wrappers As regards the quantity the proper of lye used and it, this necessarily varies with the strength at which to use
efflorescence and

the surface

kind
more

of fat employed. lye, and tallow.

a

Coconut
one

stronger

oil, for instance, will require be used than is the case may

vnth

It has been

found
lye
at

that coconut

best
and

with
most

72" Tw.,

oil and cotton oil saponify while for tallow, palm oil best at 66"
then the

other

fats the
a

saponification proceeds
should

Tw.
soap

Too

strong

lye

be

avoided,
and the

as

is made

rather curdy

in texture

but
to

imperfect, the soap being hard

a

and

saponification It is better rough.

stronger.
as oil,

use

lye

one

or

two

degrees

weaker

than

As regards the quantity

of lye to be used, coconut

100 lb. of the oil taking before mentioned, takes the most, from 77 per cent, caustic 50 lb. of lye at 72" Tw. made

If a lower grade of caustic, say 70 per cent., then the soda. be made lye may the same stronger, say 77" Tw., and quantity
used.

COLD-PROCESS

SOAPS.

266

Tallow, cotton
so

oil,palm

oil, and

other

fats do not require

it is best to use lye of 66" a alkaU ; in their case Tw., and of this 60 lb. will be required for each 100 lb. of fat.
much

Using

the

fats and

oils and

lyes in the

strengths given, the finished soaps

cent, of water,

proportions and will contain about 26 per

quantity.
a

which
water

is

fair average

If

soap

containing
used, while
must

more

be desired, then

weaker then
a

lye may stronger

be lye

if a stronger soap is wanted,

be employed.

again saponification is finished soap

a

It may

be
never

stated

that

in the
;

cold

process

the

complete

there

is always

in the

free alkali. In makUttle free fat and a little ing the fats and a toilet soap it is advisable to so proportion alkalies and the strength of the lye used as to leave as httle
free alkali
as

Having

so

possible. far dealt

with

the

materials
we

and
now

principles
proceed
to

of the cold process

of soap-making,

may

describe in detail the operation

itself.
"

Working
are

of

the Gold

Process,
a

The

fats and
ought

oils which
to be

to be used

are

placed in

pan, which

fitted

fats are melted by heat The arrangement. with a mixing in any convenient fire. A suitable or way, either by steam is that made by Dopp York of New pan for this purpose and already illustrated,figure 31, page 187.

The

temperature

should

not

be too
When

high, simply
coconut

that

which

is sufiicient to

melt the fats.

90" F., with
a

oil is used oil and

this will be 80" to

tallow about 100"

mixture

of coconut

F., with tallow and other greases from 110" to 120" F. When is in with constant melted the lye is run stirring, which continued until the mass of fat and lye begins to thicken
and flow from
a

paddle

in

uniform

sluggish stream.
of
an

The

temperature

of the lye may There

be that
is
no

average
or warm

summer

heat, 70" to 80" F.

need

to heat

it in

266
summer,

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

but in winter it may 80** F, before mixing it with

have
run

be advisable to heat the lye to the oil. After the lye and oil

is been mixed and it begins to thicken the soap mass into the frames, which are then covered over with sacking to keep the heat in as much left for from as possible, and
a

three days to

week

for the soap

to fully form,

after which

it may

be cut up in the usual way. comparatively simple, yet,

as

vnth all processes be conducted the cold process must of soap-making, with care and attention to some points of detail or otherwise the product will not be quite right. Some points of detail have
already
to.

Although

been
ensure

mentioned,
a

others

may

now

be briefly referred

To

perfectly good free from

out

product, the
or

fats must
otherwise

be of
the

good
soap

quahty

and

free fatty acid, curdy and

not

is liable to turn
The
or

homogeneous

in

structure. too cold,

fats should

otherwise
then

be at the right temperature, not they might set on adding the lye, nor
may

too hot, too

or

the saponification of portions

a

take place

The grainy soap be produced. strength of the lye has already been dealt with and does not The need repeating here. mixing or crutching of the fat but not too prolonged. and lye together should be thorough

rapidly and

curdy

or

It is not desirable that any

place during
afterwards.
too prolonged

the

mixing

actual saponification should take operation, but only in the frames

It is found
then

in practice that if the crutching be for the materials to there is a tendency

and
one an

separate

out

in the frames,

indifferent quality of soap

can

produced,
to throw

with

which

only

thing

be done

and that is

the materials frames

The should

into the soap-boiler and boil them up. into which the soap is run from the crutchers
large ; those holding from
2 to

not

be too

2J

cwt.

are

best, and it is preferable that these should be low and broad The latter shape of frames reand high. tains rather than narrow
the heat too long, and the soap does
not

set properly,

COLD-PROCESS

SOAPS.

267

while with the low flatframes covered with sacking the heat isretained,sufficient ensure to the proper saponification taking place.
a

Too

much

heat

should

be

avoided,

as

then there is

In risk of oil separating out. specially to be guarded against. Filling Cold-process Soaps.

summer

time this is a risk

"

itself very well to the perfuming, soaps made

cold process adapts colouring and fillingof the

The

by it.

As regards perfuming any and recipes for such perfumes

the head

kind of perfume may be added, will be found described imder

The perfumes should

of Toilet

Soaps.

be
and

added before

after the stock

the crutching

has been

mixed
so

in the crutchers
the

is finished,

that

perfume

has

time

to

get intimately mixed

Cold-process

with the whole of the soap stock. be coloured to any extent soaps may
In the
case

and

with any
such
etc., which

kind of colouring material.

of employing green,
to the

bodies
are

vermilion, ultramarine, insoluble in water, they may

the alkali,when they
course

as

chrome

be added

fats before adding incorporated with

not
to

the soap.

Of

will get thoroughly be taken care must like Prussian

As

employ

any

which

is acted
matters

colouring by the upon

like annatto,

matter,

blue, soluble

alkali.

regards

safranine, eosine, and the coal-tar dyes in general, the best plan is.to dissolve these in water, straining the solution to free it from any undissolved particleswhich might lead to the production of specks in the
colouring
soap, and add the solution to the lye, using this rather stronger,

it,although perhaps, to allow for the dye solution weakening when there is but a small quantity of dye stufifbeing used
this point does not need
much
as
or

attention.

Filling materials such

of soda, salt, sugar,
etc.,

silicate of soda, starch, sulphate be combinations of these, may

in the
crutchers
to any
required

added

towards
extent.

the

last while
are

They

best added
17

just before

framing,

258 the

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

although
on

practice of soap-makers

varies very

ably consider-

this point.
on

In the chapter recipes for making

Toilet Soaps

will be found

number
we

of

these soaps by the cold process ; soaps.

shall

here confine attention to domestic Hard

White

Soap."

100

lb. good

white

tallow, 50 lb.

caustic soda lye at eS""Tw.

White
Hard

Water

Soap.

"

100

lb. coconut

oil, 60 lb.

caustic soda White

lye at 72" Tw.

"

Soap.

50

lb. tallow,

50

lb. coconut

oil, 50

lb.

caustic soda lye at 70" Tw. Domestic

20 lb. palm Pale palm

Soap,

Yellow.

"

50 lb. coconut

[30lb. tallow, oil,

25

oil, 50 lb. caustic soda lye at 70" Tw. 50 lb. coconut Soap. oil, 25 lb. tallow,
"

lb.

oil,25 lb. castor

replacement caustic
the

The

oil,63 lb. caustic soda lye at 70" Tw. of a portion of the soda lye, say oneof the
and the
same

fourth, by

potash

strength, much

proves imsoaps.

both
Soap-makers reckon
on

appearance
from

quality
above

of

these
can

working
the

recipes
and

easily

respective

quantities of soda

potash.

SOAP-MAKING

UNDER

PRESSURE.

During of making Machinery

recent

years

there

has

been

introduced
chapter

system
on

soap

under

pressure, and

in the
a

Soap

there has
The

been

described

plant
are

which

for this purpose.

the ordinary

materials
and

employed
any

is used those used in

cold process,

given under
under For

that

head

may

recipe which has been for making be employed soaps

pressure.
a

good

yellow

soap

there

may

be

used

charge

of

7 cwt.

of tallow

oil,3 cwt.

of rosin, 3 cwt. of palm

oil and
may

140 gallons of caustic soda used

7 cwt.

lye at 34" Tw. palm

; or

there

be
140

tallow, 2 cwt.

oil, 4 cwt. rosin, with

PRESSURE-PROCESS

SOAPS.

259

gallons caustic soda

soap than

lye at 42" Tw.

This

will make

drier

the last formula.

The plant is made

but may
charge. through

however The
the

sufficiently large to hold 1 ton of charge, be built larger to take 2 tons in one
is simple
;

method manhole

the

apparatus

then closed, and

for the provided the fire is lighted and maintained

is charged is which purpose,

to such
a

degree that the pressure

as

in the

boiler stands

at 50 to 60 lb.,

indicated by the steam

allowed
the
any

jetprovided
is

for the purpose.

The

length of time

is from

five to six hours, at the end

run or

of which
and mixed

time with

finished soap colouring it is

run a

into
scent

the

crutchers
may

matter

that

be
It is

required, after which quite possible when two charges a day. quality and

into the
high made

frames

to set.

working
The
soap
to

pressure

system

to

use

is generally excellent in

quite equal
the

that

made soap

by the

ordinary

cesses. pro-

Like

cold-process

glycerine and
process

other materials

of making.

which (See also Bennet

it will retain all the have been added in the

and

Gibbs'

process

farther

on.)
Oleic acid is prepared by-product in the manufacture Soap.
"

Oleic Acid

in fairly large of stearic acid

quantities as a for candle-making,

among

and

is used

for

which

that

of soap-making
products,

variety of purposes, It is be included. may oleic acid

which
has of
a a

sold in two
straw

principal
and

pale

light

colour,

brown

oleic acid
a

reddish which

amber

colour, both

varieties having
The

peculiar

odour

is rather
somewhat
means

characteristic.
from
time
to

composition

time, according

of oleic acid varies to the processes by

of which

it is made. it contains
and
traces

Its chief constituent in addition small

is,of

course,

oleicacid, but
matter,

traces

carbon of hydroescaped

of fatty oil which

are

has

saponification. The by the writer, of two

following

analyses,

recently

made

samples

of conmiercial

oleic acid, from

260

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

of the commercial articlecan which the average composition be readily gleaned. The specific gravity is also given at 60" F., and the temperature at which it begins to set.
"Pale." "Brown."

Oleic acid Oil

93-06 6-04 -90

87-70 9-41 2-89 O-904 38" F.

Hydrocarbon
Specific gravity Turbid
at

0-897

42" F.

There

will be

i:equired the proportion with

the
amount

ally of oleic acid actuof saponifiable methods.

; oil

present, these
as
a

together

may
concrete

be

ascertained
example
the

by

the

usual of the

Taking
oleic acid
of oleic

analysis
a

brown

given

that above, and assuming and acid is going to be worked,

charge
that the 77

of 1 ton per
cent,
:
"

caustic

soda

is to be

used,

we

shall have
282
: :

following

40

: :

87*7

100

2240

which
to

gives 257 lb. of 77 per cent, caustic

one

as

being

saponify

ton

of this brown

oleic acid.

required As there is

9*41 per cent, of saponifiable oil in the sample,

the additional
thus,

quantity
allovnng

of caustic to saponify

this may

be calculated
"

14 lb. of caustic for 100 lb. of the oil :

100 100
: :

14

: :

9*41

2240

which gives 29*5 lb. as the additional quantity to add. Oleic acid combines immediately or almost immediately in the cold vnth caustic soda and caustic potash, and it will
react

also with
case
a

the

carbonates

of soda

and

potash

in the

latter place.

considerable

evolution

of carbonic

acid taking

Soap

may
or

be

made

caustic soda
caustic

carbonate
or

oleic acid by using either of soda for hard soaps, or by using

from

potash

carbonate
sample

of potash

if soft soaps

are

required.

A good

of oleic acid takes half its weight

of

OLEIC

ACID

SOAPS.

261

caustic soda
two
or

at 66" Tw.

for its complete

saponification. either in the

The
cold

substances boihng
; when

may

be

brought

together

brought
so

is apt to take place

the form

heated, the combination rapidly that the soap separates out in

together
are

of grains In
a

which

apt

to

contain

unsaponified

oleic acid.
occur

somewhat

lesser degree

this is also apt to

of working

when the

to

run

using it cold. The fatty acid into the

an

best method

is

pan, steam-jacketed

which

is

fitted with quantity

same

agitator.

There

is then with
as

added

the

required

of caustic soda at 66" Tw.

the heat

agitation.
mass.

At the
The

time

is turned

on

so

to heat the

pasty until a uniform agitating are continued is obtained. be added any required scent To this may mass into frames to set. or colouring matter, after which it is run

heating

and

The

same

plan may

be adopted

if caustic potash

be employed

in the place of caustic soda.

The
theoretical
are
:

equivalents

between

oleic acid and

soda,
or

the
56 of

alkalies

282 of oleic acid to 40 of caustic

caustic potash, these being parts by weight. will find it

strength
as

The

soap-maker

well to ascertain by chemical

to

analysis the exact

from

of the oleic acid, and

calculate
or

these

proportions

the quantity he will

of caustic soda
any

caustic potash

which As

combine

with

given

charge
a

of oleic acid.
small

commercial

oleic acid generally oil

a

contains

percentage

of unsaponifiable

slight

excess

of alkali may

be added

this will ensure complete saponification of the fatty matter. In place of employing the caustic alkalies, the cheaper carbonates is be used ; but in this case the soap-maker may
troubled with
a

considerable

amount

of frothing,

owing

to

the formation
employment soap,

of carbonic

acid gas, which

necessitates

the

which

of very large vessels for the production is in many cases rather inconvenient.
of soda ash of 52
soda
to

of the The

proportion
taken
as

per 100

cent, to oleic acid may

be

19

lb. of

lb. of oleic acid, and

3J

262 gallons of water

soda

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

ash.

employed,

quantity of If needful the better qualities of alkalies may be less quantity will be used. a proportionately when lb. of oleic acid require 53 lb. of sodium 69 lb. of potassium carbonate for saponification. difficulty in making a good soap from oleic acid,
282

will be required

to dissolve that

Theoretically
carbonate
There and is
no or

the carbonates ash added,

should

be used

warm

and

the solution of
of the
on

the soda

allowing
means

time for the

can

subsidence be carried

frothing, by which
more

the process

with
added
the

effective control.
mass

After all the alkali has be kept heated

been

the form

of soap
a

should

until it assumes
it is ready

of

smooth,

homogeneous

paste, when

for

running

into the frames

for cooling.

If thought

desirable the oleic acid may rosin.

1 cwt.

be combined would

with

other

fats

or

good

proportion
or

be 3 cwt.

of

oleic acid and

of palm
the

of rosin,

3 cwt.

of oleic acid, 1 cwt. these fats than

are

oil, and

1 cwt.

of rosin.

When

are

used
oleic

mixture

requires

boiling rather

longer

when

acid is used by itself. The

soaps thus made

than

rather better

in taste and
alone.

sweeter

in odour

soaps soap

made

from

oleic acid

It may

be noted

that

the

made

from

brown
;

oleic acid tends to become

darker

in colour by keeping with.

with

pale oleic acid this defect is not met

HYDRATED

SOAPS.

similar

plan

of
in

working making

is
what

one
are a

which

has

been
knovm

especially
as

followed

generally

marine

soaps ; it is practically employed

at

cold process, but

salted
out
:
"

the

of the modification boil, the soap not being

of working

afterwards.

The

method

is

as

follows
The

fat is melted degree

in the pan

in the usual way is

run

; the alkali

of the required
amount

of strength

in, but

not in sufficient

to completely

saponify all the fat.

The

mixture

PRESSURE-PROCESS

SOAPS.

263

is thoroughly
complete
as

boiled, and
possible
more

when

saponification is as nearly lye is added and the boiling continued,

until there is justa faint taste of
run

and

fresh lye added

for cooling. Any kind of fat may be used for this purpose, and it is known Each kind of fat requires a certain partias marine soap. cular alkali. The soap
frames strength of alkali to
ensure

is then

into the

the best results ; thus, tallow

is best saponified at 16" Tw., coconut The at 28" Tw., oJive oil at 25" Tw.
the following

oil at 32" Tw., palm

quantities
are

^ven

oil in

table

"

100 lb. of tallow

take

231 lb. of lye at

16" Tw.

100 lb. of coconut oil take 130 lb. of lye at 32" Tw. 100 lb. of palm oil take 114 lb. of lye at 28" Tw. 100 lb. of olive oil take 120 lb. of lye at 25" Tw.

Hydrated
on

soaps

are

not

made

to

any

great

extent

now,

account

of the fact that they contain process, and Hydrated

the glycerine formed

to leave

during in the
greases
or

the soap.
are

it does
soaps

not

pay
are

which

made

glycerine from cheap

sometimes
s

hardened

by cratching
them
very

in soda crystals
harder,

Glauber
some

salt, which

makes

much

and

in

cases

increases their detergent

value.

SAPONIFICATION

UNDER Gibbs*

PRESSURE.

(Bennet "
Many attempts have

Process.)
to produce

been

made

soap

by other

than and

the ordinary

boiling and

cold processes

before described, performs

in which

agitation

of the

materials
Messrs.
a

the preliminary

stage of the operation.

Bennet

"

Gibbs

of

New
which

York

obtained

patent

in 1865 for

mechanical
:

process

is said to possess the following advantages

2, improvement

1, Eapidity

of manufacture;

quantity of soap produced in fuel ; 6, the use of cheaper materials ; 7, saponification enters of all grease ; 8, saving of all the glycerine which

in quality; 3, increased in labour ; 5, saving ; 4, economy

264

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

into the

soap.

The

last may

have

been thought

an

advantage

thirty years ago, but to-day when

it is rather

disadvantage.
:
"

The

glycerine is so valuable following is a description

of the process

Their

process

consists
or

in

agitating

materials
water

with
a

caustic

carbonated
under

in
a

closed
as

vessel, while
to
cause
a

saponifiahle alkalies in solution in heat and pressure, in

the

such

manner

thorough

alkaline solution and of the fatty acids with the base of the alkaline combination be enclosed in a If a quantity of fatty matter solutions. of soda in water, and vessel with a solution of carbonate
with
heat square

the

of the fats mixing instantaneous an producing

applied

to
a

produce

pressure

of 220

to

280
a

lb. per

inch and

temperature fatty acids

of 350" to 400" F., and

the

tion combinasolution

between

the

soda

of the

will take place only at the upper

surface of the solution when of the grease, the heavy

in contact

with

the under

surface

lye occupying
produced If the where
mass

the lower

part of the

vessel, and

soap will be

the fat and

alkali unite. in such

a manner as

be

agitated
mix

to

stir

together
whole
even

and

thoroughly

the contents

of the vessel, the

will be instantly quality of soap. is wanted

or

converted

into

homogeneous
use no more
on

and
water

It is advisable
soap.
to

to

than

in the

The
a

process

is carried

in

boiler

cyUnder

similar

resting horizontally, and

One
or

heated

boiler plain cylinder steam in any convenient manner.

are

both

heads

of the and

cylinder
are
so as

made

so

as

to be convenientl

removable,

the

full size

of the

inner
of

diameter
a

of the

cylinder,

to admit

of the long
as

insertion
the

revolving

shaft, which
shaft, which

should

be

as

itself. The

is in the centre

cylinder of this cylinder, is

both ends in stuffing boxes; works carried through and is applied to revolve the shaft. On the shaft are power fastened arms with floats or stirrers, extending nearly to the

PRESSUBE-PROCESS

SOAPS.

265

sides of the

cylinder; shaft when

the

the

arms,

floats

or

agitators

on

one

side of the

revolved

carrying the
on

fat down

into
the

the alkali, while alkali up thoroughly

whole

agitators

the under

other

side carry

into the mixing

fat, thus, while

the

heat and

pressure,
of the
even,

whole,

causing

the conversion
a

contents

of the vessel instantly into

uniform,

and good At
one
one

quality of soap.
end of the cylinder
are

placed

two
on an

safety valves,

at the

top of the

cylinder, the

other
There of

outlet pipe
a

inserted in the head

of the cylinder.

is also

mercury

bath

of

about

inches
or

in

length

gas-pipe

which

is

screwed

into the boiler

cylinder

in any

convenient

place

for the insertion of the

end of the

thermometer
an

bulb.
for the
an

At the opposite

cylinder
the

is

opening

insertion

of

supply

pipe ; at

other end

is also

opening

for the

is intended to insertion of a second outlet pipe, and which be used only when it is desired to draw off the whole contents is first put into operation, the machine of the vessel. When if carbonate of soda is used, it is necessary to allow some carbonic acid to escape
prevent undue

by

one

of the
the

safety valves, in order to

pressure

by

liberation
fatty acids

of the
with

carbonic
the
to

acid when
takes
place.

combination
If any

of the of the reaches

alkali
escape

liquids be

allowed

before the temperature

returned The
to allow

325" to 375" they

should

be

to the cylinder.

safety valve
an

on

the

outlet
at
a

pipe may
pressure

be

so

loaded
to

as

escape

of soap

of 250

270

lb.

A quantity

of lye and

oil may

be pumped
a

in at the opposite
stream

ends, the agitation being kept up ; flows out at the other end. The

continual
may

of soap

product

then

be prepared

for the

market

by

cooling, moulding
use.

(framing), and
the soap

cutting processes in ordinary

made
are

By

this process time the

a

is

in less than introduced

one

hour

from

the

ingredients
thorough

into

the

boiler, but

uniform

266

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

saponification
pressure

is obtained

at the

instant that

the

heat and

arrive at the required short ; if this degree is reached

degree,

be the time
the

long

or

in five minutes

soap is

made. The soda 27

proportions

employed
100

are

as

follows

carbonate
or

of

at 48" 27

lb., water

lb., lard, tallow

oil 100 lb.

a

lb. of carbonate of soda will, it is said, make by the quantity soap for soft water; obtained

neutral

the

above

process

is 200

lb. of soap

for every

100

lb. of grease employed.

is stated to be applicable to making any kind of soap, including soft soap, which is prepared with the same rapidity, without potash as in requiring the use of so much
The
process the ordinary

process.
the original inventors

Although
soda

recommend

carbonate
as

of
the

it would
and

be better to work trouble caused

be avoided. B.
Toilet

with

caustic soda,

annoyance

by

the evolution

of carbonic

acid would

thereby

Soaps.
colour, in toilet soaps

The

variety of

name,

shape, perfume, they

a

is great, while the price at which

ranges
to say

are

offered to the public

the tablet. Needless
"

from the

one

penny

to half
a

crown

former

is that of
what
a

poor

class of toilet soap

may

and

yet
out

it is wonderful

fair class of soap

"

be turned

for the democratic

a

penny

while the higher price is asked

up
to

for

soap

of superb

quality, packed
appeals strongly

in the

naanner,

and

which

artistic aristocracy for

very

support.

Toilet soaps and

transparent

are

of two

kinds

"

the ordinary

opaque

kind

soaps.
are

Toilet soaps
the soap-makers
we

made

by two

processes,

those

known

to

as
a

the boiling and

the cold process.

Again
are

may

draw

further

distinction between

those which

TOILET

SOAPS.

267
or

milled, and
The
the

those which

are

made

by crutching
has

boiling process
first part

of soap-making

been

remelting. described in
same

of this chapter.

Practically,

it is the

for all kinds of soap ; if there be any it is

are

difference at all it is that

more

carefully worked made. The

when

the better qualities of soap

being

cold process

is fairly well known

and of

is much

used ; it has been

the maker

described.

In the preparation
a

toilet soaps
whether

really starts with

made

ready-made
or

soap,

this has been

by the boiling

the cold process

is immaterial,
he converts

and by carr}ring out certain finishing operations his soap into a toilet soap. Toilet Soap.

Common
soaps
are

very

simply
and

deal of the ^A great An made. ordinary

"

common

toilet
is taken

soap

when

just hot,
; there

before
added

it is framed
a a

it is put

into

crutcher
or

is then

small

quantity
or

of palm

of coconut

oil,according
the of object

as

coloured

white

oil soap is

being made,
last traces There
matter

this addition being to neutralise the

may

of alkaH

which
a

be contained

in the
some

soap.

is then

added

little scenting material, is then

framed,

colouring
to cool,

if needful ; the soap

cut

allowed

then

up

into slabs and

up

bars, stacked

until it gets fairly

The

firm, then

cut

into tablets and

employed
are

stamped.
or

scenting

materials
almonds,

usually

mirbane

artificialoil of
most
common
or

citronelle and
matters
to add
an

oil of caraway.
are

The

colouring
soap

Bismarck
to

brown, chrysoiaine
upon, the

yellow.
a

As

example

work

following

recipe for
Brown

Windsor

soap
from

made
a

in this way
of tallow

may
and

be taken
oil.

"

75 lb. of soap made 2 lb. of palm oil. 1 lb. of mirbane.

1
ounce

mixture

palm

of Bismarck

brown.
can

A white

Windsor

soap

be made
from tallow

from
and

"

75 lb. of a white soap made 3 lb. of coconut oil. 1 lb. of citronelle.

coconut

oil.

268
The

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

recipes to be found
some

further

on

will also give the

other

manufacturer soap

idea of how

to make

qualities of

in this way. by Bemelting

are

Toilet Soaps

and

Crutching.

"

A large quantity
stock soaps

of toilet soaps

made

in this country
to
a

from

by remelting perfume
and

and

then

them subjecting
matter.

mixing

with the

colouring
manner:

This method
soap
or

is carried out which

are

in the
employed
a a

following
are

The

soaps
are

cut

up
may

into shavings,
take any

which
The

then

put into

remelter, which

form.
an

best is however
serves

pan steam-jacketed the soap

fitted with
and
are

agitator, which other

to

keep
it.
the stock
castor
excess

in motion
there

mix

the

ingredients with

As

justhinted
soaps from

often used several kinds of soap ;

to make

toilet soap-maker

will find it convenient

his oil,

tallow, coconut should

as

oil,palm-nut
made,

oil, palm
as

oil.

These

be

carefully

free from

of caustic alkali
The is
a

possible, and be too dry

"

contain about
"

littleor

no

salt.
water

soap good

should

not

25 per cent, of

proportion

for it to contain

the operation of of its water.

a

remelting
the
case

results in the soap

of using dry soap

losing

some

In little

it may

be advisable to send

open

steam

into the remelter

to give the soap

the necessary

degree

of moisture.

If the remelter

is fitted with

an

agitator, when

the soap

is melted
may

the other ingredients, colouring matter and

and perfume,

be added,

when

all

are

mixed,

the soap

is run

into

the frames from

to set.

It will be found

best to turn off the steam

the last operation
so as

the remelter
as

while carrying

out
as

to avoid

littleloss of perfume
an

possible.
the soap

is not
run

fitted with
a

agitator, then
and the perfume,

If the remelter is when melted

into

crutcher

etc., mixed

with it there

before running
The soaps

into the frames

to set.

following will be found

recipes for making

useful, but of
course

several kinds
an

of toilet

intelhgent

soap-

TOILET

SOAPS.

269

maker
own,

may

use

them

as

guides, and

using
colour

any he

particular perfume

recipe of his his fancy may direct and

concoct
a
are

any

likes.

The
as

recipes
described

adapted

for soaps

to

be made

by remelting,

in the last section.

Brown Tallow

Witidsor Soap.

soap oil soap

Coconut
Palm

oil soap

acid soap Oil of thyme

Oleic

Oil of cassia Oil of lavender

Bismarck If
a

brown shade be required

it is best to add
a

darker

little

new

Heliotrope Tallow

Soap,

soap Oil of almonds Oil of neroli Benzoin

Bouquet Tallow

Soap.

soap

Coconut

oil soap Oil of bergamot Oil of rose geranium Oil of caraway

.

Oil of citronelle Oil of lavender

i
Santal

Soap,
26 lb.
1
"

Tallow

soap
oil oil

Santal

Bergamot

oz.

Citron
Tallow Palm

Soap.
161b.
4
"

soap
oil soap

Bergamot
Oil of lemon

oil

1 1

oz.

"

Almond Tallow soap

oil soap

Soap,
76 lb.
26 12
2
"

Coconut

Oil of bitter almonds Citronelle

oz.
"

270

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

Brown

Windsor

Soap,
60 lb.

Tallow

soap
oil soap
.
.

Coconut
Palm

26
26
4

"

oil soap

,,

Oil of cinnamon Oil of cloves Oil of caraway Oil of sassafras Oil of bergamot
Bismarck brown
Honey Tallow Palm

oz.
"

2 1
.

"

2 4

"

,,

"

Soap.
.

soap
oil soap

76 lb.
26
,,

Oil of verbena Oil of lemon grass

oz.
"

Another
Tallow Palm

formula
soap

is :
"

60 lb.
26 26
"

oil soap Olive oil soap Oil of verbena

"

oz.
,,

Oil of bergamot Oil of citronelle

Tincture of musk

6
5

"

"

These presently
may

will be found

sufficient recipes, but others

the

will be

head which another given under utilise for this process if he thinks fit.

soap-maker.

Toilet Soaps

by the Cold Process.

some

"

The

cold

process may

be employed
soaps. another

grades of toilet The details of this process will be found described in formulae some place; here will be given simply of the cheaper be used. which
It may
may

for making

which
every

may

be

pointed

out
on

that it is not
account

perfume

be employed,
materials

of the

presence

of alkali in the

during
may
use

the
a

process of

manufacture.

Still,the soap-maker
and produce
a

large number

of formulae

great variety of toilet soaps by the

cold process.
White Windsor

Soap.
60 lb. 60 60
"

Coconut
White Caustic

oil
tallow

soda lye at 70" Tw

"

TOILET

SOAPS.

271
together
with the alkali ;

Stir the fats which

when
well mixed

add

been previously melted the perfumes follows : as

have
"

Oil of caraway Oil of lavender Oil of thyme

Brown

6
^

oz.

2J
Windsor

"

Soap.
45 lb. 45
"

Coconut
Tallow

oil

Palm

oil

10

"

soda Oil of lavender Oil of cassia

Caustic

lye at 70" Tw

50

"

2J
6

oz.
"

Oil of caraway Oil of neroli brown Bismarck

ij J
3

"

"

"

Violet Soap.

Coconut
Tallow

oil
lye at 70" Tw

40 lb. 10
"

Caustic
Dried Violet

soda orange
root

25

"

peel

of musk Oil of bergamot Oil of citron Oil of cassia

Tincture

IJ 2J IJ oz"
" "

"

"

IJ
. ,

"

Oil of neroli Peru balsam

Tolu

| ^

"

"

balsam

,^

Another
Coconut
Tallow

formula
oil

is :

"

40 lb.

10
25
1

"

Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw Oil of lavender

"

oz.
"

Oil of bergamot Oil of cassia

Tincture Balsam of benzoin of Peru
.

2
1
.
.

"

2 1

"

"

Almond

Soap.
40 lb. 60
"

Coconut
Tallow

oil

Caustic
Mirbane

soda lye
.
"

60

"

"

Oil of bergamot

,^

272

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Rose

Soap.
100 lb.
60 5 5 i 1
"

Coconut

oil

Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw Oil of rose geranium Oil of bergamot

'

oz.

"

Tincture
Eosine

of musk

"

"

Glycerine
Coconut
oil

Soap,
50 lb.

Caustic
Glycerine

soda

lye at 70" Tw

50 4

"

"

Oil of rose geranium Oil of sassafras Oil of thyme

1^

"

^ I

"

"

Another
Coconut
Palm

formula
oil

for glycerine soap

is :

"

48
2

lb.
"

oil Caustic soda Glycerine

Orange Violet peel
root

lye at 70" Tw

25

"

"

h
1

"

""

Caramel Oil of lavender Oil of bergamot

Oil of cassia Oil of sassafras

oz.

1^ | ^ \

"

"

"

"

Lemon

Soap.
50 lb. 50
"

Coconut
Tallow

oil

Caustic

soda lye at 70" Tw.

50

"

Oil of lemon Oil of bergamot Oil of lemon Oil of cloves

|
5

"

oz.

grass

"

2^

"

Honey

Soap.
60 lb.
40
"

Coconut Tallow
Palm oil

oil

10
.

"

Oil of citronelle Oil of bergamot Oil of caraway Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw

"

^
'
.
.

"

"

60

"

MILLED

TOILET

SOAPS.

273

Bouquet Soap.

Coconut oil Tallow. Bleached palm oil Oil of bergajnot Oil of adssafras Oil of cloves Oil of thyme Oil of neroli
.

501b. 40
10 12
"

"

oz.
"
"

4
4

4
2

"
"

Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw,

601b.

Orange Soap,
Coconut oil Tallow. Palm oil
.

501b.
25 25 12
.
.

" "
*
.

Oil of orange peel Oil of cinnamon Oil of thyme Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw
. .

oz.
"

2^

"

60 lb.

If it be desired to produce coloured soaps by the cold ^ process, the soap-maker will find a wide range of the cold- (P(sX-^ tar colours open to him. Eosine will give him a variety of
deep pink. Acid green may be used for green tints,acid blue for blue tints, acid violetfor lavender to violetshades, Bismarck brown for
rose

tints from the faintest blush

to

browns, acid yellow for yellow. With these by combining them together a variety of pleasing effectsmay be obtained. (See farther on aa,to colouring soaps.)
-

may now proceed to consider in some detail the production of toiletsoaps by a process of comparatively modem origin, but which promises in the
"

Milled Toilet Soaps.

We

future to almost, if not quite, entirely replace the older methods of preparing toiletsoaps. The milling system had
its origin in France, where more attention has been paid to toilet soaps than in any other country ; from there it has gradually spread to other countries. It is to the credit of that the best machines for carrying out the milling system are of French invention. There is no question of the superiority of milled soaps 18 the

French

274
over

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

other soaps.
they the

Weight

for weight

they

are
an

of

more

value,

because

contain

less water,
to

while it is
the

acknowledged
are

fact that

reworking

which

soaps

subjected
are

improves

their quality. usually again, milled soaps prepared from the best materials, as it is hardly worth while involved in milling into a to put the extra work and expense
soap made
to other

Then

from

crude
use

materials.
on

Milled

soaps

are

superior

soaps in

account

of the fact that their small

texture
cause

proportion
waste

of water

and

their dense
than

them

to

away

less rapidly
soap

ordinary

soap.
to
a

The

ance, appear-

too, of milled

is much

superior

toilet soap

made

by other processes.
process

to one mechanical and it is carried out in which a well-boiled soap is subjected, has been previously described in special machinery, which

The

of milling

is

merely

the
not

chapter repeat

on

Soap

Machinery

(see p. 211).
simply

We

shall of the

these

descriptions

here, but

speak

process itself,pointing out its special features, and emphasising the points which require attention from the soap-maker. The soaps

principal machines according

employed

in the milling of toilet

they
are

are,

to the order in which

used

(1)

Cutting four

(2)drying machine, (3)crushing mill with granite rollers, (4)continuous squeezing machine, or, as
machine,
known, the

it is sonuetimes
stamping The
means

plodding

machine,

(5) steam-

process. soap

which

is
.to

be treated is first cut into strips by from

of the
to

cutting drying
has

machine,
machine.
some

which
degree
on

they

are

transferred

the

The

of fineness of
of drying

cutting the soap it, fine chips

cases

influence than
so

the speed chips. that the

drying

quicker

coarse

In

some

the

drying

machine
can

is

constructed

this preliminary
soap dealt

cutting with
case
as

be

dispensed

with, and

it comes

from

the soap-kettles.

This is done
drying
machine;

in the
the

of using

the continuous

automatic

MILLED

TOILET

SOAPS.

275

soap paste, drawn

a

from

soap-pan,

is fed into the hopper

two
or

of

mill at

one

end
one

of the machine
or

with

three cylinders
to the number

and

receivers,

two

miUings,

according

of cylinders, and
the

at last fallsin extremely

thin shavings

into
the
are

chamber
are

which

forms
on
are

the

real drying

machine;
which

shavings
so

received
that they

endless
one

linen
the These
so

bands
other

arranged

over

the

full width

of the
and the

chamber.
are

and occupy linen bands are the soap falls

put
at

into
one

motion
on

arranged band

that

end

topmost

of the

carried along to the other end, whence Unen band; this in turn passes it to
so on

and is machine, it drops on the next the

third

one,

and

until it

comes

to the

last

one,

or

the

lowest, which
the

carries the soap

of the

out

of the

apparatus. hot-air stove

stove

In

lower part

drying by

machine
steam.

is

which

is preferably
with
paratus ap-

heated

The

is furnished
a

for drawing

the heated

air at
This

temperature

of about
the

60''C. through

the

chamber.
on

hot

air meets

soap

shavings moisture

as

they travel

the bands, gets saturated

with the

they contain, and

then

escapes

through

the top of

the apparatus

by the ventilator, while the soap, dried to the desired extent, passes out at the bottom of the drying stove. This
stove

which
manner,

dries the soap securing

an area a

paste in

an

automatic

and

continuous
who
uses

good
45

profit to the soap-maker feet square

one

it, has by
one

about
and

and
;

can

be
a

manipulated
yield of
more

workman
one

assistant
The

it gives
power

than

ton

of dried soap.

motive

required is about is small. Making

proof

two

horse power,

and

the expense

for heating

Coloured
"

Soaps.
mineral

"

All colouring matters

colours

which
"

are

against heat

among
comes

others
out

can

be

mixed

with the liquid soap

soft and
can

when

it

of the boiler,
are

but when shades

delicate shades

of fine soaps

wanted,

that

only be got from

delicate colours, it is better

276
to incorporate

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

the colour

after the soap

shavings

have

been

dried, and

in the crushing

mill. of perfumes into the soap in soaps, this

Eegarding
a

the incorporation
as

liquid state,

is necessary

with

the

remelted

First of all the soap paste is heated to a temperature of 100''C, which effects a change in the perfumes, and secondly a considerable portion of the latter is wasted by in the drying stove; the evaporation during the treatment better added to the soap in either the crushing are perfumes
method is faulty.
or

the plodding To
ensure

mill.
the
most

perfect

machines

it is essential that
to
a

working the drying

The
the

of the

succeeding
soap

of the stock
soap must soap

should be done dry

or

proper

degree.

not be too

too damp
or

; if the latter, then

works

pasty in
a

the crushing
soap of good

plodding

machines,
be

while

if too dry, then

texture

cannot

made.

Generally

the dried
It will

soap should

contain

from

10 to 15 per cent, of water.

be found

that in this respect much work

a

will depend

on

the make

of

the mill ; some

a

best with
amount

dry soap, while others require

of water
on
a

soap

with

moderate

left in. cast-iron frame

The

crushing

machines,

resting

in one

piece,
two

are

composed

of granite rollers of progressive

diameter,

of which above

lie underneath
them,
any

placed

the

horizontally, the other two being former supporting the latter. The
and
the colouring
matter

dried soap with into the hopper

and

perfume

is fed

of the crushing
out

mill which
the lower

has two
ones

ments, compartcarried

is passed
the

from
These

and
at

round

by

cylinders.

by

revolving

different

a real progressive milling, the soap to undergo velocities cause into the carrying it from the bottom to the top and passing it

upper

part of the hopper,

from

whence

it undergoes

the

same

process

mated until the soap is entirely milled and perfectly amalgaThe triple crushing with the perfumes and the colour. by the passage
through
the four cyHnders

caused

requires only

MILLED

TOILET

SOAPS.

277 be repeated
two

five minutes
three

for about
as

66

lb.

It

can

or

times,

may

be required, the

soap

not

leaving

the

is obtained. mass crushiog mill until a perfectly homogeneous The pressure between the rollers may be increased as the soap passes through the mill so as to increase the efficiency
and
turn out
a

better soap. mill is made through

so
a

The

plodding

that the soap is forced at

narrow

it opening, whereby is made very dense in texture, while the friction which takes imparts a gloss to the soap and a mouthpiece place between

considerable

pressure

the

soap

form soap cakes.

gives it of the nozzle from

which

fine appearance.

By

varying

the

may

be made

the soap flows the bar of which of any desired form ready to cut up into

Continuous
occurs
as

working

of the plodder, with the friction which

through the mouthpiece,

the soap

passes

tends

to

the heating

of the latter.

This

working

of the mill.

This

is rather detrimental to the trouble is avoided by keeping the

cold water round it in
a

mouthpiece
provided

cool by running
or

jacket
the

for the purpose,

if this is absent, by allowing

mill to rest at intervals to cool down.

The

work

of the squeezing machine, material

mass,

or

plodding

machine,
mill, to
compressed,

is to collect the
press it into
a

prepared and

by the crushing it out

solid

bring

in uniform,

and glossy bars.

The end

of the mouthpiece, especially in the extreme of the nozzle, is good, as it increases the gloss of the heating
Too
much

soap.
too

heat will, however,

a

cause

the soap to become

soft to take In any

polish, and

the

surface

tends

to become

it is advisable that the first portions be returned to it, from the machine of the soap which come then liable as these are not sufficiently compressed and are
streaky.
case,

to crack.

If the

soap

goes

into

the

plodder

too

dry, then

it is

278

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

wanting

in

pliancy.

This

may

be

remedied

by adding

littleglycerine or fresh stock soap. from the plodder After coming into cakes,
and

the bar of soap

on

is cut up stamping

these

are

then

passed

to

the

press for the final stamping.

Having
now

described
some

the

process

of milling
them.

soaps,

we

may

give

recipes for producing

BoTiquet

Soap.
.

White

soap Oil of bergamot Lavender water

100 lb.
6 1 1 1 1
oz.

"

Oil of rose geranium Oil of caraway Citronelle

"

"

"

Broum Tallow

Windsor

Soap.
76 lb.
26 26 26
"

soap
oil soap

Coconut
Palm

oil soap

"

Oleic acid soap Oil of thyme

Oil of cassia Lavender

"

2
2

oz.
"

2
2

"

Bergamot
Bismarck brown

"

"

Santal
Tallow soap
oil

Soap.
1001b,
6
"

Santal

Oil of bergamot Citron

Tallow Palm soap

1^"
Soap.
100 lb. 25
6 6
4
"

soap Oil of bergamot Oil of lemon

oz.

"

Oil of citron Almond

Tallow
Palm

"

Soap. 1001b.
26
^,

soap

oil soap Mirbane

3
1

"

Bergamot

"

MILLED

TOILET

SOAPS.

279

280

SOAP

MANUFACTUBB.

Soap. Elder-flower
Tallow Palm soap
oil soap oil soap
.

601b.
25
26
"

Coconut

"

Oil of bergamot Oil of lavender Oil of caraway Oil of peppermint Oil of thyme

2
.

"

h, ^" in
2oz.

White
Tallow soap

Windsor

Soap.
801b.
20
"

Coconut

oil soap Oil of csbssia Oil of lavender

..

Oil of caraway

H"
Ess.'botiqiiet Soap,

White
Palm

soap

601b.
50 4
1
"

oil soap Lanolin

Farina

"

"

Powdered
Musk

orris root

"

80 grains.
.

Neroli oil Geranium oil Palma rosa oil Citronelle Bergamot

oil Musk

2
5

oz.
"

5
5 12

"

"

"

Soap.
501b.
60
"

White
Palm

Soap
oil soap

Powdered
Musk

orris root

10

"

30 grains.

Cassia oil Lavender oil Bergamot oil

Citronelle
Vermilion
.

Hoz.

^
8
3

,.

"

Soap

brown Flower

"

Soap,
501b.

White
Palm

Soap
.

oil soap Lanolin Farina

50
4 1

"

"

,,

Powdered
Powdered Musk

orris root

"

catechu

\.
16 grains.

MILLED

TOILET

SOAPS.

281
2oz.
2
"

Rosewood Citronelle Lavender

Peru
Palma

oil
.

oil balsam
rosa

2
2 2

"

"

oil

"

Geranium
Bergamot

oil
oil

2
2

"

.,

Goumarin

These

few recipes, which will perhaps

can

have

been

selected from the lines

on

large

number,

be sufficient to show
work

which

the soap-maker

in making been

milled soaps ; further the given

for other

recipes

which
may

have

already

kinds

of

toilet soaps
The should

be consulted
are

with advantage.
used

stock soaps which

in making

be of good
boiled

quality, made with

good

from

milled soaps fresh and pure fats and

as

oils, well

caustic

so

to be

thoroughly
not

saponified.

Eancid

and
to rob

discoloured

fats aiid oils should

used
"

be used, such tend

soap of much
to be avoided.

the perfumes

in making
thing which

the is

of their The

aroma

and

delicacy

thoroughly

condition that the fat or oil should be ing saponified has an important bearing on the keepAny

qualities of the soap.

soon cause

unsaponified
rancid, thereby
cannot

fat

or

oil will

the soap

to become

spoiling the entii*ely

that

perfume.

A defect of this kind process, although

be remedied
no

by

the milhng

there is
a

doubt The
care

the

process completes
must

the saponification of any

soap.

soap too

be

free from

lye, and

too

much

cannot

be

exercised in settling it. A stock soap to be good

not

in condition for milling should be too short in texture, and when fresh made ought to
together makes
when
a

adhere

worked good

between

the fingers.

Tallow

stock soap

for milling.

Both

unbleached

and bleached purpose, although

palm

oil yield excellent soap

to
see

for this

it is important

that the oil is not of fresh palm

rancid and

has the agreeable

violet-Uke odour
a

oil to perfection.

Coconut

oil also makes

good soap ; great

282
care

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

ought

to be

taken

with

it to

see

that it is thoroughly

oil does not make a good stock soap for milling. Castor oil yields a fair soap ; other fats and oils Sire not admissible for various reasons.
saponified.

Cottonseed

Milled soaps may

be coloured

to any

required degree, the

There
can

best results being obtained

by using coal-tax colours.

that every imaginable

is such obtained
they

variety of them
with

tint

be

their aid ; while

way

do not

in any

being easily soluble in soap, affect the brightness of that article ;

can

further, being
the soap
to

soluble, they get

a more

be

more

easily mixed

with
colour

uniform
whereas,
a

diffusion of the
with
on

throughout

the

soap
was

mass;

the

old mineral

colourings, there

always

tendency

the part of the

colouring materials to separate from the soap and settle dovni in the frame in which the soap cools down. It is not every colouring ing niatter that is available for tintsoap.

There

are

some

that

are

more

or

less affected
as

or

altered

in colour

by alkahes

such, for instance,

;

Prussian
usually

blue, chrome

yellow, Alkali blue. Magenta

products

soap being

slightly alkaline, such colouring it with advantage.

The The
s.

cannot

be

used

for

coal-tar colours
matter

are

used

in

very

simple
or

manner.

colouring

is dissolved in water,

in

few

cases

of water and alcohol; the solution should be mixture filtered,and then it is poured into the melted soap paste and
thoroughly
"

quantity required is very small ^ to I oz. will colour 1 cwt. of soap in some strong tints. In a few instances a littlecaustic soda may be added to the
crutched

in.

The

colour

solution.
yellows there may

For yellow,

be used

Fluoresceine
there
are

yellow. Soap

Quinolineyellow (of which

two

kinds

"

one

and Metanil yellow. "soluble in water, the other in spirit), The following recipes will give some idea of the quantities to he used. Each is for 1 cwt. of soap.

COLOURING

SOAPS.

283 dissolved

Sulphur
in
5
oz.

Yellow,

"

Use

^
or

oz.

Fluoresceine
oz.

yellow

boiling

water,
oz.

Quinoline yellow
spirit.

(spirit

dissolved in 5 soluble)
Lemon

methylated
oz. 1:^

Yellow.

"

Use

Fluoresceine
used

yellow dissolved

in 5

oz.

boiling water.
shows
1
oz.
a

When

for tinting transparent

soap, this yellow

Yellow.
water,
or
"

fine green

fluorescence

or

bloom.

Use
oz.

Soap

yellow dissolved in

pint boihng pint boihng

Metanil
these

yellow

dissolved

in

water.

Both

yellows

give good

results in colouring

soaps.

Bed

Colours,

"

There

may

be used

all the range

of Eosine

and Erythrosine

mines, which

give bright pinks ; the Ehodaand also give bluish pinks to reds ; Ponceaus
dyes, which
;
"

Scarlets for
Bright

roses

Cardinal Use

red for reds.

Bose.

1|
B

oz.

Brilliant
oz.
a

rose

dissolved in
of
rose

J pint
be
a

boiling water.
got ;

By

using

3^

deep

shade

can

1^

oz.

Ehodamine

dissolved in

pint water

gives

fine rose. Bluish prima Pink.

"

Use

J
1

dissolved in 3
Pink,
"
"

oz.

Bluish pink N, boihng water.

oz.

or

J oz. Safranine
oz.

Deep

Use
2
oz.

oz.

Erythrosine
red B 2 E

in 6

water.

Bed.

Use
or

Cardinal
Ponceau

dissolved in

ing pint boil-

water, water.

oz.

dissolved in

pint boiling

Salmon.

"

Use

oz.

Mandarine
shade
can

extra

dissolved in 5

oz.

boiling water.

Another

be got by using the

same

quantity of Chrysoidine

dissolved in water.
oz.

Sea Green,

"

Use 2

Fast

light green

dissolved in

pint

boiling water.
Pea

Green,

"

fine shade

is got

from

oz.

Fast

light

green and
water.

J oz. Fluoresceine
Use
2
oz.

yellow

dissolved in

J pint boihng
J pint

Orange,

"

Brilliant orange

dissolved in

boihng water.

284 Dark Brown,

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

"

Use 6

oz.

Soap

brown

S dissolved in 1 pint

boiling water. Blue.

"

Use

oz.

Methylene

blue 2 B

dissolved in

pint

boiling water.
Violet
"

Use

oz.

Formyl

violet S 4 B

dissolved in

\ pint

boiling water.

Chestnut

Brown,

"

Use

oz.

Soudan

brown

dissolved in

pint spirit.
By

mixing
can

these

different colours

together

variety of
to particularly

tints

be obtained.
on

It is impossible, however,

describe them Safranine

and
a

paper.

Thus,
a

by using

mixture
rose

of

Quinoline yellow,
mixture lilac shades of various
green

fine bright
and

scarlet

is will

obtainable ;
produce

of Safranine

Methylene

blue

violet and
greens

; Methylene

blue and

line Quinoand The

yellow

tones

; Methylene

blue
so on.

Chrysoidine
soap-maker

bronze by

to olive shades,
can soon

and.

experimenting

become

expert

in

mixing colours. It may be pointed out that some of the coal-tar colours being mixed on change with the hot soap paste ; thus the Eosines
yellows back.
The
and

Ehodamines
but
on

may

turn

yellow,

or

some

of the
comes

go brown,

cooling

the original colour

mineral colours used for tinting soaps

yellow for yellow soaps ;

are

as

follows:

"

Cadmium
of soap
a

lb. will colour 1 cwt.

good
or

yellow.

Caramel making brown

burnt
soaps ;

sugar

is

fine colouring

agent

for

lb. will colour 1 cwt. of soap.

soap yellow
"

have Ocjires

been used in colouring in staining

powers

; only

the

best
ochre

and
"

strongest

the

so-called gold
green

should

be used for this purpose.

soap

Ultramarine
with

is suitable for colouring pigment

a

green, giving

lb. of the

good

sea

green

to 1 cwt.

of soap.
rose-coloured

Vermilion

is useful for making

soaps, but it

TBANSPARBNT

SOAPS.

285

is rather heavy, and therefore tends to settle out unless well crutched in and the soap quickly cooled.
Chrome

it has

green is very suitable for colouring soaps green ; fine colour and readily mixes with the soap, and is

quite permanent.

Umbers

are

used

for making

brown

soaps ;

to

^ lb. per J lb.

cent, is usually sufficient.

Ultramarine

is used for making

blue mottled

soaps ;

will colour 1 cwt. of soap.

TRANSPARENT

SOAPS.

The carried
on

manufacture

of transparent
and

soaps

is very

largely

both in this country

toilet soaps
persons.

being

abroad, such transparent of great favourites with a large number

means

It is by
a

no

easy to make

transparent

soaps ;

it requires
a

good

deal of practice and

out
a

experience

to enable

soap-maker
In making

to turn

perfect product.
soaps there
are
a

few points which require attention ; firstin regard to the oils and fats used. better than There are some adapt themselves which transparent others
to the production
more

of transparent

soaps.

Castor oil in
soaps
than

particular gives rise

any

readily to transparent
comes

other oil,perhaps

next

coconut

oil,then the various

liquid oils. Solid fats,like tallow and palm oil,are most difficult to transform into transparent soaps, and they should be sparingly used. The great bulk of the transparent better qualities,are
the
use

soaps, especially the

or

made

with

alcohol
to

methylated
cost

spirits,

of which
are

of

course
reasons

adds

the
use

of production.

There

perhaps
a

two

for the

of spirit ; the first

is, to obtain the fats must

more

the

saponification of As every soap-maker be complete. knows, the transparent it is ; perfect a fat is saponified the more this saponification and so helps to alcohol promotes

perfect transparent

soap the

286

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Then bring about transparency of the soap. again, alcohol is a more perfect solvent for soap than water, and by its on means a clear, transparent solution is obtained, which

evaporation
mass.

of the

spirit leaves the soap behind

as

transparent

but it transparency, addition of glycerine promotes has to be used with care, or otherwise a pasty, sticky soap is obtained which is not at all satisfactory.
The

Sugar

is often added

to transparent

soaps,

as

it increases

their transparency. Generally

colouring
these

soaps
can

are

coloured, usually red, the best

matter

which
a

be used
one

for this purpose

being

Safranine, of which

half to

pound

is required

dredweigh per hun-

For

of soap, according to the depth of tint required. Butter yellow or Soap yellow as yellow, what is known

is used.
Any
employed.

(See Colouring
kind
of perfume

Toilet Soaps, p. 282.)

to the fancy

of the

maker

may

be

Each

maker

has

possibly

his

own

method useful.

of working;

those described
Transparent

below

will be found

very
"

Soap

by Cold Process.

Take

50 lb. of stearic

acid, 110 lb. of coconut together

soda

oil and
melted, the

40 lb. of castor oil,heat these

until they

are

then

stir in 100 lb. of caustic

lye made

from
a

best

this lye having

The

strength

quality of solid caustic soda, of 70" Tw. (1*350 specific gravity).

the oils,and
the mixture

lye is well mixed

to stand

for

few

with days.
so

allowed

Next

the soap

made

is mixed

with
a

120 lb. methylated

the mixture spirit,

being heated until

clear transparent

liquid

is obtained. For the purpose of saving alcohol it is best to conduct this operation in a still connected with a condenser, so that the alcohol or spirit which is volatilised during the operation
can

be recovered

and used for another

batch of soap ; generally

TRANSPARENT

SOAPS.

287 During

about two-thirds this treatment

When
the soap
a

of the spirit may

be thus recovered.

the saponification
mass

of the fats is completed.

there is added
to

transparent

is obtained
sugar

about

40 lb. of crystal

made

into

syrup

with 4 gallons of water

The
mass,

and

40 lb. of glycerine. have

set

when
to
are

all the ingredients

been incorporated,
up

is ready

be

framed for

;
some

when

it is cut
a

into

tablets ; these
daring which

placed the

time in
gradually

cool dark passes

more

room,

time and

alcohol

away,

the

soap hardens,
Transparent

the transparency

becomes
"

perfect.

Soap
a a

by

Boiling.
one,

The and

process
many

described

above is necessarily
would like to have

slow

soap-makers
the following

quicker

method.

Then used

process may

be adopted,

the materials

being

the

same

both in kind and

The

quantity.
melted together
are

oils

are

at

gentle

heat, then

the

caustic soda lye and

the spirit

mixed

together and
thorough

added
;

to the oils after stirring well

to

ensure

admixture

the

mass

is kept at
and
a

gentle

heat
mass

complete

transparent
hours.

until the saponification is is obtained ; this may take

the other

from three
added and
may

to four

Then
as

ingredients
and

are

the soap finished

as

before.

Colour

perfume

be added
The
use

may

be deemed is not

necessary.
to the

of glycerine

production of transparent

absolutely necessary soap ; the following formula

for
a

shows

the

materials
"

required

transparent

soap

without

glycerine :

Transparent
Tallow
or

Soap.
60 lb. 60 40 75 50 20 20
"

stearic acid

Coconut Castor Caustic

oil
oil

"

soda lye at 70" Tw Methylated spirit Crystal sugar

"

"

"

Water

"

288 The
whole

SOAP

MANUPACTUBB.

fats

are

melted,

then

treated

vdth

the

alkali, the is properly

being kept at about

when

180** F. until the soap

formed,

the
with

alcohol
any

is added, then

the other
and

ents, ingredithat

together
are

colouring matter
soap
may

perfume

required, when

the

be

finished in the usual

manner.

There
these

is

just one

point

that

is important

in preparing
must not

soaps

by heat, and
to be too high,

that
or

is, the temperature

be allowed
which

all the spiritwill be volatilised,

a

is not

desirable, for then

transparent

soap

cannot

be obtained.
Transparent

Soap
:
"

ivithout Alcohol.

Provide

the following

materials

Tallow
"

481b. oil
oil
. .

Coconut Castor

40 60

"

"

Caustic

soda lye, 70" Tw

74
36 36 6 10

"

Crystal sugar Water

Glycerine Soda
crystals

"

"

"

"

Melt

the fats, mix

with

the caustic alkali, allow to stand

for twenty-four complete

hours, then

boil for three

a

or

four

hours
mass

to

the saponification, when

clear transparent soap

is obtained, the heat is withdrawn, and the hour or so to stand for an until it has a about There
170" F., and
are

is allowed of

temperature

is

more

or a

less of

i jellyn

appearance.

now

added

with
a

brisk agitation the glycerine and

the sugar

made

into

syrup

with

the

water,

then

the soda

crystals, then

any perfume
to

and

colouring matter,
Exercising

after which

it is allowed
care
a

stand
soap

until cold.
will be

all ordinary
a

By
soap

ciently suffifor the cheaper classes of these soaps. good quality using a rather larger proportion of sugar, transparent
may

transparent

readily obtained, of

be

made

without

either alcohol
:
"

or

cording glycerine ac-

to the following

formula

INDUSTRIAL

SOAPS.

289
541b.

Tallow

Coconut Castor Caustic Crystal Water

oil oil

44
54

"

"

soda

lye, 70" Tw

84
48 26

"

sugar
described

"

"

Worked

as

above.

It will be sufficient to add that in all processes

of making
care

transparent

soap that
on

without
the

alcohol

and

glycerine,

must

be taken

saponification
the

of the

fats is complete

before going
Another

with
of

finishing processes.

plan

adopted in many properly

is often transparent soaps making A good ordinary sort of soap prepared works.
good tallow
or

from

other

oils, best with

It is then

high grade
put into
a

caustic, is taken, dried

pan

and
or

shaved.

with The

sufficient alcohol
pan
may

methylated

spirit

to dissolve it.

be heated, but the temperature

130" to 160" F.
a

should not be allowed

to get too high ; from

will be found fitted with still

as

sufficient.
a

The
as

solution

is best effected in
so as

condenser

described above,

to

save

When all is dissolved, of the alcohol as possible. insoluble the solution is allowed to allow any to stand
much
matters, such

of soda, and sulphate of soda, to settle out. The clear portion is then transferred to a three-fourths of the spirit is distilled off and still, here w
salt, carbonate condensed

as

again

for further
frames,

use.

The
and

residual
scented

soap

is

transferred to the

coloured

if needful,

are then allowed to cool, then cut up into tablets, which kept in a warm At firstthe tablet is not transto set. room parent,

but gradually
and water evaporates.

becomes

so

as

the

excess

of alcohol

C.
In many

Industeial

Soaps.
for the performance
uses

trades soap is largely used

The silk manufacturer of certain operations. to free the raw matter silk from the gummy 19

soap

it naturally

290

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

contains ; the thing to

use

woollen

manufacturer

finds

soap

the

best

for extracting the dirt and

grease from
uses

the wool

prior to spinning

it ; the calico printer

from the

soap he
users

for clearing
and for

his

printed

cloths the

thickening
supply
are are

uses

brightening

colours.

To

the

for the purposes

indicated Generally
care cases
as

large quantities

annually
not

made.

industrial soaps
domestic
or

made

with
soaps.

the

same

ordinary

household

In

many

the element
are

of price enters
and

into the

question
paid

of what
to the
users

materials
process

used

the

degree
on

of attention

of making.

The

desire

the

part of many grades

In

for cheapness
soaps

often

leads to many
very

of the
materials.
soaps

of these

being made
we

from

poor

ing the followare

sections
used make

shall indicate

those

which

most

in manufacturing
them

operations

and

the best materials to

from.
"

Wool

Soaps.
of wool

Soap

is

very useful

agent

in the with

manufacture

into cloth.
into the it the

The

firstoperation

the

raw

wool
to

as

it

comes

woollen and

manufacturer's

hands

is

extract

from that soda,

grease

dirt it contains.
or

It has

been foimd
soap and

washing in soap liquors, is one of the best ways

is known
a

in

mixture

of

of effecting this

operation.
generally and
grade

This used

as

wool
poor

scouring. grade

There

is

for this

rather

of soap, colour
Bone

quality not
tallows, These
are

being of much
cheap

importance.

fat, low
are

palm
are

oils, and
always made
at
:
"

oleic acid

used

largely.
and

soaps salted
are

by the boiling process

while
hot. The

and

framed

once

following

mixtures
1 cwt.

much J
^
cwt. cwt.

used
cotton

bone
low

tallow, tallow, tallow,

oil, ^ cwt. oil. oil.

oleic acid.

1^ 1^

cwt.
cwt.

palm

bone

\ cwt.

cotton

A slight

excess

of alkaH does not matter

"

in fact is rather
"

beneficial to the scouring

qualities of the soap

but too great

INDUSTRIAL

SOAPS.

291

be avoided, as it tends to cause the wool to be diflBcult o bleach in the subsequent operations through which t it is passed. Generally to contain 62 these soaps are made
an

excess

must

to 64 per cent, of fatty matters, to 7 per cent, of combined

29 to 30 per cent, of water,

6J

alkali, with They

about

per cent, each

of free fat and

free alkali.

should

not

contain

more

than 1 per cent, of the latter ingredient. The

potash. soda

best soaps They

and
are,

for this purpose however,

are

are

soft soaps made

than
extent.
more

more

expensive
to any

with the hard

Potash

soaps,

hence

not

made

soaps leave appearance, of soda

The
same

the wool

much

softer in feel and

not

silky in
tendency

while

they It has
fats

have
also
are

the

yellowing scouring

soaps.

greater
as

properties. soda
per
soaps.

oils and
potash

used

in making
50
to

good

soap
per

will contain

52

cent,

of

water,

43

to

44

cent, of fatty matter,

5 to 6 per

cent,

of combined free fat.

alkali, and

to

per

cent,

of free alkali and

The
are

soap

liquors from

the

raw

wool

scouring
or

operation

usually collected and treated vnth acid

out
name

other substance

to separate

the fatty matter

of Yorkshire
scoured

they

contain,

which

is sold

under

the

grease.

After

being

it is necessary,

for the

purpose

of

facilitating the spinning and weaving of the wool, to oil it ; this is done with various kinds of oil,both fatty and mineral. it is needful to extract this oil After being spun and woven,
out

of the wool and

before it

can

be
can

to subjected

the process

of

dyeing
a

finishing.
same

This

be done
as

by treatment
was

soap, usually the

kind of soap

employed

with in the

desirable that It is however operation. scouring be used, so that anything it a slightly better quality should not interfere with the process of dyeing. might contain may original
The
from soap
a

which

is most

used

for this purpose

of bone

is

one

made

mixture

of equal parts

tallow and

cottonseed

292

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

oil ; another favourite soap is made from palm oil and cotton oil. The latter is really the better of the two for the purpose, for the soap made from the bone tallow is liable to contain lime
compounds

which, if they are leftin the cloth, have a tendency to affect the dyeing by forming colour lakes with the dyes,
and

thereby

resulting in poor
Soaps
made
from

shades
recovered
as

and

dull colours being

are

obtained.

greases

satisfa very unsmall

on

for this purpose,

they

often

contain getting

quantities of unsaponifiable
cloth, form

matter

which,

the
on

grease

spots and

prevent

the dye from

going

the cloth properly. We

may

remark

that, from

strictly scientific point of

wool

view,
soap

the

method

of extracting

oil from

by

means

of

is not the most being

dyed

scientific.
the woollen
as

After
the

cloth has

often to undergo

operation
is to
a

known
cause

which
produce weather

the

milling or fulling, the objectof felting of the fibres together and to

more

thicker and therefore

fuller cloth,
more

impervious

to the

and
that

suitable for making

is best done
the soap

clothes. of

It
a

is found
soap

this milHng

in the presence
no

liquor;
to do.

in this
MilHng
; they

case

has

actual

chemical

work
and

soaps

must,
not

however,

well
a

made

should

contain

be of good quality any free alkali,as

this has

tendency

to act

upon

the dye, causing

alter the

it to

run

or
a

bleed, and

sometimes

it would

shade, The
on

therefore

milling soap must

not

be well settled and fitted.

free fat, The
as

soap ought
the cloth

to contain

any

this would

settle

and

form

grease

spots.

soap should
to

lather freely and be

use,

soluble in water. olive, palm

not nut,

The
cotton

best materials and

sufficiently soluble, nor is 50 psirts of olive oil, 40 parts mixture

10 parts of palmnut

similar oils. is a palm oil soap.

therefore, will be A tallow soap is

A good

of

cotton

oil,and

oil, thoroughly

saponifying

the

oils and

settling well.

INDUSTRIAL

SOAPS.

293

A the

potash

soap
a

if it could be made

quite neutral would of neutrality cannot difficulty.

be be

best, but

sufficient degree
soap without
"

obtained in the potash

Calico
use

Printer's

Soap.

of soap

in his works,
necessary

great calico printer makes the writer has an idea although

cases.

The

that it is not
on

in all

To

enable him

to print

calico, the calico printer has and mordants,

them

to mix

the various colouring

matters

with gum,

dextrine, starch and similar

the colour running when

bodies, to thicken
printing
on

and prevent The

the

cloth.

thickening
a

to
a

be removed, and
a

and

soap bath

quently subsehas been found to be

so.

material

has

convenient
has

simple further

means

of doing

In

some

cases

the soap

effect in entering and by

so

into combination
making
these

with
much

some

of the

colours,

doing

brighter.
calico printer's soap must have
the following

features

it should

be

fairly soluble

in water,

it ought
any

to be

quite

neutral in its reactions, for if it contained

free alkali it

might

act

upon

some

of the colours

and

change

their tint.

The utmost

amount

calico printer's soap have any tendency to leave, any odour behind it. objectionable It is found by experience that the two best materials to make
of olive oil. The use found to react rosin is not permissible, as rosin soaps are too alkahne for this purpose ; a tallow soap is apt to contract is scarcely soluble enough. A little an odour, and

of free alkali which is permissible in a is 0*2 per cent. It should not leave, or

such

soap

from

are

palm

oil and

tallow may,

however,

be used

in

with conjunction

the other

oils. Coconut been found

of imparting

oil, although
to be rather
an

it makes

very

soluble soap, has

of the risk
same

on objectionable, account

odour

to

the

goods,

and

the

thing

applies to castor

oil.
never

The

best calico printers

to object

pay

good

price

294

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

for their soap, and

they

find it to be

in the end
of the smaller

the

most

Some to pursue. course economical however, tempted to buy cheap are,

cannot

printers

grades

of soap, which
or

be produced

unless low

grades

of fat be used

by

rosin. employing be In making a must calico printer's soap, great care This can only be done by caretaken in getting it neutral. ful and saponification in the first instance, and complete
thoroughly

fitting the

soap

afterwards,

so

as

to eliminate

all

the alkali possible. The best soap is made

from bleached

palm

while many oil, usually

printers prefer
made An

These soaps are olive oil soap. to contain 64 to 65 per cent, of fatty matter.
an

of calico printer's soap by the writer gave the following figures : analysis of
good
make
"

made

Fat

alkali Combined alkali

Free fat

Free

64*3 per cent. 0*1 " 6*2

none
"

Water

29*4

Silk Soap.
gummy using
as

"

matter

it from the In the boiling off of silk to fi:ee it naturally contains, a strong soap bath,
as

much

20 to 25 per cent, of the weight

of the silk,

is employed. The soap used for this purpose should be well acter. made, be fairly soluble in water, and not too alkaUne in charimportance Alkalinity in this soap is not of so much
in calico printer's soap, still it should not be too not to exceed of free alkali ought and the amount
as

strong,
0*4 per
as

cent.

The
a

solubility is of much
yet

importance,
can

inasmuch
on

then

strong and

liquid soap bath

to

be got ;

this

account

olive oil is found of.

be the
make
:

best material
a

to make

silk soap
reason,
a

Coconut

oil would
to two

good

soap

for this

but

it is open

defects

it is not

easy to make
to objection

neutral soap

from

it,and, further, there

is the

the rancid

smell it is liable to leave behind

it.

SPECIAL

SOAPS.

295

it needful to have a soluble feature which makes the soap out soap is that it is necessary to thoroughly wash
Another

of the silk after it has been

For
a

boiled in it.
Ground-nut
palm

silk soap, olive oil is the best. good results ; soap ought
a

oil may oil may

also be used with

littlebleached
well
made,

be added.

The

to be
no

the principal

point being to leave littleor Another

way

fat.

in which

the soap

is employed
done

in the silk industry

in
a
a

is in dyeing, much
soap, other
a

of this being
to the writer

bath of

method

which might

seems

to be

relic from
no

days, and

be

abandoned. is used
the
have

There

is

arity peculia

about oHve

the soap works

which

for this purpose,

point

good the

oil soap

best

"

only
a

is to

avoid

presence

of free fat, and

good

soluble soap.

D.

Special

Soaps.
to the production
or,

We

may

now

turn

our

attention

of
some

class of soaps made

cases

for special purposes,

for
some are

perhaps,

in

supposed
are
names,

to be made
numerous

special purpose. sold under

a

These

soaps

rather and

and

variety of
leave
a

fancy
good

often at equally fancy

prices which

margin

of profit for the maker.

Medicated

Soaps.

"

A
to

large
have
no

number

of soaps

are

made
That have

which
some

are

supposed
have

some

medicinal
that

value.
others

of them
such

there is

doubt, but
an

any

value at all is rather

open

question.

The

cess pro-

of manufacture there is made

an

of these soaps is very simple.

First of all
way,
or

ordinary

soap

stock in the

usual

and
the

into

this is worked

by

means

of the

crutcher,

by

milling process, the

the

latter plan, perhaps,

giving

the best results,

to the soap.

special substance
course,

which

gives value
character

Makers
stock

will, of which

differ in the
use

of the the

soap
same

they

will

for what

is normally

296

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

soap, but

this is

small

point

which

is of very

little moment.

Carbolic

Soaps.

"

Of

all the

various
or,

kinds
as

of medicated
calls made poses. pur-

soaps, those containing

carbolic acid,
the most
are

the chemist

it,phenol,

are

perhaps

important,
for
common

for they

are

in large quantities and

For
stock may

used

household

any good soap carbolic soaps almost be used, but this is usually varied according to the

making

quality

or

grade of the soap.

are

Thus, the

the lowest

grades soaps

bolic of car-

soaps

made stock.

from
The

nigres

of pale

mixed
are

with
made

fresh soap from good

best grades

of these
palm

soaps

pale soaps

of tallow, bleached
a

oil, and

rosin.
plan
to

As carbolic acid has

leave
the soap
cut

slight acid reaction, it is a good

stock

slightly alkaline, for if quite while

neutral the acid may usual

soaps

the soap

quantity
are

of carbohc

being mixed. The Occasionally acid is 10 per cent.

5 per cent.
or

made

containing should
to

This

is the minimum
value of the

quantity
soap

which

be added,

the medicinal

will be reduced
pale

nil.
the

For used.

carbohc
adding

Before quantity

best crystal acid should be be mixed with a to the soap this may
soaps
to

small

of water

make

it liquid.
usually

For
are

the of
a

moner com-

class of carbolic

soaps, which

dark The

brown
process
way,

colour,

the

crude The
run

is simple.

carbolic acid may soap stock is made

off and

be

used.

in the ordinary

and, after being

fitted if required, the carbolic

crutcher,

acid is crutched

in in the

adding and

it httle by allowed to in stamped

little. After the crutching

set, after which

the soap

is framed

it may

be cut up into bars and

the usual

way.

Naphthol

Soap.

"

Another

disinfectant

soap

which

is

is naphthol This is made by crutchmade soap. ing sometimes into 1 cwt. of a good soap and finishing 10 lb. of naphthol In place of naphthol, be used. as usual. naphthalene may

MEDICATED

SOAPS.

297

The

makers

of special disinfectants, e.g.yGermol,

Sanitas,
with

Izal, etc., produce

them
manner

by

mixing

theii products above.

ordinary

soaps

in the
"

described

Sulphur
for washing disease.
soap made

Soap.

A soap containing

sulphur

is largely used
of skin

dogs, and
soaps

also for treating various forms

are

These

very

simply

made

good

white

and oil is employed, into it while melted, after it has been fitted,are stirred flowers of sulphur, 10 to 20 lb. to 1 cwt. of soap, a little perfume being added to improve the odour of the soap. from
tallow and
coconut

Tar

Soap,

"

black-coloured
For

tar

soap is made

and

used

in fairly large quantities.

tar,
or

it may
The
some

be used

either coalrather
more

still better, wood-tar.

value, and

latter has of the

medicinal

is free from
An
ordinary
no

objectionable
is taken
the
"

"features of coal-tar. slightly alkaline there is

the proportion

soap

stock
it
"

if

to objection

and

tar, in

quantity, making
per cent.

a smaller of about 10 per cent., sometimes in. Wood is also used in is crutched creosote

similar

soaps,

the

amount

usually

added

being

Mercurial

Soap.

"

This

is sometimes

prepared

for treating

dogs and other animals, and for preserving skins in taxidermy. It contains corrosive sublimate. One drachm of the latter compound

with 1 oz. of rectified spirit, and 4 oz. of a good soap, cut up into fine shavings, is then incorporated The by careful are whole added.
a

is dissolved

in

mortar

grinding.
Arsenical
cats,

Soap

is also frequently
and

used

for washing

dogs, A
good white
camphor,

and

other

animals,

in preserving in
a

skins.
4

formula
soap, 1

for making
oz.

this is to mix
oz.

mortar

oz.
oz.

white

arsenic, 1

soda

crystals, and

to together, adding a little water grinding the whole facilitate the ease is obmass of working until a smooth tained.

298

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

Tooth
made
a

Soap.

"

Tooth

soaps
soap,

are

made

by

taking

well-

and

neutral

tallow

and

adding

to it, while

in

molten and

condition,
starch.
:

finely sifted pumice

The following

powder,
may

prepared

chalk
as
a

quantities

be

taken
2 lb. of

guide

20

lb. of soap, 1 lb. of pumice

starch.

powder,

chalk, and

| lb. of
Soaps.
use are
"

Sand

Of

late years purpose

class of soap
of cleaning and

has

come

largely into
metals.
out under

for the

polishing
and
may,
sent

They
a

manufactured

by many
names.

makers

great
them
a

variety of fancy
all here
soap made under

We
name

ever, howsoap. has

include
They

the

of sand way

consist of

in the ordinary

which

been
stone,

incorporated kieselguhr

with
and

fine sand,

finely-powdered

pumice
while

similar bodies ; the soap

is taken
The

in

melted

state, and
are

it should
ground

not

be too dry.
extent

mineral

ingredients of the
put

then

in to the

that the fancy

soap-maker

may
and

direct, after which

the soap

paste is form
a

into moulds

pressed, to consolidate

it and

firm block of soap.

The

following

formulae

will
:
"

serve

to show

of what

materials

such

soaps may
soap

be made

1. Tallow

201b.
80 20 40 40 10 15 40
i
.

Fine
2. Palm

sand
oil soap

"

"

Fine

sand Ground pumice

"

"

3. Tallow

soap
oil soap

"

Coconut Fine

,,

pumice Kieselguhr
4. Tallow

"

35
15

,,

soap oil soap

,,

Palm Red

10
5

"

oxide Ground pumice

Fuller's

"

60
25

"

earth

"

Shaving
a

Soaps,

"

Shaving

soaps

are

required
placed

to produce
on

good

and

persistent lather which,

when

the face,

SHAVING

SOAPS.

299

At the same time the soap will remain without drjring up. tender that the skin, however not have any action on must be. To make amount of such a soap a considerable may
care

is required.
coconut

The

best fats that it is advisable

as

can

be used
use

are

tallow

and

oil, and

to

both

soda

and

potash
are

in their preparation,

then
can

better lathering be made

either

soaps
by
the
some

obtained. boihng

Shaving
process soap

soaps
or
a

ordinary
makes added

by

the

cold process. tragacanth

the

In has

of shaving
to

Uttle gum
of

been

promote

permanence

lathering

qualities.
or

Very

littleof the gum it may

is required, about 2 lb. to be added

at any

1^

2. cwt.

of soap, and

convenient

point in the

process
The

of making.

following
"

formulae

may

be followed in making

these

soaps

Cold-process
1. Tallow
.
.

Shaving

Soap.
100
.

lb.
"

Coconut Soda

oil lye at 72" Tw Potash lye at 72" Tw

2. Tallow

12^
60

"

6 88

"

"

Lard

..12^,,
oil
25 56
"

Coconut
Soda
Potash 3. Tallow

lye at 71" Tw

"

lye at 60" Tw.

15 100
20 52 8

"

"

oil lye at 71" Tw. Potash lye at 60" Tw

Coconut

"

Soda

"

"

These may

soaps may
and the

be scented

in any

way

that the maker

approve,

toilet soaps may

recipes previously be followed as a guide.

given

for scenting

Boiled Shaving
care

Soap.
to

"

In making

such

soap considerable
If potash

must

be taken

ensure

neutrality.
as

be employed

along

with

the

soda,

given

in the
out.

cold process

above, then the soap cannot lye should be taken to ensure

be salted
the
soap

Just
made

enough nearly^

being

300
if not from

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

quite, neutral, the

excess

soap then

well
an

boiled
excess or

so

as

to

free it

of water,
a

and

of alkali is killed
coconut

by the addition of

little stearic acid

oil.

The

given may recipes just Emollient Soaps. added

such

be followed
"

as

to the

fats employed.
to

These

are

toilet soaps

bodies

as

lanolin, vaseline, spermaceti

of the soap.
are

is which in about

5 to 10 per cent, of the weight

Cold-water
that they
are

Soaps.
a

"

These copious
coconut

soaps for which

itis claimed
They
are

will yield

lather with

cold water.

made

chiefly from

oil

or

palm-nut
a

oil, and

filledwith soda crystals.

water,

They

contain
are

30 to 40 per cent., and

they
1
oz.

large proportion of very wasteful in use.

Antimonial

Soap,

"

Take

antimony mix

orange

and
oz.

solve dis-

in 3

oz.

caustic potash
a

lye, then

with

12

white

tallow soap to
Tannin

smooth
"

paste.

Soap,

97

lb. good

white

soap

and

3 lb. tannic

acid.

Salicyl Soap.
acid.

"

98 lb. good

white

soap

and

2 lb. salicylic

Thymol
Benzoic

Soap. Soap.

"

97 lb. good
"

white soap and

white soap and

3 lb. thymol. 2 lb. benzoic

98 lb. good

acid. Floating
then soap
or

Toilet Soap.

"

The
an

stock

soap

is remelted this
means

and
the
more

strongly

stirred with charged

agitator'; by
and

becomes

with
;

air bubbles it is
now

therefore
cut

less spongy

in texture
makes

framed,

into bars,

dried, which
stamped.

it rather

lighter, cut

into tablets and

Skin
have

Soaps.

"

Soaps

mixed
name
"

with bran, oatmeal,

of skin soaps. Melt together 374

cornflour,

been

sold under Glycerine

the

Liquid

Soap.

lb. pale oleic

lye, 60" Tw.,

acid, 66
then
and

lb. coconut

oil,228
when

lb. caustic potash

saponified
add

add, boil up, and

20 lb. glycerine

enough

methylated

spirit to make

the liquid clear.

SOFT

SOAP.

301 30 lb.fuller'searth.
to the

Fuller's Earth

Soap.

"

70 lb. soap and

The

fuller'searth

is thoroughly

dried before adding

soap, and
cent,

the latter should

not contain less than

25 to 30 per

water.

Borax

Soap.

"

90 lb. good
"

soap and

10 lb. borax.

Soaps, Superfatted
are
''

Soaps

made
'*

often sold

as

superfatted

by the milling process ; they have added to them

fat, lard, etc.

small quantities of lanolin, refined wool The

more

main

advantage
to
use

of such

soaps

lies in that they

tender

are

agreeable

due to the absence Iodine Soap, 98 lb. neutral white soap and 2 lb. iodine. This should be made fresh as required as it does not keep, the iodine gradually acting on and combining with the alkali
"

by persons of free alkali.

with

skins,

fact

of the soap, thereby losiug its medicinal virtues. Farrier's Soap. A soft soap made from fish oil, caustic
"

potash and wood-tar.

SOFT SOAP.

Soft soap is a very important article in the soap trade ; in some districts it is very extensively manufactured, while in in comparatively Soft others it is made small quantities.
soap

is

an

amber-coloured
of butter.

to

reddish-brown
more

material

of

the consistency

It is much

soluble in water

than the ordinary hard soap, and usually rather more alkaline in its nature. Its detergent and scouring properties are, therefore, greater. The

alkali of soft soap is potash, although

used in

littlesoda is
yet
a

also occasionally soap

cannot

therewith, conjunction

soft

"

be made as way with soda only, in the same hard soaps cannot be made Soft soaps owe with potash. their consistency to the fact of the greater solubility and hygroscopicity
Soft soaps
of potash
are

soaps.
more

much

simply

made

than

hard

soaps.

302
The

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

fats and

oils are
and

boiled with the alkali tillthe saponificathen the soap

tion is complete,
to

is made,

and

only wants

be

run

into firkins or
as

tin canisters to be ready for sale.

Simple, however,
easy to make.

and

then

it is in principle, soft soap is by no means It is liable sometimes ing, to go wrong in the boilit becomes difficult matter to set it right. a
should

The

aim

of the soft-soap maker

be to produce

clear,

transparent
too

soap, pale in colour, fairly free from

odour, not

alkaline in character, and

in

some

cases

''figging" well.
"

streaks of peculiar appearance to strike from the sides of the vessel white usually found holding the soap inwards. Figging is usually considered to

Figging

in soft soap

is

indicate
the
case.

good

quality of soft soap, but

such

is not

really

fig, while which

A first-class be made soft soap can which will not be produced on the other hand a poor soap can

on

figging is usually ascribed to the presence of stearate of soda in the soap, which crystallises out the soap becoming cold, the crystals which are thereby giving rise to the
figging.

will fig. The

formed

Figging

is mostly
of
not

met

in winter time. Unless the proportion stearic acid in the soap is very large it does with
summer

soda
occur

and

in

time. oils chiefly employed in making

soft soaps
form
are

The

seed lin-

oil,whale

oil and

cottonseed

oil. These
one

the basis
as

of all soft soaps.

Linseed
gives

oil is the
a

chiefly used,

it

saponifies easily and

soap, of
a

good

pale-coloured, transparent
odour, and
which

good

consistency, fairly free from

or

keeps well.
cheap. They

Whale

other fish oils commonly

much

are

largely used, being dark-coloured the quahty

however
soaps,

produce

though
the

clear

but

depends

on

of

is used. Fish oil soaps have a fishy odour, " oil which Cottonseed oil makes which is not altogether objectionable. ging fairly good soft soap, pale in colour and transparent, figa is not the case well, which with the other two oils

SOFT

SOAP.

303
are

that have
to acquire

been named.
a

Cotton
on

oil soaps keeping.

liable,however,
quahty
the of the

rancid
oil has
The

odour
a

The
on

cottonseed the
soap.

material
refined
commoner

influence

quahty

of

best

oils produce
grades
are

pale-coloured,

transparent

soaps ; the

apt

to

give

darker-coloured of stearin they

soaps, which

owing
apt
to

to. the

large proportion Tallow

contain

are

fig strongly.

is

to them occasionally added in making soft soaps, to cause fig. Olive oil soft soap is made for special purposes, such
as

silk washing,
commonly

etc., but

oHve

oil, owing

to

its cost,
nut

is

not

added

to soft soaps.

Sometimes

oil is

added.

When
case

white

soft soaps

are

required,
cotton coconut

as

is sometimes
must

the

for special purposes

in the tallow,
or

trade, such

be

made
a

from

good

white

oil, and

perhaps

small quantity
must

of lard
paid
to
a

other

fat, and of

tion particular attensoda

be

the good
used

quality white

caustic

used,

which
The

should

be

of

colour. soft soap

use,

caustic potash

in making

was

at

one

time prepared
pearlash

by the soap-maker

for his

by causticising
Now, ever, how-

(carbonateof potash)with
for the the smaller from

quickhme.
makers

it is the custom
ready method prepared of making

to purchase

it

alkali-maker
has

in iron drums.
already been

The

caustic potash

described

in the chapter on alkalies, page 36, and need not be repeated here. bought When an ready made, it is advisable to make examination of it to see that it is up to full strength, of good
colour, fairly free from
much,

carbonate,
Much

and

does

not

contain
grades
one

if any, oxide of iron.

of the
are

lower

of
or

caustic potash

which

are

produced

defective in

other of these points.

It is advisable
least two potash

that

the

soap-maker

should
"

prepare

at

lyes of different strengths Tw.

one

of 14" Tw.,

the other of 25"

Some

makers

provide

lyes of three

304 14" Tw.,

SOAP

MANUFAOTUEE.

strengths, depends
on

23" Tw.

and

38" Tw.

Much

of

course

the construction

of the soap

boiler in which
one

the

soft soap heated with

is being

made.
a

If the

boiler be

which

is

by fire only, then while

or

weak

lye of 14" Tw.

may

be used
heating,

advantage,

if the

boiler is fitted for steam

stronger
lyes

with

open

closed coils, then and

30" Tw.

may

be
as

used, say 23" Tw.

the boihng

Because

in the first case

proceeds the
open

the lyes get stronger, while when

steam

working
to get

with
weaker.

the

tendency

is for them

It is however

by far the best plan to make

and close steam
one
means
a

the soap

in pans
In

fitted with making of oil is

coil
or

open

coils.
half
of the full

soft soap
run

charge
steam

about By into the pan.

up, then

only

of the

closed

fire it is heated

quantity of lye at
run

14" Tw.,
steam
sent

equal

in volume
Eun

to the

oil, is

in, and the

open

in.

the lye in slowly, while

mixing

of

the

lye and

oil is carefully watched. it must

Presently

the oil will

begin

to saponify, then

be well stirred, for it will As

soon

begin to swell and

more

rise in the pan.

a^

this is seen
may

lye, equal

to the first quantity

in volume,

be

run

in and

the

boiling continued.

Two

things

may

take place

lye may in the early stage of soap-making : the oil and In either it may or over, set into a stiff, pasty mass.

boil
case

trouble may
to turn

be looked
and

for. beat

The down
case

remedy

in the first

case

is

off steam
;

the

bubbling

soap

with
more
as

the paddle

that in the second

consists in adding breaking becomes

up the
mass

lye, in boiling up, stirring well

and

possible, but it is difficult to break

much
as

the process up the

masses

tedious, because
they
they
are

of soap, and

not

easily dissolved

in the

boiling soap

in which

float.

troubles will be avoided if a quantity of finished soap be left in the pan from a preceding operation.
These

When

the

oil and

lye have

amalgamated,

then

the rest

of the charge

of oil may

be

run

in and

the further quantity

SOFT

SOAP.

305

be mentioned here that as a rule 100 lb. of oil require 200 lb. of caustic potash lye at 32" Tw. to saponify, so that the soap-maker may base his calculations as to the quantity of alkali required
of alkali at 32" Tw.
may

be added.

It may

on

these data.
now

The
steam

soap is coil.

boiled, either by fireheat

or

the

closed

Generally it is not needful to stir it,the boiling keeps it in continual agitation ; it is a good plan now and agaip to send a sharp current of open steam through it or to stir it up with an iron paddle, taking special note of any
hard lumps
the pan.
of soap that may

settle down

at

the bottom

of

After
and

time
the

the

soap

plete saponification of the oil will be comformed. To ascertain this, take out a
a

sample of the

soap with

spatula, and
one

place it

on

piece

of glass and be observed

1. The

allow it to cool, when

:^-

of three things will

soap the

may soap

be

clear and

translucent formed and

dicates this inneeds

that

is properly
strength. has
a

only

boiling down
2. The
case

to the proper

spot

of cold soap

fatty border.

In

this
add

more

lye is required, and

as of either 23", or even up a httle longer, when another how the soap is progressing.

some

soap-boiler should strong as 38" Tw., and

sample
may

the

boil
see

be drawn

to

3. The

spot of soap
granular

is of

grey

colour, lustreless and

In

somewhat

in appearance. and
to remedy

this
a

case

too

much

lye has which

been
has

added,

this

quantity
lye

of oil

been
the

mixed
soap

with

little weak
further.

should

be

added, and

boiled up

The

experienced

tell by the manner soap-maker can of the soap boiling how itis lye or oil. The more progressing and whether it wants boiling ing. should go on quietly, free from any jumping or bumpThe

boiling down

is carried 20

on

until

sample

taken

306
out

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

and

cooled

on

glass plate shows

the proper

consistency

and

brightness of appearance. Some makers add a littlecarbonate

the production
of the soap
Too

of potash, which
too much
a

motes promust

brightness, but
will become much

not

be

added,

or
on

the

thin, and
the

ness white-

will form

it.

lye induces

same

fect. de-

A little experience observation

will
soon

coupled

with

the

habit of careful
to tell when

enable

the soap-maker

he

has got his boiling of soft soap quite right.

When

finished the

soft soap

is

run

into the for sale.

firkinsor

other packages

to cool, when
a

it is ready
a

Linseed
pleasant

oil yields

soap of

dark

amber

colour, with

odour.

Whale

oil yields according

a

dark reddish

soap, varying of the

soap

somewhat

in colour

to the quality

ways used, but al-

having
a

fishy smell.

Other

fish oils may

be used with

similar result.

Cottonseed oil yields

amber oil.
on
an

soap varying
to

from

golden to

an

colour, according

the degree of refinement

are

Freshly

made
are

cotton-oil soaps
rather

free from

of the odour, but

develop

being kept
odour.

apt to

become

rancid and

Olive oil yields in hue.

Hempseed Coconut
Tallow The
and

fine soap, varying from amber

to greenish

oil gives
oil gives
gives
a a

green-coloured
soap.

soap.

fine white

stiffsoap, apt to fig somewhat. depends colour of the finished soap much

on

the

care

and
no

attention given to the soap during the process of making, There is the manner of heating the soap pan. also on

doubt
a

but

that

fire-heated pan pan, therefore

produces

darker

than

steam-heated

the latter form

are

soap is of pan by
sumers con-

to be preferred.

Light-coloured

soaps

preferred
a

to dark-coloured

soaps, and

command

readier sale.

SOFT

SOAP.

307

The

following mixtures

of oils may

be used

"

1 ton.

These
last

will yield soaps which

having

first two.

this property much If soaps are required which be used

:
"

will not fig much, fully developed more

the two

than the

lowing will fig, then the fol-

oils may
E. Palm
Tallow oil

Linseed F.

oil

24 tons. i IJ
"
m

Palm oil Linseed oil

3^ 1^
2

"

"

G.

Cotton
Tallow

oil

"

J
oil
In 21 2

"

Linseed

H.

Tallow oil Linseed oil Cotton oil Palm

cwt.
"

IJ tons.
7
cwt.

Many

other mixtures
oil
"

may

be used.
1 ton.

I. Coconut
Tallow

Lard

4" ^

"

This will yield a soft white soap. figging is brought about Sometimes

by using

littlesoda

along
lOOO 32" 160 32"

with the potash, lb. of oil

are

for instance, in the following recipe : boiled with 536 lb. caustic potash lye at
as,

Tw.,

to start the

saponification.
and

Then

there

are

added

lb. potash
Tw.

lye at 42" Tw.,

470 lb. caustic soda lye at

308
The

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

finished soft soap is usually from

of the oil used.

2J

to

2J times the

weight
Good
10 per

soft soap should

cent, of potash

contain 42*5 per cent, of fat, with

47*5
per
cent,

and

of water

; some

samples
as

have
as

as

low

as

40 per cent, of fat, while others have

much By

50 per cent.

using any of the above recipes a pure soft soap is and competition, some made, but for the sake of cheapness at a cheaper price by using such samples are filledand made
materials
moss,
as

rosins, silicates of potash

and

soda, starch, Irish

agent for soft soaps owing to its making a soap having good detergent properties. When using rosin it is a good plan to saponify by itself and then from the other oils. Some makers add it to the soap made
employ
soda to convert
over

and caustic soda. Eosin is a good cheapening

the rosin into soap, in which

case

the

rosin is melted
another pan

water

in

pan, steam-jacketed
are

while
a

in

ordinary

soda

crystals

dissolved in
56

small

quantity

of water.

The

proportions
The

are

lb. of soda crystals

to the rosin

to 112 lb. of rosin.

soda liquor is added

in small quantities at a time, waiting until all effervescence before adding each succeeding quantity of soda. After ceases the soap is boiled up for a short time to finish all is added
the saponification.

When

this is completed

the soap is rjia

into the pan of soft soap. Should the colour of the finished soap be.a matter
and
as

portance of im-

rosin of the
soap, then
an

usual

run

of grades
may

produces

darkish-coloured

improvement
"

be eflfected

either of the following plans using a better grade The rosin of rosin, or purifying it by the following piocess. is saponified by soda, as described above, then the rosin soap

by adopting

is salted out by the addition of ordinary salt and for the soap to settle out. Then the lye is run
it
a

time allowed

off,and
of the

with
rosin

large proportion

of the

colouring

matter

SOFT

SOAP.

309

The
soap.

rosin

soap

thus

purified may

be

added

to

the

soft

The
seventh

proportion
to one-tenth

of rosin which

may

be added

may

be

one-

that of the other oils and fats used.

The
way
:"

following

recipes may

be followed

in the ordinary

A.

Linseed
Tallow Rosin

oil

400 lb. 136 60 740 40

25
"

"

Caustic potash lye, 32" Tw Caustic soda lye, 36" Tw

Pearlash

"

"

"

B.

Linseed

260

"

Cottonseed
Rosin

oil

250 50

"

"

Caustic potash lye, 32" Tw Caustic soda lye, 36" Tw Pearlash

600
145

"

"

25
a

"

The regards "When

the

colour of
its sale
"

soft soap is

matter
more

of importance

as

the paler this is the

readily it sells.
of

rosin is used there is a very considerable darkening if the plan of purifying described above colour, even
Even
when
pure

be

a*dopted.
the

oils are

used it is difficultto keep

colour pale, especially whea

on

fireheat is employed.
Too

Steam

lieat is far preferable also leads to the

this account.
of the

prolonged

boiling
be

darkening

colour, and

should

as possible. as much avoided Silicated SoftSoaps, One

"

of the

best filling agents

the

for

soft

soap

is silicate of potash.
or

It has

advantages

of
has

having
some

body washing

consistency,
power, and

is clear
what

and
more

transparent,

is

is easily used.

Silicate of potash is used by itself and also in soap-makers add at the same with farina. Some caustic potash, but this is not necessary.
The soap while still hot
to cool down

conjunction
time
some

should
to about

be

run

into the crutcher

the

and

allowed

180" F. ; then

cate sili-

of potash, at the rate of 10 lb. to the

firkin of soap, is

310
run

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

in and

crutched

into the soap.

The

quahty
70" Tw.

of silicate

used is the ordinary Another

Tw.,

neutral liquid at about

plan is to take 2 cwt. of caustic potash

of potash

lye at 38" the

add to this sufficient carbonate

up
to

to bring cwt.

gravity

4" Tw.,

then

add

this liquor to 10
to

of
the

silicate of potash, after which

soap.

it is ready

mix

with

If farina is used
then 1 cwt.

in

with conjunction
and

silicate for filling,

of farina is taken

stirred into 12 gallons of

a

carbonate mucilage

of potash

lye at 7" Tw., until

clear transparent

is obtained.
the

This is added

to the silicateof potash

(10 cwt.)and
proportions,
cwt. of soap.

mixture

to the soft soap

in the

required

which

will be at about

the rate

of 20 lb. to the

Another the

method

of filling soft soap, which

is much

on

above

lines, is to first crutch

in silicate of potash
a

at the

rate of 7 lb. to the firkin, then

to prepare

and

caustic soda
The

lye, and

crutch

mixture of starch in 7 lb. per firkin of this

is made
150
a

mixture.

starch

preparation heating

by taking
or

soda lye at 40" Tw.,

to about at

160"

caustic F., then

adding
each

farina in small

quantities

portion is dissolved before adding

waiting until The farina the next.

of soft soap

time,

is added

of the consistency until a mass it is ready to use. when Colourman*s hard

may
or

is obtained,

A writer in the Oil and

recommends and
soap,
a moss

Journal, 1895, p. 911

soap, silicateof soda

mixture

of ordinary
soap

Irish
or

jelly.The
made
from

be the ordinary
other cheap

pale

better, one
The

bone

fats, without

rosin.
at 100" Tw.
manner
:

silicate is the ordinary Irish

moss

neutral silicateof soda

made

The
are

is jelly

in the
an

following
hour, to

27 lb.

steeped
and
a

in cold water
away

for half

soften the material of water

Then
are

wash

dirt and

sand ; 65 gallons
to

placed in
moss

wooden

tub and
and

heated

the boil.

the cleaned

is added

the whole

boiled for half

DEY

SOAPS.

311
to enable it to keep

an

hour, after which

it is drained

oflf, nd a

for some added.

time
Irish

small

moss or

quantity of caustic potash lye may be jelly, unfortunately, does not keep any
it might

length of time,
uses

otherwise

find very

many

more

than

it does at present. with

the

One

cwt.

of the soap

is sliced

and mixed added and

the

then jelly,

1 J cwt.
near

of silicate of soda is

mixture

kept
when

the

boil until

all
for

are

thoroughly
and it may

incorporated,

the

filling is ready
at the rate

use,

be added

to the

soft soap

of 8 to 10

lb.to the firkin.

From

time

to time

other

filling agents
sooner
or

are

offered, but
themselves and

generally prove

unsatisfactory, and

later make

manifest, often to the detriment

t injuryo

of the soap-maker

his trade.

this,as in many
a

experience other things, there is nothing

one

The

author's

shows

that in

like supplying
and maintain
a

genuine

article to enable

to build up

good trade.
DRY

SOAPS,

SOAP

POWDERS.

Dry
years

soaps,

as an

they

are

called, have

during

the last few

become
^o
not

important
much

branch

of the

soap

industry.
greater

They

vary

in their composition,
of ordinary
others
are

the and

number

of them
some

being composed
are

soap

sodium
makes,

carbonate ;
sold under
are

scented,
names, some

not.

Some

special

contain

other

constituents
to the

which

supposed The

to give

special value

soap.

process

of manufacture
many

is very

simple, and

its simplicity

has induced

persons

to take up

the manufacture
some
care

of dry

soaps.

Still, even

though

simple,

must

A needs be exercised to turn out a dry soap of good quality. first-ratedry soap should be in a fine powder, smooth, not gritty to
together

the

feel, not
nor

exhibit

any

tendency paper dry

to

aggregate
way.

in lumps,
a

stain the packing

non

in any
soap

It is considered

sine qua

of

good

that

it

312

SOAP

MANUFAGTUEE.

should

lather freely.
as

We

may

proceed

to make

to the character

of the materials

which

few observations are used in

making
The

dry soaps.

Soap.

"

This, the

special ingredient in fair proportion.

in this class of

goods, should
known another
as

be present
contains

One

of the best

makes has
as

from
as

18 to 20 per cent, of actual soap,

some

much

30 per cent.,
are

get down
name

as

low
more

5 per cent., but such

dry soaps A

only in

and
to put

or

less frauds

on

the

public.
The

fair quantity
ought
to

in is

from from

15 to 20 per cent. good

soap
as

be well made
free fat and

materials, but
a

as

free

possible

from
"

containing

small proportion
more

of water

15 per cent, is a

fair quantity, but The

soap

than

20 per from

cent, should

be avoided. like tallow,

the addition

ought
or

to

be

made

fats, which, soaps, while

palm
of
or
a

oil

coconut

oil,give hard
of such

small quantity

oils as

cotton

other oils,or

stock soap, which

much

oil, rosin give soft kinds of soap, is

not

oil, hnseed

not

; too objectionable

should

be used,

as

then the

soap

becomes almost

so

soft that it does not

to obtain
a

grind easily and

fine powder.

comes it be-

impossible

A
palm

good oil,

soap for this purpose

is made

from

40 lb. bleached

40 lb. tallow, 10 lb. cotton

oil,and 10 lb. coconut

oil. Another

mixture

is 40 lb. palm
oil.

oil,40 lb. tallow, 10 lb. linseed oil,and This will give

a

10 lb. coconut than

yellower-coloured

soap

the last, the finished dry soap

to objected

will be darker, and Another

this is
is

sometimes

by

customers.

mixture

40 lb. bleached

palm

oil,30 lb. coconut

oil,20

lb. tallow, 10

lb. Hnseed
the soap

oil. is made

But

the variety of mixtures

of fat from
no

which

is great, and in detail.

"

it will

serve

good

purpose

to enumerate

them

Sodium
crystals.

Carbonate.

This

is used
the
a

in the
soap

form
show

of soda

Occasionally, should
pasty

dry

signs of

becoming

during

working,

small quantity

in the form
to combine

of 58 per cent, alkali is often added.

This appears

DBT

SOAPS.

313

with the

excess

of moisture

is usually due, and

in the soap, to which it work properly. make

product,

the pastiness

Glauber's
sodium

Salt,

"

This

which
soap

is
in

crystallised

sulphate,
the

is often added o objectf

out

to dry

place of soda

crystals with and

so

cheapening
an

the cost of production,

a

be able to turn

article at

lower price than

the

best grade
soaps, and

of dry soaps.

Borax
material

is occasionally added
to add
; the only

to dry

is

very good

objection

to it is that it is expensive.

Phosphate

of soda has

been

added

to dry

soaps, but the It is

writer
a

sees

no

very material
any

advantage detergent

in ita addition.

neutral

salt, without

properties, while it is

rather expensive. Paraffin, in the form soaps. The

of

wax

or

oil,is often added

to

dry
2

quantity

added
more

is but small, rarely exceeding

than

per cent, and

soap.

oftener not

It is generally

conceded

that

of the dry paraffin increases the

per cent,

Perfumes of various kinds are properties of soap. often added, but the best known makes are not scented at all, and such odour ad they possess is due to the fats used in

washing

making the soap. Other bodies are

dry soaps.
as

sometimes

added

for various
on

reasons

to

Such

will be mentioned

later

; the above

form

it were
Every

the basis of all dry soaps. dry-soap

maker has

his

own

manner

of working.

The

general principle which

underlies
and

the

great

of majority This
mill,

the processes
may

is to grind

the soap
means

salts together.

be carried out the

soda

either by
or

of the edgerunner salt

are

when then

crystals

Glauber's

first ground^ in. With

to
a

the soap is thrown

of working

in and
there

gradually is sometimes

worked
a

this manner

tendency

pastiness if the soap

be remedied

be too soft. In such an event it may by throwing in a small quantity of 58 per cent,

alkali.

314 The enough.

the

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

difficulty is that
A

the edgerunner.does

not

grind fine
to

better plan

is to
in
dry

use

an

edgerunner

mix

ingredients, and

grind

devil disintegrator.
and works
a

This

is admirable
any

for grinding

soap

better than
of great

other form

of grinding mill, yielding

product

fineness, which

is

very important
at.

feature in dry soap, and

should always
Another is to
The

be aimed

plan
the they

of working soda crystals

as

which

is sometimes heating
them

followed

melt
water

by

in

pan.

contain,

water

ficient of crystalUsation, is sufthe requisite quantity

for this purpose,

then

add

of

soap cut up into fine shavings,

and

grind up in the usual way. in this process over the one Having

stir well, and allow to cool, There is however no tage advandescribed

used

above.
and

described
some

the

materials

the method

of

making,
soaps.

recipes may

be given

for making

various dry

Standard

Dry

Soap.

"

20 lb. good soap, 70 lb. soda crystals,

10 lb. refined alkali. Extra

Dry

Soap.

"

30 lb. soap, 60 lb. soda crystals, 10 lb.

refined alkali. Cheap

soda
Dry

Soap.

"

15 lb. soap, 50 lb. soda salt.

crystals, 5 lb.

ash, 30 lb. Glauber's

Borax

Dry

Soap.

"

25

lb. soap, 60 lb. soda

A

crystals, 5 lb.
can

borax,
from

10 lb. refined
25 lb. soap,

alkali.

better quality alkali, 50

be made

10 lb. refined

lb. soda crystals,

15 lb. borax.

Dry Paraffin

Soap.

"

20 lb. soap, 70 lb. soda crystals, 8 lb.

refined alkali,and Oatmeal Dry

2 lb. soft paraffin scale.

Soap.

"

15 lb. soap, 70 lb. soda crystals, 8 lb.

refined alkali, and

Perfume
may

7 lb. oatmeal.

be added

to any

extent

and of any

character

the soap-maker

desires.

Dry Disinfectant

Soaps.

"

-Dry soap may

be the

means

of

DEY

SOAPS.

315

applying

disinfectants, which
as

are

simply added

in the desired

quantities to the materials,

the disinfectant is
one

given in the above

which

is hquid

recipes. If in character, then it is

crystals, and

desirable to reduce

the proportion

of soda

crease in-

that of the refined alkali to keep the soap in the form

of refined

powder,

or

some

absorbent,
to the soap.
over

Hke

kieselguhr

or

French method

chalk, may
has
some

be added
advantage

Perhaps

the latter

the former

plan.
is called washing

It might

perhaps soda

be added

that what

crystal is simply about added 3 per

to
cent.

crystals ground
a

up

with

littlesoap,
blue
is

Sometimes
soap
m

little ultramarine
to take away

the

dry

order
so

any

yellowish

tinge it might
A

possess, and

make

it appear

whiter in colour. is nothing

more

or

blue dry soap has been made which less than ordinary dry soap, to which
has

marine sufficient ultra-

been

added
are :
"

to give it a blue colour.

a

The
now
on

following
the market

few

analyses

of dry

soaps

that

are

These The sodium

are

made

with sodium
are
"

carbonate.
with

following carbonate:

some

made

Glauber's

salt and

CHAPTER
GLYCERINE
IN

VIII.
SOAP
LYES.

When

an

oil is saponified
as
one

by

boiling with

caustic alkali^
of the reaction.

glycerine is formed

of the products

proportion of glycerine yielded by the different oils variesconsiderably ; thus the characteristic ingredient of butter fat, butyrin, will yield as much 30 per cent, of glycerine, while as brassin, the characteristic constituent of rape oil, will only The average percentage of yield 8*7 per cent, of glycerine.

The

glycerine yielded by
various oils and fats :
"

the oils and

as

fats is about

10.

Allen
the

gives the following table

to the

yield of glycerine from

Oil.

Glycerine

per cent.

Porpoise

X1'09
11-96 11*10

Whale
Menhaden Lard Tallow Butter fat
?
. .

10-83
9-9-10-O
.
.

11-06
10-1.11-4 9-82 9*94 9-60 9*39 913

OUve
Rape Sesame

Cottonseed
Linseed Castor

Coconut
Palmnut
Palm

12-11

11-70

9-71

the latter soap, and on being salted out in the soap-kettle, remains in the spent lyes. it was Formerly thrown away, but of late years the demand

This

glycerine

passes

into the

for glycerine has caused

attention

to be paid to processes

for

GLYCERINE

IN

SOAP

LYES.

317

the recovery

which,
11548

of the glycerine from the spent lyes, a sample of by the author, had a specific gravity of examined
and

(30-90Tw.)

contained

:"

Glycerine

is

water- white, very

specific gravity when pure that it is difficult to affinity for water

anhydrous

viscid liquor, having of 1*2665 ; but it has such obtain

an

absolutely

glycerine glycerine, and the ordinary commercial generally has a specific gravity of 1*260 to 1*263, and contains
a

little water.

It has
as

sweet

taste, and

was

originally
in the
**

known

in consequence

the sweet

spirit of oils, and

as the glycerine industry the crude material is known The With water it mixes in all proportions. water".

sweet

following

table

showing

the

specific gravities

and

strengths useful
:
"

of

various mixtures

of these two

liquids will be found

TABLE

OF

SPECIFIC

GRAVITIES SOLUTIONS
OF

AND

STRENGTHS

OF

AQUEOUS

GLYCERINE.
Specific gra"ity 15" C. Per cent, of glycerine.

Specific gravity

Per cent, of glycerine

1-2660
1-2625

100 99
98

1-1990 1-1865
11716

75

70
65 60 65 60 46 40 35 30 25 20 16 10 5

1-2600
1-2675 1-2660 1-2626 1-2499

97

1-1670
1-1430 1-1290 1-1166 1-1020 1-0885

96
96
94

1-2473 1-2447
1-2421

93
92 91 90
88

1-0750
10620 1-0490

1-2395
1-2341 1-2287 1-2233
.

86
84 82

1-0365
1-0240

1-2179

1-0120

1-2126

80

318

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Glycerine
in ether. A

is also soluble in alcohol, but only

mixture
of equal volumes

slightly

so

of chloroform

and

alcohol dissolves it,but it is insoluble in chloroform, petroleum

etc., being

benzene,
for salts,

spirit and

oils. It is

powerful

solvent

nearly equal to water

of carbon,

in this respect. hydrogen and

It is composed

oxygen

in the

proportions

indicated by the formula

to the alcohol group

CgHgOg

; in its relationships

it belongs

of organic compounds,

it has basic properties, and

as

hydrochloric

acids, such monobasic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, it is capable of with

the

forming

compounds

containing
OH,
and

one,

two

or

three equivalents
the formula

of the radicle hydroxyl,

therefore having
OH OH OH

D3H5}
and

is essentially the hydroxide

It may

of the radicle glyceryl. although

be

mentioned

that

by

looseness of

glycerine is often spoken expression which is very common, of as the base of the oils and fats, yet glycerine as such does during the various not exist in the oils, but is formed of the real base processes of saponification by the combination
glyceryl, C3H5, with the radicle hydroxyl.
are

The Heated

oils and fats

with

salts of this basic radicle glyceryl.

or

strong

sulphuric acid
and

with acid potassium

sulphate it is dehydrated is evolved, recognisable

acrolein (acrylic aldehyde),CgHgCOH, by its peculiar odour.

Nitric acid acts
on

variety of products, nitro-glycerine, oxalic acid, glyceric acid, etc., being

a

it energetically, forming

formed
manner

according to the strength in which the operation

potassium permanganate is converted
takes

of the

acid used, and the

out.

is carried

Heated

with

in

the

presence

of caustic carbonic
manner,

potash, glycerine

into oxalic acid and place

acid, and it is taken glycerine.

as

this reaction
advantage

in

definite

of for the

quantitative

estimation

of

GLYCEBINE.

319

When
takes
these

glycerine is heated
ethers
are

place, and
have

with organic acids combination known formed as glycerine, and

in,

the special termination

and
many

palmitin,

with

the prefix

mono,

acetin, olein, stearin di or tri, to show how with

one

as

equivalents of the base.

of the acid

are

combined
show

lent equiva-

Chemists,

to

the* analogy
to it the

between

glycerine
name

and the alcohols, have glycerol, but it has been

given

systematic
use

thought

better to

the

more

familiar term
The

glycerine in this chapter.

to
recover

first attempt
made

glycerine from

the used soap

lyes

was

by Eeynolds

essentially

in evaporation
a

in 1858, whose process consisted by distillation, and accompanied

processes
must

since that time A process which

extent

great many

have

been
to

devised.
a

is to be successful character factors

of the
as

depend
lyes.

large

upon

the

soap

It is largely

influenced
to

by such
the

the quality of the

alkali used

it be from high grade caustic lyes, whether caustic soda, low grade caustic soda, or by causticising soda ash or black ash lyes. The character of the fats and rosins make

effect on the method of extraction to be will also have some Fuller and King's process, devised Messrs. Thomas, adopted.

in 1879, consists in first evaporating

as

the lye

so

as

to throw
a

much

of the salt out

as

possible ; it is then which

boiled with

little acid and the fatty matter after which the liquor is again
comes

oflf, remains skimmed The siEilt evaporated. which

out is collected, while

the crude

glycerine

left behind

is

to subjected

distillation.
boils down
that separates

Young

by

means

neutralises the used lyes with acid and of steam, filtering oflfany fatty matter Whiting

out. to
a

paste, which

is next added and the mixture evaporated is then placed in a hydro-extractor ; the
the glycerine is collected and
to subjected

liquor containing distillation. Pain

adds

acid to neutrahse

the

lyes and

separate

any

320
fatty matter

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

that may

collect, then

adds

tannic

the albuminous

and gelatinous matter;

acid to precipitat this is filtered

down off, the liquor evaporated and then the caustic lyes used to saponify the fats

distilled. When
are

black ash
compounds

or

crude

soda ash they

as a

are

very

prepared from liable to produce

such

cyanide

which be adopted

have

compounds and sulphur compounds, material influence upon the method to

in recovering the glycerine. first adds hme Hagemann and then

little rosin, and

boils to neutralise the caustic alkali which is next added the lyes. To the mixture

may

be present in
acid,

hydrochloric

which may separates out the rosin or fatty matters which be present ; then there is added ferric chloride, which precipitates in the form of Prussian blue; compounds any cyanogen
these
are

filtered off.
a

Air is

now

blown

in for
powder

some

time,

after which

small

quantity

of bleaching

is added,

in the of the sulphur compounds which precipitates most form of free sulphur, which is filtered off ; next the liquor is neutralised by the addition of soda and then evaporated down.
Messrs. Allen
and

NicholFs

process

consists essentially acid and then

in acidulating the spent

adding
copper

lyes with hydrochloric

causes

the precipitation of the and ferrocyanides, together with sulphides, sulphocyanides The precipitate is the fatty matter which may be present. by filtration, soda is added to neutralise the free removed sulphate, which and distilled. acid and the liquor boiled down These are but a few of the processes which patented The

have

been

of separating glycerine from soap lyes. in any process which is to be comto merciall objects be aimed at

for the purpose

successful,
fatty matters of the

are

the

removal

which

may

be present -in

and of all albuminous in the lyes ; the removal process, and, thirdly,

salt which

is deposited

the

in concentration and treatment the exercise of economy in The following method of extracting crude glycerine is

BECOVEBING

GLYCERINE.

321

Qse.

The

lye is evaporated

in

an

iron

tank

to

specific

gravity of 40" to 50" Tw. ; this evaporation may be conducted in shallow pans heated by a steam rator, coil from another evapoflue leading from the by placing the pan over or a
second

boiling pan

the concentration
to cool, and

will be referred to presently. After into a tank and then allowed the lye is run
which
or

any

fatty

soapy

matter

which

may

separate

out is collected and

sent back

to the soap pan.

To the liquor

is next
causes

added

quantity

of caustic soda

at 70" Tw.
matter,

This

the precipitation in any

of the

albuminous
way.

which

is

separated

convenient

To

the

liquor

is next

added sufiBcient hydrochloric it is sent into the boiling pan Occasionally

soapy
and another

acid to make
and

it neutral, when boiled down.

for separating

plan
that

is adopted

the

fatty matter

the lye contains.

or

series of
stone,
are

four to eight tanks, either of iron, brickwork arranged the next

one

above
an

the

other, and

between

the highest pipe

one
so

to

there is

arrangement
the

of syphon of the

that the
one

lye

can

be

run
a

from

bottom

top

to the

below

it, and

similar arrangement
The

is adopted
the

throughout of the
a

the whole tanks

series.

running collection
and

off from
on

bottom
of

permits

of the

the

surface

fairly
the lye

large proportion

of the soapy

fatty matter

which

contains ; this is neutralised and sent back the lye being dealt with as described above.
One

to the soap pan,

of the chief difficultieswhich crude glycerine is the fact that

lye contains and
on

are

on
on

paring with in preboiling down, the

met

salt the

crystallises out
the steam

the surface
may

of the for

boiling tanks
the purpose

coils which

be used

of heating

these pans

; this leads to

considerable
of the salt,

loss of heat owing

and

to the non-conducting

powers
to

it becomes

necessary
on

to

take

steps

prevent
steam

this
coils,

crystallisation of the salt

and
various
means

to the
are

kettle and

to this end

adopted.

21

322
Figure
as

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

59 is a sketch
seen,

of

lye-boiling pan ; in this the pan, of the flues

at the sides

will be

is heated

by fire,the arrangement is principally

conical and done

being such
of the pan.

that the
This

heating

pan

is made

conical vessel having chains to the

ground.

perforated
The salt

sides.
as

it is fitted with a This is attached by

it crystallises out falls

into this perforated

vessel, which

from

time to time is lifted

Fig.

59.

out and

the

salt emptied

into

draining

vessel, the hquor

pan.

which
The

drains off from

it being put back

down

into the boihng

a

liquor is concentrated

until it reaches

boiling

it constitutes crude glycerine. point of 300" F., when have been One of the most successful processes which devised for the separation of crude glycerine is that of Messrs. Thomas is represented in figures 60 and and Domier, which

OLYCERINE

PLANT.

323

61. The lye isfirst tank or a flue concentrated in eithera coil, boilingpan, from whence it is run into a tank. The concentration of the liquidduring the boihng has the effect causof ing

the precipitation many of

which separate out

on

impurities, fattyand otherwise, coohng in the tank. To the lye isthen

"

PLAN
Fig. 60.

added 1 or 2 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, which causes the decomposition of any soap that may be present,precipitates any albuminous and fatty matter together with other

for impurities, and these, on the lye being allowed to stand twenty-four hours, come up to the surface and are collected The Hquor is next placed in a boiling pan and boiled down,

324

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

RECOVERING

GLYCERINE.

325

which

may pan

be done
heated

boiling

flue boiling pan, or by a conical directly by a series of steam coils ; the

over
a

salt that crystallises out is separated

this
process,
as

from

time to time.
which

In

will be

seen,

the

steam

is generated

from

the

varied
works.

boiling vessel is used for the purpose of concentrating be This process may the lye in a coil boiling pan. to suit the character at different of the lyes made

The

salt contains

large proportion

of the lye, and itis sent

removes
a

into
deal

trough

and

washed

with brine, which

good

with colouring matter, this brine being sent into the tanks to be passed through the process ; the salt is thrown into the cage of a hydro-extractor, and then
of the lye together

lye extracted from it. The salt is then sufl"ciently pure to be used in salting out fresh batches of soap. The crude glycerine obtained in the above processes is
a

brine

ling charcoal and distilrefined by a process of filtering through in a vacuum but for the details of this the reader is still,
referred to chemical

dictionaries.

CHAPTER
LAYING OUT
A

IX.
SOAP FACTORY.

there of any article of manufacture production in the financial point of producing it at the comes always lowest possible cost. has not only to consider the cost One in the production of the goods, of the materials employed in this but but other expenses connected and there is much
"

In

the

"

therewith,

works,

management

and

labour, office expenses,

may
not

rent, lighting, fuel, etc.

While

the cost of materials

vary

from

place to place, yet there might

that while
may
one

be such
may

difiference

in the other expenses,

at
a

works

be working
expenses.

good

profit, another

only be

justpaying

In the

first case,

probably,

considerable
works

paid to the arrangement

of the
the
cost

attention has been and the fixing of the

and

machinery
while

and

plant;
a

of labour

fuel is low;

there is also
case

large output
works

in relation to other expenses.

an

In the other

the

is probably
cases

old

one,

tended and ex-

from
and works

time to time ; in such

to be high,

the is high

cost of labour
too.

fuel is apt

while

rent

In

one

the labour is almost

entirely confined
and

to that

which

is

required to attend the machinery, minimum, products.

the works

but little,and
of the
a

that the

required

in the handling
about

raw

and

finished
of

This
and

is brought arrangement

by

judiciouslanning p
machines,

of the

various

that

the

materials
without

travel from
much

one

to the other

larly, steadily and regu-

labour attaching to the process.

are

In another

probably, the machines labour involved there is much

case,

scattered

irregularly, and
the

in transferring

materials

PLANNING

SOAP

FACTOBY.

327 and is

from
a

one

machine

to the other ; this labour costs money,

nQost

important

item in the cost of production.

There
position
the

is another
of the works.
to the

item to be
In works

considered, and that is the it is important

to get

these days
at the away

materials

lowest

possible cost, and

with the least expense. Therefore the situation of the works in regard to the point of facilitiesfor the delivery of its raw materials, fuel, etc., is important an question, and requires careful consideration.
to send

the finished products

The

best situated works

is that

one
or

which

will have

facilities
It should

for freight afforded by rail,caual

river and road.

be by
the

the side of rail it is in

one an

of these

means

of transport ; if close to
away

excellent position for sending

its

finished
the
works
means,

products,
means

while

possibly

canal
raw

best

for the delivery of the

at
some

river presents If the materials.

either of
these
very

or

is situated
then

distance

from and

the expense

of carting
are

to

fro becomes

great,

and, unless there

other compensating

advantages,

will tend to reduce the profits very materially. There is also another point to consider, and

that is the
a

question

of water
of water,

supply. hence
he

The
must

soap-maker
have
a

uses

large

plentiful supply of The this article at, needless to say, the lowest possible cost. w^ater should also be of good quality, the softer and freer from

quantity

the better. At every soap-works there magnesia to be a well from which be pumped the water may ; ought this supply may, if the works be in a large town, be supplemented

lime

and

froip the

town

supply.

On

the question

of water

reference may be made to Chapter V., p. 170 et seq. In selecting a site for a soap-works there must

also be

considered
ravsr

proximity

to the
means

sources

of supply
and

of fuel and
of freight

materials, which and

cheap

low

rates

to the works,

also proximity
are

to the markets

of sale of the
con

finished article. These

questions

of pro and

which

328
can

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

hardly

be considered

in

an

article like this, as

stances circumwill

will vary with every place.

have
on

A London
a

soap-works

to pay

more

for its fuel than

Manchester
the
raw

soap-works,

account

of its greater hand, it has

distance from

source

of supply.
rather

On

the other

it is able to get its

a

materials
at hand

cheaper, products.
In

and

much

larger market

for its

planning
and
a

soap-works

many

points have

to be considered,

variety of factors
a

taken

into account, arrangement much

so
an

which of the
an

influence, various

in

marked and

manner,

the
so

buildings
which

machinery,

that

arrangeme

would

be quite suitable and be be

quite unsuitable

economical
costly to
some

one

for

one

place, would
It may

and

work
these

at another.

profitable to discuss
In the

of

factors before

going
the

farther.
manner

first place it is
the fuel and
raw

advisable to consider
materials, etc., reach
"

in which
whether

the works,

by canal, rail,river

or all these ; the plans being drawn so road, either by one that the least possible labour is required in putting these into

or

again is the question of sending away the labour the finished products, with a view of keeping down item of putting these on boats or on rail for sending away to
position for
use.

Then

the various destinations.

all-important question of the size and is to be erected, the works on shape which of the ground irregular in shape. flat or sloping, rectangular or whether A flat site is better than a sloping site,and in some respects
Then
comes

the

rectangular

piece of ground

is easier to plan

out

than

an

irregular piece.
Next quantity
comes

the very important

to

of subject
out

the
a

output

or

of finished goods

be sent

at

given

time.

Combined

with this is also the question of the character of the kind of soap only or many kinds, one goods made, whether Thus it and the character and extent of the processes used.

OPEN

YARD

! I
TOIL

TWO

FLOORS

TOP
FT

FLOOR
MAOHYNERY

SOAP

DOXINfi
_.

LABELLING
.

I
I
OPEN

ENQIMq^

BOTTOM

FLOOR

BOX

MAKING

I I I
I
I
YARD

PACKING

STORING

I
[^^\^-^"^^^^^"^^^
SCALE

!^^^"^^$^^^^^^^
20
30

01

To

face page,

329.

PLANNING

SOAP

FACTORY.

329

bas to be lyes from

decided bougbt

wbetber

tbe

soap-maker

shall make

his

solid caustic, by

alkali,or by making
these depend

causticising soda ash or the alkali outright from salt. Upon all
and
extent

the character

of the machinery

to

be fitted up, and therefore the size of the buildings. in There is also another Soap has to be wrapped point. into boxes and labelled. The question packets and packed
arises, will the printed matter
done

soap-maker and
of the

undertake

the production

of all This is
as

needful

packing

boxes ?
advantage

large works with items. cost for these necessary

One

in many

considerable

to

principle in the arrangement of a works ought to be in a carried out as far as possible, that is to perform work

progressive machine
and
same

manner,
an

the goods
manner

travelling
without and
the
out

from

in

orderly

too

to machine handling much

over

without

travelling
or,

backwards
words,

forwards
raw

the
enter

ground,

in other
one

materials
other

into the works

the form

at

end

and

pass

at the

end

in

of finished products.

Assuming
100 tons
up
on
a

that week

works

is to be built to turn kinds of soaps, it may

out

some

of various

be fitted

the lines shown

of the

works.

There

in figure 62, which is an outline plan four blocks of buildings of two are front block

storeys in height.

The

(D E) in the plan
This
which

is
an

shown

in sectional elevation in figure 63. in the centre, through entrance gateway

On

contains
goods

are

received and are passed out. is situated the time- or

weighing machine
and

the right side of the gateway

lodge-keeper's sundry
and

ofl"ce (E), with

small

fittings store-room
and chemist's
a

behind,

over

these being the chemical

laboratory

these being most oflBce,

important

to adjuncts

soap

factory.

On the left-hand side is placed general offices over.

The

the manager's

office (D) with

on

right-hand
;

block (B)

figures 62

and 63 is the soap-boiling house

this block consists practic-

830
ally of two
doors,
as

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

shown

in B

in figure 64 ; and

in figure

vMmm^'^^

OD

IE
63, which

is

sectional elevation

of this block, eight

boilers

PLANNING

SOAP

FACTORY.

331

are

^hawTL

iszliich

may

be of aay

desired form, iiiat shown

ia

FAT SQIUMQ HOU"e:

TAWKS

B
" OAP

1-W

FRAMES
CItUTCHEftS

\h

may

be fitted to the pans, or beaters such as shown in figure Close to this is a water tower, this tower also acting as 32. On the top of the for the hoist and for the pump. house

PLANNING

SOAP

FACTOEY.

331

are

shown

which
a

may

be of any
one.

desired form, that

are

shown

in

figure 29 being
shown, and may

good

These

supported

on

pillars as
tion composi-

be surrounded
the heat
as

by non-conducting
much
as

to economise
are

possible.

These
a

pans
convenient

so

placed that the floor of the second

storey forms

working

platform
are

for them.
arranged the
room are

As

shown
one

in the plan,
at the

figure 62, the pans

ends.

along

side and

The

other
as

portion, arranged
and
the
"

side of a frame
The

building
and

is in

the
the

lower

to hold

engines

the crutchers. crutchers

frames
65,

shown

in figure 35, and

Messrs.
not

in
the

figure
second

made

by
space

W.

Neill
the

Son.

On

floor the

filled with
salt, which keeping

pans kept

forms
on

very

convenient

store

for the
a

is
it

the floor, wooden

sides about
one

foot high

a gallery on which side of it runs is placed the tanks (figure 26) for melting and storing the fats, the barrels containing the latter being run ways up inclined gang-

within

bounds.

Along

at either end

of the gallery

as

shown

in figure 64.

The

gallery enables the fat tanks to be so placed that the melted into the soap pans direct. Should, however, fats can be run it be considered not desirable that the fats be melted in tanks
so

placed, but

more

on

level with

the

soap

pans, then

it

will be needful to either melt them in a blower such as figure 27, or to pump fat from the tanks to the pans. the melted If convenience is desired for making small lots of soap, then be found for a pan like that shown in figure 30, room may
which

is

small steam

jacketed pan

made

by Messrs.
for making

Dopp soap

" Sons, while

if convenience

is also needed

by the cold process, then room may also be found for a few in figure 31. Above the soap pans pans hke that shown should be arranged shafting to drive any agitators which
may

be fitted to the pans, Close to this is

a

or

beaters such
tower,

as

shown

in figure
as

32.
a

water

this tower
pump.

also acting

house

for the hoist and

for the

On

the top of the

332
tower

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

is placed
steam

water

tank, from pans, tank

which

pipes
and

are

laid to
the
or

the
water

boilers, soap
This
of
water
a

lye tanks

wherever
a

is wanted.
means

is kept

filled from will be

a

well

spring by

pump. formed
means

As

there

great deal
attached
to to

of condensed

in the steam ought

to

pipes be

the various

soap pans,

taken

collect

this water it would

passes

and send it through

be worth
the closed steam

the pump

to the tower,

while which
pans
so

while to arrange

that all the steam

through through

coils and
and
the

jackets the of

be

sent

condensers,

condensed

water

formed

or, preferably, to the either to the tower to be preferred to well lye tanks, for, being pure, it is much

also sent

or

spring water
A
on

for dissolving the alkalies.

the plan and

in figure 63 is a block of two

storeys

on

the left-hand
on

on

In this building is carried side of the works. the making of toilet soap, boxing, labelling and printing floor is the box-making the top floor, while in the bottom

and the packing machinery, It is assumed that a works

and

storing

are

also done its

here.
own

of this size will make

as

boxes

and

do its own
an

printing
open
yard

far

as

possible.

Surrounding

this block is At the back the

room,

for the

of the works

between

storing of timber, etc. the two buildings is placed

as
a

block
and

C.

The
are

lower

floor of this is used

frame

in it

also placed

38 and 39, the soap-cutting

41,

the slabbing machines, figures in figures such as shown machines

a

42

and

43.

The
"

first is

barring
is

machine
a

made

by

Messrs.
naade

W.

J. Fraser

Co., the second

Son, while machine here

by Messrs.
and

Neill "

barring machine the third is a combined

by
a

barring
firm.
shown
stores
on case
a

tablet-cutting

made

Continental
as are

Stamping

is also done
On
the

by

such
are

machines
placed
may the

in figure 44.
and

top floor

alkali

the alkali tanks,

end

figure 25.
the

These

be placed in which
the tanks

gallery at the the lye is

run

nearest

boiling house,
soap

direct into the

pans,

or

PLANNING

SOAP

FACTOEY.

333

may

be placed
used
to
two to

on

be

send

the floor, in which the lye into the

one

case

pumps pans.

must

not

soap

The

yard

contains
the
other

boiler houses,
work
the

engine

house, soap-boiUng for driving the box-making

tower,
room

for the

machinery,
recovery

chimney,
house, while

water-tank
there

hoists and for the

glycerine
storage of

is also

tanks

if necessary.
that the thence
raw

It will be observed

products

are

sent into the is made

where

boiling house
into C

B ; from up

the soap which

; then

passes

to be cut

and

stamped

to A,

it is labour

packed

and

warehoused the goods

to employ

ready

to be sent

away.

The

of handling

is reduced
continuous

to

minimum,

while it is
conveyers
to

impossible
carry

mechanical

the

soap

from

place to place.
a

In figure 65 is given of two

plan of

smaller works,

consisting
and

main

blocks of buildings,

one

for the soap-boihng

the other for the finishing operations.

The
or

general

description

given of the larger works

It has been

more
so some

less applies to this.

an

planned,

however,
at

that

enlargement
a

could
new

be carried out

if required could be

future time ; thus the

boiling house
having
The
the

built by

side of the

one

shown,

boiler house
are

between.
to be put forward
as

plans

not intended
some

finished
may

designs, but to indicate

of the general
out
at

lines which factory.

be worked
they

upon
must

in the

laying

of

soap

ously Obvi-

be altered
as was

various

times

to suit local

circumstances,

indicated

above, while

of

course

the

character of the soaps made, and therefore of the machinery have some to be employed, must material influence upon the

carrying out of the details of arrangement

of the plant.

CHAPTER
SOAP ANALYSIS.

X.

Soap

manufacturers

often require to know

of their
own

the actual contents

or

of soap that any given sample

of other makers'
may
a

preparation know more

sample

may

contain.

Occasionally
the

they

desire to

particularly
Such

constituents
as

of

particular
alluded to,

of soap. necessitates for its supply

fully
"

information
a

is here
"

chemical

analysis

more

or

less

of the sample
when

being made.

Soap,

fat, alkali and Now as union.

or

pure, consists essentially *ofthree substances, less intimate or water, in a state of more

in any
so,

process

of soap-making

it is impossible,
fat which

nearly

to completely

saponify all the

is used, soap
free and free and of
cases

usually contains

the fat in two

conditions, i.e.,

combined,

while

the

alkali may
the fat.
the

be present, partly

partly combined

with

In the great

majority
to

it suffices to determine
a

above

constituents

ascertain the value of

In other
some cases a

soap. elaborate

more

analysis

is required, and

silicate of soda, salt and sulphate of soda have been added for various may and other bodies which desire to know the Then reasons. may again a soap-maker
constituents,
nature

of the fats used in making

the sample.

analysis of soap complete following constituents:

"

will take cognisance

of the

Free

fat,
fat,

Sodium
Sodium
Borax,

sulphate, silicate. fillings.

Combined
Free

alkali, Combined alkali,

Mineral

Water, Sodium Sodium carbonate, chloride.

Glycerine,

Sugar, Medicinal constituents.

SOAP

ANALYSIS,

335

Notwithstanding

the
as

^reat

advance
to

in the

practice

of

analytical chemistry
prepared

applied

oils, fats and

products

from

them,

stillmuch

the analysis of soap

in every

before to be done remains phase is brought to a state of

can

perfection, and
a

that the analyst

boast that he
exact
come

has given

perfectly true

report

as

to

the

composition
under

of any

particular sample Before

of soap that may

an

his notice.

commencing

analysis of any
to obtain
a

particular

piece

of it,and herein we may briefly touch upon a point of diflSculty that the soap analyst must guard against if he desires to obtain good results. been made for some
that there is central from
on

of soap it is of great

importance

good

sample

If

bar of soap, especially

across,

one

that has

time, be cut
a

it will be

observed
than
are

the outside

skin which
Now,

is harder

the

portion
outer

of
and

the

bar.

if portions

taken

the

inner parts of the

bar, and

analysed,

it

will be found
skin containing

that

different results
less water

are

obtained,
the

the

outer

much

than

inner

portion.

Now

as

it is usually the custom

in soap analysis to take several

portions for the different constituents, it is obvious that concordant results will not be obtained unless the analyst is exceedingly careful in selecting his sample and in cutting it In order to avoid this dijS"culty many up. analysts have
devised
only
one

schemes

for the

analysis
Some

of

sample

of soap have

from
not

weighed

portion.

of these
one

schemes

been published, others have, One disadvantage noticed.

take
an a

and
of

or

two

of these will be

such

schemes and

is that

they

considerable
Then,

time

to work

through,
soap

often time is
some

element.

again,
may

the
some

is

to subjected
on

operations
of the other
as

which

have

effect

the

character that

constituents
the

; thus, for instance, supposing

preliminary

soap

is dried, then

the heat

necessary

for this purpose bring about the saponification of some may free fat with the free alkali present, and the soap would be

336
as

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

returned

neutral

when

it may

really be alkaline.
reasons

Again,

if the soap
latter might

be treated

for certain

with

alcohol, the

also bring about

of free fat and

the complete

saponification of

the last traces

free alkali.

On making

the whole

if

care

be taken

in sampling

the

soap and

all weighings

of the testing samples

at the

same

time,

it will be found

better, and

quite

as

good

results will be

obtained, to
estimations. Water

use

different samples

of the soap for the various

in Soap.
an

"

Clean
a

thoroughly

and

heat

for

short

basin, then porcelain evaporating scrape the sample of soap allow to cool, and weigh it. Then into the basin. Next into fine shreds and weigh 10 grammes time
over

air bath

place the basin of soap 110" to 120" C. for about

out,

into

hot-air

oven

heated

to about

three to four hours ; take the basin

a

allow

to

cool

in

desiccator;
an

then hour,

weigh
again

it. Next
allow to

replace
cool, and

it in the weigh

oven

for about these

it ; repeat

operations

until there is no

be taken as The loss of weight may further loss of weight. soaps a littleof the spirit water, although if in transparent
be left in, it will
the water.
Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight Loss

also
an

be

volatilised and
:
"

reckoned

with

To
of basin of basin of soap

take
+

example

Grammes.

soap

36-368

25-368
taken

10*000 basin

of soap and
of soap and

basin

(B) (A)
X

35-368

33-276
2-092

of weight
2092 10
=

20-92.

In this soap there is then This, although in soap, is

advantage,
use a

2092

per cent, of water. of determining

hours
a

the best method

one,

the water
It has
one

slow and

taking

some

to do.

that

is the soap is in

suitable condition to

for further tests. A quicker method is that

described

by

Watson

Smith.

ALKALI

IN

SOAP.

337

An

evaporating basin with a short length of glass rod is 5 grammes of the soap to be weighed, and into it is weighed basin and its contents a are tested. The placed on sand
over
a

bath

bunsen

burner

until the soap begins which

and
are

and heated, with constant stirring, to emit a charring or burning odour,

is readily perceptible. The heating is then stopped, to cool, when they the basin and its contents allowed
the loss being the water
soap

weighed,
Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Loss

in the soap.
Qrammes.

of basin + glass + of basin + glass of soap taken

36'979 31-879
6*000 36-879 35*853 1026

of soap, etc., before heating of soap, etc., after heating

of weight 1026
X

20

20*52.

In this sample This

results.

method

of soap there is 20*52 per cent, of water. of working, carefully followed, gives good

Alkali
two

in Soap.
free and

"

The

alkali in soap
A good

may

be present

in

forms,

combined.
any

sample

of well-made diflBiso

soap

should

not contain
a

free alkali ; but

shall not contain
small
traces

it is very
any, and

cult to make

soap which have

the

best of soaps
only

frequently
means

present.
to

It is

when

special

have

been

taken

prevent

its
The

being present that soap combined alkali is that

is free from which

this constituent.

is combined

with

the

fat to

form

the soap.

The
or
as

free alkali may

carbonate

the

be present in the soap as hydroxide former is the excess of the caustic

the soap
not

alkali used in making

removed

in the finishing

operations ; the latter, when present, has usually been added It will be convenient if we firstdescribe as a fillingmaterial. the estimation of the total alkali in the soap, then the free
alkali both
Total
as

hydroxide in

and
"

Alkali

Soap.

carbonate. Ten grammes

22

of the

soap

are

338
out

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

weighed
boiling.
as

and
the

dissolved

in 100
much

to

150

c.c.

of water

by

To

solution
a

as

methyl

orange

is added from
run
a

will

justimpart
a

yellow

tint to the

liquid ; then

burette
in
The

normal

standard
a

solution of sulphuric
pink coloration
the of

acid is

(titrated) until
solution may
Note

permanent

is obtained. with

be

kept

warm

during

operation
o.c.*s

advantage.

is taken

of the number

of standard

acid used. It is customary

NagO,

to consider

soap

as

combination

of soda,

the oxide of the metal

sodium

with

the anhydrides have

of
the

the fatty acids ; in this view

sodium

oleate would

formula

Having is customary
and and

this view
on

of the
part

composition
of chemists
as

of soap

in mind, it
the free

the

to calculate

combined
accordingly

alkali in soap
the number

soda

(sodium oxide, Na20),

used is multiplied in the 10

of

c.c.'s

of standard

by
grammes

0"031, which

gives the

amount

of soda

of soap, and

this multiplied

by

10

of total alkali (NagO) in the

in testing
as
a
:
"

soap.
on

centage gives the perAs an example

were

sample

of soap, the readings

the burette

follows
Second

reading

32-6 6*0
26-5 26-5
X

Pirst reading

0-081
X

0-8216. 8-215.

0-8215

10

The

soap

contains 8*215 per cent, of alkali

(Na20).
position of the comconsiders it

In the author's of soap

as

opinion the customary view He given above is wrong.

preferable to view soap as being composed (which would be either the metal sodium
to the
nature

of basic radicle
or

potassium

according

of the then
have

soap) with
the formula

fatty acid radicle.

Sodium

oleate would

NaCjgHjgOg.

FEEE

ALKALI

IN

SOAP.

339

This
matter

bring the of soap would view of the composition in a Une with the currently accepted view of the
or

class of of salts, with which In consonance compounds soap may be grouped. with this view the alkali in soap should be calculated to sodium Na by

composition

constitution

using

the factor 0*023

to

multiply

the number

of

c.c.'s

of

standard

acid with
we

given above

fatty acid radicle. should have

a

Thus

in the example

26-6

0-023
X

0-6096.
6-096.

0-6096

10

There

is 6*095 per cent, of total alkali (Na) in this sample

of soap.
In the the
same.

case

of testing soft soaps, the method adopted is factors to be used in calculating are 0*047 The

for potash (KgO) or 0039 for potassium. In this chapter, in all analyses of soap the alkali will be given as sodium (Na) in the case of hard soaps, or as potassium (K) in the case of soft soaps.
Free

Alkali

in Soap.

"

To

ascertain the amount

of free

The simplest matter. alkali in soap is rather a troublesome of the soap, dissolve in plan is to weigh out 10 grammes
150
c.c.

of water

by boiling, add

few drops

of

an

alcoholic

a of phenol-phthalein, will produce which red coloration if free alkali be present, then titrate with normal sulphuric acid until the red coloration disappears. standard

solution

The
case

alkali is calculated to Na
of hard

OH

by the factor 0*04 in the

soaps ; to caustic potash

case
more

(KOH)
make of the

by the factor
of hard standard soap

0*056

in the

of soft soaps. than

good
c.c.

will not take

0*75 to 1

acid

to neutralise any

free acid it may

contain.
to

There

are

some

perhaps, objections,

this method
contains
as
a

of

working

; in the first place it fails if the soap

considerable

amount

of carbonate

of soda

or

potash,

these
are

bodies

are

slightly alkaline to phenol-phthalein

; if they

340 then another

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

present

process must chemists that

be adopted.
on

Then,

again,

it is stated by manjr
a

dissolving soap in water

occurs of decomposition certain amount is formed an acid soap together with If this action does really hydroxide. of detecting free alkali in the purpose

by hydrolysis; there
a

little free sodium

then
a

occur,

for the

soap,

solution in

is not available. The author, as the result of numerous analyses of soap, does not view this decomposition theory
water

of

soap

solution with

favour, and
occur.

is very
Soaps

much have

inchned

to the

opinion that it does not

his
hands

passed

through

described, with the processes above take more than 0*25 to 0*5 c.c. of acid to neutralise theory any free alkali they contained, and the decomposition of soap, if it is worth anything, calls for the production of

which

did

not,

free alkali than is represented which have been named.

more

by the quantities of acid

Another
to weigh out

method

of determining

the

free alkali in soap is

10 grammes

of the soap 200

c.c.

and

dissolve with

the
It is

aid of

water
use

bath in about absolute

of neutral alcohol.
as

best to ordinary

alcohol,

but

methylated

spirit may

this is expensive the be used if it is to a

subjected

purifying process, the simplest

method

of conducting

which
to

consists in placing in the spirit some stand

over
a

caustic soda, allowing

night, then

the residue which

away.

redistilling about 90 to 95 per cent., remains in the stillor retort being thrown
the alcohol
or

Before
a

use

spirit should
and

be neutralised

by

adding

little phenol-phthalein
a

suflBicientcaustic

soda to produce

When
latter has

faint pink tint. the soap has been dissolved dissolved

a

in the

alcohol

or

the

be filteredthrough
to the air
as

it wiU, the solution should dry filter, taking care to expose the solution
as

much

as

little as

possible.

The

solution should be
a

made

in

funnel

flask, and the filtering should be done through into a flask, the funnel being kept covered by
a

FREE

ALKALI

IN

SOAP.

341

glass plate.

When

the liquid has

gone
small
to the

through

the filter,

the residue may alcohol, the filtrate.

To the
an

be washed

with

quantity of neutral main

washing

being

added

body of the

lein
.

as

alcoholic solution is now added phenol-phthaindicator, when, if there be any free alkali, a red
obtained.
The
as

colour

will be
the

with

standard
The

acid
amount

is destroyed.

titrated solution is now before, until the red colour of free alkali is calculated as

before.
The may

alcohol only dissolves the

present
as

soap

and

any

be

hydroxide

(causticalkali)

alkali which in the ; any and

this

form

of carbonate,
as
an

borate

remains
reference

insoluble

silicate is undissolved the filter. To residue on

or

will again
alcohol

The the
soap

be made. like the water method

to
mere

method feature

of dissolving

is open

One objections.

liabihty that the

menstruum

is the great act of dissolving the soap in such a

any free saponification between be present in the soap, thus may

will bring about free alkah

to too low
a

fat and

which

quantity of the latter constituent being It is, however, in the case found. soaps the of carbonated be employed. In either the water only method which can
leading
or

alcohol solution the after

combined

alkali may

be determined

the titrating with standard phenolacid and be added, and orange of the free alkali methyl phthalein titration be continued the until the characteristic pink

if

coloration
of "pale

be
soap"

obtained.
made

Thus

in|an
author,

analysis of
employing
soap,
the

a
a

sample
water

by
10
:
"

the

solution
results

and
were

taking
obtained

grammes

of

following

342
Free

SOAP

MANUFACTUBB.

alkali, using phenol-phthalein Standard acid burette readings : Second reading

"

as

indicator.

1*5

First reading

00
1-6 1-6

X X

0-04 10

0-06.

0*06

Then Second

added reading

methyl

orange

0-6 per cent, of NaOH. and further titrated.

=

26*7
1*6

First reading

25-2
26-2

X X

0-031 10

0-7812. 7-81 per cent, of combined 0-6796. 6-79 per cent, of combined

0-7812

soda

(NagO).

Or,
26-2
X X

0-023 10

0-5796

sodium

(Na).
difficultto
case

Alkali give any

may
occur

as

Carbonate
scheme

Silicate, etc,
"

It is very
every

general

which

shall meet of soap

that

in the

examination

for alkali present

in

the forms
etc. ; the

of carbonate,
soap

silicate, borate, sulphate,

must

chloride,
with
to

analyst
any

be prepared,

in dealing
mentioned,

soaps

which
a

contain

of the constituents of his

own,

devise

special scheme

based
have

on

the results of a
to

qualitative test What

upon

which is stated in the in the

nature

he

may

applied

the

soap.

following
of hints

remarks than
as

should
a

be looked
and
Ten,
small

more

cut

dried
or

scheme

applicable to any and

of the

every kind of soap.

if

the proportions

grammes

of the soap

substances in question are dissolved in methylated are

anything

20,

the solution filtered from

spirit,and insoluble, the filterwhich

is used having
portion

been

previously remains

dried and
on

which

soluble The inweighed. the filteris washed with

the

fresh spirit,when obtained

it is dried and

weighed,

weight

thus

giving the amount

of matters

insoluble

in alcohol

in the soap. Boiling

of which
are

water

is now

poured

over are

the contents the filter,

treated until they

thoroughly

exhausted

of

ALKALI

IN

SOAP.

343

all soluble matters. when

the amount

The

j"lter is next

dried and

weighed,
'

of any

insoluble matter

will be obtained.
chalk

This portion may

and

consist of added
may

French sand, silica, be,

some

weighing paper and its contents may be placed in a weighed porcelain bunsen burner, then allowed to cool, a crucible, burnt over This last weighing and weighed. will give the amount of
insoluble
further The

similar substances, with, not dissolved by water. matter

added

After

organic it, the 61ter

mineral

matter

examination
aqueous

in the soap, and is then if need be.

ready

for

solution which has passed through the filter is now made up to a known volume and divided into two To A is added a little methyl portions, A and B. orange, is titrated with normal hydrochloric and it acid until the characteristic pink
give the amount silicate.
The colour is obtained.
as

of alkali present
presence

titration will carbonate, borate and

will be indicated
do

This

of carbonate
the

by
not

effervescence
effervesce with

occurring;

other

two

substances

acids.
now

The

the titration is

heated
a

solution which has been used in to the boil, a little hydrochloric

chloride ; if any sulphate be present a white precipitate of barium sulphate will be This is filtered off, well washed with hot water, obtained. burner bunsen a dried, burnt in a porcelain crucible over acid added, and
then

barium little

and

weighed.

The
0*609

weight
gives

of barium
the

sulphate

thus

obtained
sulphate,

multiplied Na2S04, in
an

by

present.

Thus

weight of sodium the following figures were

10

obtained
of soap

analysis
:
"

of soap

for sulphate,

grammes

being used
Weight
Weight

of crucible of crucible

ash +

BaS04

"

6*6646 6*6680 "0966

Weight Weight

of ash

BaS04

'^^^ -0918

of ash 0*609 0*0918 X

X

0*066. 0*66 per cent, of sodium

0*066

10

sulphate

in the soap.

344 The equal

SOAP

MANUFACTUEE.

second

portion, B, of the filtrateis divided One

into two

portions.

portion

is acidified with

hydrochloric

acid evaporated weak

to dryness,

the residue treated

with

little

hydrochloric

acid, filtered from this treatment.

the silica which The

is rendered

insoluble
dried, burnt
The

by
a

silica is washed,

in

crucible and
of borax

presence.

weighed. be detected may

piece of tumeric paper in the solution as for the silicate.;if borax be present the paper

placing a it is boiled down will turn a of borax present

by

red-brown colour. To determine the amount is a most diflScultmatter, and no really satisfactory process be described. can
If any

silicate or borate by

be present
taking
the

as

well

as

carbonate,
of the

the latter is estimated aqueous

other
amount
as

portion

solution, and determining acid in this in special apparatus,

purpose.
to 106

the
such

of carbonic for the

is made

Forty-four of sodium

parts of carbonic

acid, COg, correspond

;
or

parts

carbonate,
to

NagCOg

to 62 parts of

sodium These

oxide, NagO proportions

; or

94 parts of potassium

oxide, K2O.

may

be employed

in making

the necessary

calculations.
Generally speaking,
met

soda in

is the
hard

only

form
and

of

alkali
the

which
only

will be
form

with

soaps,

potash

found
a

in
at

soft soaps ; rarely

one

are

both

alkalies
to

present

in

soap

time.

Should

it be

needful

cedure of proascertain if both be present, the following course be adopted : A sample must of soap is neutralised by hydrochloric and the acid, the fatty nlatter separated

solution

boiled down

to

small

bulk ;

wire

is dipped
of
a

into the solution and bunsen flame, which then becomes

be
present, The

piece of platiDum held in the lower portion

coloured with

yellow

light if sodium

with

pale lilac-tinted

light if potassium
try this experiment

be present. with
pure

observer
and

is advised

to

sodium

potassium

salts,

FAT

IN

SOAP.

345

to

gain

more

experience

of

the

results

likely

to

be

obtained.
The flame
presence
test, and

of sodium

is readily demonstrated

by

the

if present

it will obscure
The
presence

flame test for potassium.

detected by adding
to the

characteristic be of the latter may

as

the

aqueous

solution obtained
and methylated
of the

just

described
when,

little platinum present,

a

chloride
yellow

spirit, double

if it be

precipitate

potassium-platinum

Sodium does chloride will be obtained. If it be desired to ascertain the not give such a precipitate. mined amount of both alkalies,then the total alkali present is deterin
the usual
manner

with

the

acid, after which

the double
of which

the potassium

hydrochloric seminormal is precipitated out as

the amount dry

chloride of platinum and is ascertained by weighing

from
the data

potassium,
on
a

weighed
the amount

filter

paper, and potash and other

thus

obtained For
are

of both

soda may

be calculated.
methods

details of this and

quantitative

which

described
books
as

in

this

chapter, the reader

is referred to standard

on

tative quanti-

chemical
and North, Fatty
two

analysis, such, for instance, Thorpe The

and others.
matter
;

those of Mills

Sexton,
Matter.
"

fatty

of soap former

is present

in

forms,

free and

combined

the

should, in the
In

best grades of soap, be present

some

only
an

in trifling amount.
excess
or

so-called superfatted

soaps,

of free fat, usually is purposely

present

in the

form

of wool

fat

lanolin,

added.
Free

Fat

"

To

ascertain

the

amount

of free fat in the determination

soap, the dried 10 grammes of the

of soap

left after the

moisture
and

filterpaper

in a piece of {vide supra) are wrapped placed in a Soxblett fat-extraction apparatus

The
; the

and extracted allowed

run

ether. with petroleum to take one and a half hours

a

operation
ethereal

may

be

liquid is
an

into

weighed

glass, the

ether

evaporated

off in

air

346

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

bath and the residual free fat weighed. will consist saponifying
matter to

The

fat
has

so

obtained

of the

portion

of fat

which

resisted the

process, any
may

small

which the

have

been

proportion of unsaponifiable present in the fat or oils used

added
as

make

soap, any
any

fatty material

to

"

''

superfat
soap

the soap, and which The

may

fatty matters,

such
a

mineral

stock,

have

been added

as

fillingto the soap. in the soap

used

total fat which

is present
have

is determined

in the 10 grammes
free and

which

been

for the titration of

combined
a

for the alkali heated

over
a

alkali {vide supra). After the titration is of acid is added, and the mass slight excess burner
until the
a

bnnsen

fat separates

out

on

the top of the aqueous

liquor in be followed
commonly
a

clear transparent

layer of

oil. Two this fat.

those

plans may The

method

for collecting and

recommended solid fat, to allow

weighing is, with all

the fat to
run

soaps

which
a

will give

cool and off and

set into

solid cake ; the aqueous

added.

liquid is now
now

clean water the fat is once more

The

mass

is

heated

until

melted, when
from

it is again allowed
the wash
water,

to cool ;

the cake of fat is separated sheets of filterpaper

tween dried be-

and
a

weighed.
character
as

When

the

soap
out

is of such
as

to yield fat that

more or

will not separate

solid cake, but remains

of white
up
wax

less
wax

hquid
are

or

paste, 10 grammes
to the

or

of paraffin

added

fat, melted

along

with

it, and

finally is

the final weight that of the wax weighed with it. From deducted, leaving the weight of fat present in the soap. There which
are are

some

to objections

this method

of working,

in execution if good and rehable results requires care the It is difficult to entirely remove to be obtained. of the fat from
out

whole

the

sides of the glass beaker

; this tends

which

is
the

used in carrying
amount

the operation

to reduce

of fat found.

Then

it is difficult to free the cake of and

hence there is
a

fat from

all traces of moisture,

liability

FAT

IN

SOAP.

347

from this
two
sources

cause

to increase the apparent

error

of

weight of fat. The tions, thus indicated, acting in**opposite direcone

may

tend to neutralise

another.

Another

objection
in

to the method

is the time it takes.

recommends the following
:

The

author

process, which,

After titrating with standard acid for the alkali,and melting the fat as described above, a small quantity of petroleum ether is added and the mixture
gives good
results

his hands,

poured
water

into

separating

funnel ;

more

warm,

but

not

hot,

is added, with, if needful, more The ether. petroleum contents of the funnel are now well shaken and then allowed to stand to settle,when two layers will form, the upper one
of ether

with
now

the

fat, the

lower

of acidulated off, and

water.

The
warm

latter is
water

nearly, but
to wash

not

quite, run

fresh

added
ether ether

the fat, this being repeated

now
run

if required.

The
the

layer is evaporated

into

weighed

glass

beaker,
matter

off, and

the

residual fatty

weighed.
By
any

of the processes

above

described there is obtained

This fat will contain the

the total weight free fat, alkali

as
as

of fat in the soap.

as

well

that present

soap ; the amount the

amount

by

deducting

with the combination be ascertained of the latter can has previously of free fat which
fat consists essentially of do not obtain them in the form

in

been

ascertained.

The

combined
We

fatty and

rosin acids.
they
are

in

which

present

in

the

soap,

where

they

are

be Na as acid radicles, which may sodium is the by E in the compounds NaE represented of which It there^ typical formula, but as fatty acids of the type HE.

combined

with

fore follows that the weight

"

of fatty acids found

truth,

is slightly
well-made

1 in 282

"

in

excess

of the

and

that

analysis of soap, taking the water and fatty matter as found, the combined the free alkali as NaOH, alkali as Na, will come out sHghtly in excess of 100; this excess will range

348

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

from 01

to 0*3, according to the quantity and character of

the fatty matter present. If the soap contains much coconut oil,the results obtained in determining the amount of fatty matter by either of the methods given will be too low, owing to the oil containing fatty acids which are soluble in water, and these
pass

into the wash

waters,

and

so

are

not

collected and

the following process : 10 recommends grammes of the soap are dissolved in water and decomposed by a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid ; the glass or flask is then heated until the fatty matter containing the soap mass

weighed. Mr. J. A. Wilson

collectsin a clear layer on the surface of the sbqueous hquid. The vessel and its contents are now cooled and the cake of fatty acids separated out, while the aqueous layer is filtered of fatty acids is three times with 250 cubic centimetres of boiling washed water, cooling and filtering each time. The various filtrates are collected ; methyl orange is added as an indicator,and through
a

wet

filter paper.

The

cake

the liquor titrated with decinormal caustic soda until the the excess pink colour changes to yellow. By this means of mineral acid used in decomposing the soap is got rid of. To the hquid is added phenol-phthalein, and the titration colour is got; the amount of standard soda solution used corresponds to the amount of soluble fat acids present, and these are calculated to capryllic acid, HCgHigOg, by multiplying by the factor

continued until the characteristic pink

00144.

cake of fatty acids may be dried and weighed, thus giving the amount of insoluble fatty acids. It may be mentioned here, that by collecting the fatty

The

acids, dissolving them

phenol-phthalein as an caustic soda, there is obtained the amount of alkah required to combine with the fatty acids to form soap ; if in previous

in neutral methylated spirit,using indicator, and titratingwith standard

SALT

IN

SOAP.

349
excess

tests more

has

been

found

then

such

must

be present

in other forms. In
case

the soap
as

analyst adheres

to the method

of calculating
reckon

the alkali the fatty acids calculate from

sodium

oxide, NagO,
;

then

he must

as

anhydrides

the amount

the factor 0*97, which

quality of these he may of fatty acids found by multiplying for every case while not accurate
the
common
"

is sufficientlyso

for all the

grades of soap.
amount

Sodiuin Chloride in Soap.

present in
a

The

of sodium

chloride

sample

of soap may
in This

be determined

in the aqueous

liquor which
standard

is obtained acid.

the titration for alkali with

may

sulphuric
or

be done

either

volu-

metrically

gravimetrically.
with

In the volumetric

process the

liquid is neutralised

caustic soda,
a

which

is free from

solution of pure potassium chromate are added, and the liquid titrated with a normal solution of silver nitrate until a permanent orange or reddish colour is
a

chloride,then

few drops of

obtained. multiplied

The

number

of

c.c.'s

of silver solution of sodium

used,

by

0*0585, gives the. amount

chloride

present in the soap.

If it be desired to determine
the chloride

then the aqueous

of
a

solution is heated

gravimetically, to the boil, and suflScient

to

solution
as

chloride

filter, well weighed.

precipitate all the a silver chloride ; the precipitate is collected on washed, dried, burnt in a porcelain crucible, and
of silver nitrate added weight of silver chloride
of sodium
so

The

found, multiplied

by 0'407, gives the weight

Glycerine,
"

chloride in the soap.

be looked for in some constituent may by the cold and makes of toilet soaps, in all soaps made its amount Generally pressure processes, and in soft soap.

This

is taken
the soap

by
are

difference, that
determined,

is all the

other

constituents

of

and any
as

difference required to make

glycerine.
has
No

up

the

full amount

is taken

satisfaqtory

method

for its determination

in soap

been devised ; the

350

SOAP

MANUFACTUKE.

method

based

on

its conversion
of potassium

alkaline solution

in oxalic acid by means of an is perhaps the permanganate

on.

best.

This test will be referred to again later To detect the presence of glycerine in soap
be
out
a

the following

tests may

applied
the

Decompose

the

soap

with

acid and

separate

fatty matter,

evaporate
som6

the aqueous

liquor
a

down

to

small

bulk, mix

it with

borax, dip

piece

of platinum

of

bunsen

wire in the. mixture, then hold it in the flame burner ; if glycerine be present the flame will

become

tinged

with

deep

green

colour.

By

heating

concentrate

solution

of glycerine

with

bisulphate

of potash,

and characteristic acrolein, distinguished by its powerful Another test is to boil the aqueous odour, is obtained. solution down, render it faintly alkaline with caustic soda, has been solution of borax which The coloured a faint rose-red by adding phenol-phthalein. glycerine solution is added until the red colour disappears. and

add

it to

dilute

On

boiling the
on

liquid the
the

colour

comes

back,

but

it again
It should

disappears be
stated

allowing

liquid to cool down.

that
as some

this test is not

specially characteristic of
some

glycerine, sugar

other alcoholic bodies and

kinds of
are

give the

same

reactions ; but

as

such

bodies

not

usually present

in soap they may

be disregarded.
soaps,

Sugar
often to
a

is present

only in transparent
Its presence
:

but in these

large amount.
as

may

be detected by the

FehUng

test

follows

after the fat has

been

solution of the soap, separated, is boiled for half an hour

aqueous

The

with

few

drops

of sulphuric

acid;
some

the

solution

is then

neutralised is added, and

with

caustic soda,

Fehling

test solution

the mixture

boiled, when
of
a

the presence

of sugar

is indicated by the formation

oxide.
present,

red precipitate of cupreous

the
amount

If it be
the

desired

to

determine

of sugar

aqueous
a

solution
excess

is boiled

with

the

acid, as

described

above,

slight

of caustic soda

added, and

STARCH

IN

SOAP.

351
test solution is
or

the solution added

as

heated
as
a

to

the

boil; FehHng

until the liquor acquires a blue colour, the liquid being maintained at the boil ; the precipitate is next filtered off, well washed with water, dried, burnt in a weighed porcelain crucible, and weighed.
of copper oxide thus found, multiplied by 0*40875, gives the weight of cane sugar in the soap. The weight

long

precipitate falls down,

Starch in soap
test, which

may
a

be detected. by
deep

means

of the iodine
The

produces

blue to blue-black colour.

before
the

soap solution must If the

amount

be neutrahsed

applying
process

the test.

is to be determined

is identical

with that for estimating the sugar, the copper oxide obtained being multiplied by 0*40816 to obtain the equivalent weight It is obvious that if both starch and sugar be of starch. present, both
must

be

will be found by the Fehling test, and they differentiated by other tests ; but it is extremely both
will be present
at the
same

unlikely
sample

that

time

in

of soap.

When

both sugar and

best method of working solution down, then treating the

one

glycerine are present in a soap, the consists in evaporating the aqueous residue with
two
a

mixture
of

of

volume

of chloroform
the

with

volumes

alcohol,

which

dissolves out

glycerine;

the

solution

is evaporated

in the water
The sugar
and
may

bath and the residual glycerine weighed. in the residue left by the be estimated
; it is dissolved

alcohol

chloroform

sugar

determined

by the

Fehling

in water and test in the manner

the

described

above. Dr. Albert R

of soap

Leeds'
one

scheme

for the analysis of

sample

with
News,

only

Chemical
present

in The first published weighing, is given below', modified slightly by the

writer.

352

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

DR.

ALBERT

R.

LEEDS'

SCHEME

OF

SOAP

ANALYSIS.

Weigh
The Treat

out

5 grammes

of the soap and

dry at 100"* C.

loss of weight

corresponds

to the water.

the dried soap

in

Soxhlett

apparatus

with

petroleum

ether.

Ethereal

extract

ether and Besidue with

contains the free fat ; evaporate weigh the residual fat.

the soap

off the

contains alcohol.

and

mineral

matter

; treat

it

Alcoholic solution contains the soap and free caustic and alkali. Add a few drops of phenol-phthalein titrate with normal sulphuric acid. The amount
used

corresponds
to NaOH

to the free alkali, which

is calculated
and

004). (factor
add
a

Add

water

boil
and

off the

alcohol,

little methyl

orange

titrate with normal

sulphuric

acid.

Acid used corresponds

as

to combined

alkali, calculated
or

either slight

NagO
excess

or

Na

0-031 (factors

0023). Add
out the fat.

of acid, boil and

separate

Solution contains

glycerine.

Evaporate

ness to dry;

after neutrahsing
extract

with sodium

carbonate the

with

alcohol, filter,place

filtrate off

in

weighed

basin and, after evaporating

the residual glycerine.

the alcohol, weigh Eesidue Take

is the fatty matter.

half of it and
and

Dry

and

weigh

it.

dissolve in alcohol, add titrate with

the
amount

phenol-phthalein soda.
molecular

normal
used

alcoholic
the be

From

weight
Add

of the

fatty acids may

dry powdered farther

calculated. nitrate
well and

ether and
see

silver

(Gladding test,
allow

on) ; shake

to settle.

Precipitate

consists of

the

ole.ate,stearate

SCHEME

OF

SOAP

ANALYSIS.

353

of of silver with excess nitrate of silver. It may be neglected.

and palmitate
Solution
from
a

contains resinate of silver. Filter the precipitate, wash the latter with
to filtrate
a

little ether, transfer the

separating funnel, add water, sufl"cient dilute sulphuric acid to decompose the some ether if petroleum resinate and
necessary.
run

Separate
a

the ether

layer and

it into

weighed

glass, evaporate
the residual rosin.

off

the ether and

weigh

Eesidue

from

the alcohol contains NagCOg, NaCl,

Na2S04Na2Si03
starch salts), and

(or corresponding
any

potassium
Treat
a

mineral
and

matters.

it with
weighed

little water

filter through

filter.

Solution.
a,

into four equal portions, by c and d, and test each as follows : For NagCOa, or K2CO3, titrate with a.
"

Divide

"

normal

orange, calculating the result to NagCOg, or

K2CO3.
b. For

H2SO4

with

methyl

NaCl
AgNOs

or

KCl
or

titrate with AgCl,

standard

as weigh KCl. to NaCl or

calculating

c.

For

Na2S04,

weigh
or

as

BaSO^,

calculating

to Na2S04

K2SO4.
Decompose

d. Na2Si03

or

K2Si03.

with

HCl

and weigh

the residual silica(see

above, p.
Besidue
matter.

344).
and added

contains
Dry

stai'ch

the filterand weigh. of starch and

mineral This gives

matter.

the

amount

mineral

Determine

the

amount

of starch by

Fehhng

23

354
test.

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

The

mineral

matter

may

be determined

by difference.
Some digesting
employed.
a

difficulty is often
the
To soap

with

in the experienced alcohol if an ordinary

proposes
soap
a

process of

beaker

be

overcome

this Spaeth with

alcohol, the

extraction in

Soxhlett
a

extractor

being

contained bottle, but

in

narrow

glass vessel similar to

weighing

with perforations at the bottom and in the lid. The holes at the bottom are covered with ignated asbestos iSbre, over which a layer of filterpaper and finally a glass disc with fine
perforations
are

placed.
hour

The

bottle thus
The

prepared

is dried
gives

at 106" C. for ah

and weighed.

loss in weight

the amount

of water

in the soap.
the lid is then

The
extractor

bottle without
and

placed in the
neutral

Soxhlett

its contents

extracted

about

six hours.
are

After complete C. ^nd

alcohol for extraction the bottle and its

with

weighed, the result giving in the soap. mination filling material The deterthe amount of dextrin, gelatin, etc., in of mineral substances, this is carried out in accordance with the usual methods.
contents
**
*'

dried at 150"

Since
amount
can

the

extraction

is made
or

with

neutral

alcohol, the
extract

of free fatty acids

alkalies in the

alcohol
or

be directly titrated with standard

REICHERT
TEST

alkali

acid.

FOR

COCONUT

OIL.

Coconut

and

palmnut

in soaps
when

gredien inoils are now such important that it is desirable to be able to ascertain
These

they

are

present.

oils very closely resemble

one

if, and it is difficult, indeed, not practically impossible, to distinguish between tests, especially in them by chemical
another

the presence

of other oils and

to make

fats.

These

oils when

present

in

soap

tend

it whiter

in appearance,

to increase
a

the proportion lower

of alkali present,

the fatty acids have

tinctly dis-

combining

weight,

while their odour

is peculiar

REICHERT

TEST.

355

is one feature which to serves characteristic. There distinguish these two oils from all other kinds of soap stock, and that is, they contain acids such as capric and caproic
and

acids which with water

are or

soluble in water
steam,
are

and

which, This

when

distilled
may

volatile.

property

be
are

taken advantage
present and
as

of for the purpose how the

of ascertaining

if any

approximately the Eeichert test, from Since then

much,
name

the test being

known first

of the chemist

who

described it.
of it. The

property
causes

described modifications of solubility of the lower acids of these

others have the fatty matter of soaps

oils in water them

containing

to be lower

than

it actually
The

is when
Eeichert
manner

examined
test
:

by

the

ordinary methods

of analysis.

as

applied

to soap is carried out in the following

Five grammes
or

of the soap solution

are

boiled with evaporating

little alcoholic potash

soda

in

an

basin

to

ensure

the

complete

saponification of the fatty matter

alcohol

contained
off.
to
a

in the soap, the

being

completely

driven

The

residual soap

is

dissolved in water

and

transferred
to decompose
or

retort, sufficient dilute

some

sulphuric acid is added

the soap, and

small

pieces of pumice The contents are distilled

over,

stone
now

tobacco
and

pipe to prevent
two-thirds

bumping.

heated

of the amount
a

the

distillate is collected, filtered through

the clear hquid

dry filter paper, normal

note

and

is titrated with
added
as an

deci-

soda, phenol

phthalein
of the

being
of

indicator,
of

being

taken
to

number
the

cubic
which

centimetres
have

alkali used
over.

neutralise

acids

volatised
from

Five
c.c,

grammes palmnut
out,

of coconut

oil require
c.c.

usually

7 to 8

oil from
a

4*8 to 6

The
one,
manner

test, it may

be

pointed
to

is

purely
out to

arbitrary
same

and
to

requires

always

be

carried
results

in the

enable
is

comparative
advised pure

be

obtained,

and

the

analyst

to make

his
then

own

standards the soap

oils and

with

by first working the on It is owing to be tested.

356

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

to its arbitrary character

that this test has

been

to subjected

various

modifications

at the hand

of different observers, but the

it is at least questionable
improvement
on

whether

alterations
process

are

an

the original method. of the volatile

or

The

does not

yield the whole

soap
or

soluble acids present

method
of

in the
the

oil.

There

is another

obtaining
5 grammes

quantity
the

of soluble fatty acids present.

Take

of semi-

soap, dissolve

in water,
the

neutralise
on

exactly
a

with

normal

acid, pour

liberated acids
water,

filter, collect the being added

filtrate,wash

the acids with

the washings

to the filtrate and

titrate with
The

decinormal

alkali with phenol

phthalein used
may
no

as

an

indicator.
as an

be taken
process

of cubic centimetres number indication of the Keichert value.

So far,

which

is quite satisfactory
of the

has

vised been de-

for the determination

volatile acids

of coconut

and

palmnut Testing

oils.

for Ground
monkey
names

Nut

Oil.

"

The

oil expressed
on

from the

kernels under

of the
the

nut, which nut

is placed

the market

of ground

oil,or arachis oil, is often used

in

soap-making. acid,
one

This

oil is characterised

by

containing

arachidic

of the stearic series of fatty acids having

The

the formula

HC20H39O2.

isolation of this acid is

nut
:

indication

of the

presence

of ground

oil.

This

certain may be
of the

effected by Eenard's process, as follows soap are dissolved in water, hydrochloric

the soap ; the fatty acids which well and

10 grammes

acid added
separated A

pose to decomout,
are

are

collected, washed

dissolved in alcohol.

solution
are

of lead acetate

is added, when
are

insoluble

lead soaps

precipitate
ether,

out ; these

filtered off, then

digested with

which

dissolves out the lead

and

oleate, etc., but leaves the lead

palmitate with
salts.

arachidate
ensure

insoluble.
complete

Repeat

the

treatment

the ether, to

extraction
and

of the soluble

Collect the

lead palmitate

arachidate, decompose

them

by

means

of dilute hydrochloric

acid by

boihng, then

MINEBAL

MATTEB

IN

SOAP.

357
c.c.

allow the separated

warm

fatty acids to cool, and dissolve in 50

of

90 per cent, alcohol.

This solution is allowed

to cool,

when,

arachis oil is present, a crop of crystals of collected on a arachidic acid will be obtained ; these are filter, dry, weighed with alcohol, dried and weighed. washed
if any ground
nut

oil contains, on the average, 5 per cent, of the weight of the crystals acid, by multiplying arachidic be the amount nut oil can of ground obtained by twenty It may be added that arachidic ascertained. approximately As
acid
the has
a

melting

point of 71" to 72" C, and the purity of

crystals got may

be tested by
very good presence

determining
can

their melting

points.
Castor

With

care,
"

Oil

The

be obtained. of castor oil in the fatty matter

results

be detected by the high specific gravity (0'9509 at 60" F.) of the fatty acids, and more particularly by their being insoluble in petroleum ether, although, if only a small
of
a

soap may

quantity
tend

of castor

oil is present, the other fatty matter

may

to bring about

solubility.
can

The
to

acetyl test

also be used.

It is,however,

difficult oil which

determine

accurately

the proportion

of castor

may

be present. Mineral
Matters
two

in

Soaps.

"

The

mineral

additions

to

soap

take

forms, soluble salts, like borax, soda crystals,

sodium sand,

sulphate, silicateof soda ; and fuller's earth,

of
can
"

insoluble bodies, like

The

china

clay,

etc.

detection
easy,

and
no

determination
general Soda

these

scheme

constituents be laid down.

crystals
are

is not

and

Crystals,

Soda

sometimes
it, or

soap

for the

purpose

of hardening
soap

to added in the purposely

manufacture method

of dry soap and

powders.

In the ordinary

of testing soap it would

"

be estimated

along

with

the

combined

in the case 10 grammes, of alkali of the soap in the case of dry soaps and ordinary soaps, 2 to 3 grammes, the soap by means of alcohol and filteringfrom the extract
"

358

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

undissolved
alcohol,
standard

sodium

carbonate.

The
and

residue

is washed

with

then

dissolved
c.c.

in water

titrated with
to 0053

normal

acid, 1

of which

corresponds

grammes

Sodimn carbonate, sodium carbonate, Nag CO3. when present, is distinguished by its effervescing with acids, flame. Sodium and giving the characteristic yellow sodium to soap and sulphate or Glauber's added salt is sometimes
of anhydrous dry
cost
on

soap, for the purpose

of production.

of hardening
soda

or

cheapening

the

Like
with

crystals, it is left insoluble

from

digesting the soap by not

a

alcohol, but is distinguished

them

effervescing with

acids, and
of
may

giving

with

barium When
a

chloride
present

white

precipitate

barium

sulphate.

in soap, the amount

weight

be ascertained
with

by taking

known

of the soap, digesting

alcohol, dissolving

the residue in water,

acidifying with hydrochloric

acid, adding
sulphate

barium BaSO^,

chloride, collecting the precipitate of barium

on
a

filter, washing

well with

water,

drying, burning obtained

or

the filter, etc. ; from

Na2

the weight

of barium

sulphate

SO4

can

be calculated by multiplying IOH2O, carbonate

own

by 0609,

that of

Glauber's
case

salt,Na^SO^

by multiplying
and
sulphate
as

by 1*382.

In the

of both

sodium

the analyst will

have

to exercise his

judgment

to whether

he reports
compounds

the
as

anhydrous

or

the crystal form

of these two

being present.
Borax,
"

The

presence

of borax

in soap

is by
of the
on

no

means

easy

to

detect,

while

the

determination

quantity

present soap
same

is rather

difficult. It is left insoluble

as

treating in the

with
way

alcohol, and,
as

it affects methyl along

orange

carbonate, it is estimated standard

salt with determine adopted

salts
on
:

the

its amount, Digest

a

with the latter detect its presence and acid. To the following procedure should be

the soap with alcohol, collect the undissolved them

filter,washing
in water

with

little alcohol;

then

dissolve

them

and

divide the

solution

into three

SILICATE

OF

SODA

IN

SOAP.

359

parts. methyl

Titrate orange

one
as an

with standard hydrochloric acid, using indicator ; take a second portion of the

solution, acidify with hydrochloric acid and evaporate nearly to dryness, then dip a piece of tumeric paper in the hot solution ; if borax be present it will turn a reddish brown.

As

further proof evaporate

to complete

dryness,

add

little

methylated the found

spirit and set fireto the spirit; ifborax be present

of the flame
will be

edges

tinged

green.

If borax

be

present, to estimate

its amount
the

take the third portion

of the

solution and
apparatus

determine

carbonic

acid it contains
apparatus

by

the

which

is supplied

by

chemical
of carbonic

for that purpose. The amount "dealers found should be calculated to sodium
The
amount

acid, CO2,
Nag

carbonate,

CO3. that

of standard and

acid necessary
from that

to neutralise

"5alculated

this deducted

used

in the

actual

titration with the first portion of the aqueous sents solution repreOne c.c. of standard acid the amount of borax present.
equals
great
ensure

0*221 grammes
care

of borax

Na^BgOylOHgO.

Of

course,

is needed

in carrying out the various operations

to

accuracy

of results.
"

Silicate
the

ofSoda.

The

presence and

of silicateof soda increases

the

alkalinity of

soap

affects the titration with

more

standard

acid, the latter showing

present
as

combined

alkali than

is actually
or

soap.

The

presence

of silicate of soda

potash

is shown
The

by

testing for silica in the

following

treating the soap residue left on and acidified with hydrowith alcohol is dissolved in water to dryness and "5hloric acid ; the liquid is next evaporated
manner.

insoluble

heated
rendered
^

strongly

for

some

time ; by

this

means

the silica is

insoluble.

The

residue is digested

with

water

and

little hydrochloric
or

acid, when,

"5ate of soda

potash
mass.

if silica and, therefore, silibe present, it will be left behind as an

By

insoluble gritty
fioap and

taking

known

quantity
soap

of the
can

weighing,

the silicate of soda

in the

be

360

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

be pointed out here that sodium sulphate, borax and soda crystals (sodium carbonate), they are silicate of soda are all insoluble in alcohol ; hence

approximately

ascertained.

It may

left as insoluble
may

on

digesting the soap

with that

solvent, and

possibly be all present ; in which event the following be adopted. Dissolve the residue left mode of working may by the alcohol in water and divide this solution into three
portions,
A,
B and

C.

Take

A,

add

methyl

orange

and

titrate with alkali, which present;

normal

hydrochloric
sum

acid to ascertain

the total

will be the
use

of carbonate,
same as

borax

and

silicate

afterwards

the

portion

for determining

the sulphate

with

barium

chloride
Take

described

above.

In B

determine

the carbonic

acid.
to

chloric C, neutralise with hydro-

acid, boil down for borax

dryness, and
paper,

while

doing

so

test

by

means a

of turmeric

digest the dry residue

dry

with
and

water

and

littlehydrochloric

acid, filteroff, wash,

weigh
Sand

the silica.

and

Mineral

Matters.

"

Some

soaps

contain

such

bodies

as

sand, ground

pumice,

kieselguhr, French

chalk, ultramarine,

oxide of iron and

other mineral

colouring matters.

It

is not possible to give here a scheme for the complete analysis of such bodies ; their isolation from the soap is best effected by first digesting the soap with alcohol, separating out all
insoluble matter
left insoluble
on

and
such

treating this with cold water.

treatment
must

Anything
as

be bodies such

those
must

above named,
be
conducted
a

with starchy according

matters. to

Their examination ordinary

the

rules of chemical
to detect kieselguhr.

analysis,plus

microscopical
named
may
a

examination above
are

As all the substances by heat, their amount

weight

such

as

are

not altered
a

be ascertained by burning
crucible, digesting
the

known

of the soap in

residue with

hot water,

filtering off any

insoluble matter,
weighing. Sometimes

drying, burning

this in

weighed Acid

crucible and
in
Soap,
"

Carbolic

it is desired to

as-

CABBOLIC

ACID

IN

SOAP.

361

certain

the

amount

of carbolic acid present of the soap

are

in soap.

To

effect this, 5 grammes

a

dissolved in water,

and

of caustic soda is added to make the solution is now alkaline, the mixture shaken up with ether in a funnel. After allowing to stand, the aqueous separating liquor is run out the soap ; off,and salt is added to throw
slight
excess

with salt brine, the washings being added to the filtrate. It will be found best to make litre. Five hundred c.c. up the volume of the filtrateto one
are

this is filtered off, washed

taken

and

rendered
water

acid, and
the

bromine
of

slightly acid with in measured added

colour

dilute sulphuric

appearance

yellow

quantities until in the hquid shows that

added

the Then
as

bromine

is in

excess.

The
must

quantity

is noted. is done

the bromine
:

water

be standardised
soap
are

which

dissolved with 0*5 of carbolic acid. If pure carbolic acid has been used grammes in the preparation of the original sample, then Calvert's No.
5 grammes of good 2 acid may then

follows

be used

for standardising ; if crude

Calvert's No. 5 should

as was

be used.
sample

carbolic acid, This prepared soap is

shaken with
out

treated

the

original
caustic

ether,
salt,

rendered
and made

alkaline with acid

water.

soda, thrown

with

bromine
represents
case

acid, finally testing with with sulphuric The quantity of the latter used in this case
of pure
or

0*5 grammes

crude carbolic acid,

present

as

the

may

be, and
may

from

it the quantity

in the original

sample

be calculated.
and

Medicinal be given

Colouring

Matters.

"

Directions cannot

well

here
are

for the
so

detection and
and

determination
such

of these

bodies, they
that
no

numerous

require
as

special tests,

general

instructions, such

could

be given

here

would

be of much service. Rosin in Soap. Eosin is used

"

of soap

that it becomes

in the manufacture to be able to of importance

so

much

ascertain its presence

in any particular sample

of soap, and

362
to determine

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

the amount.
care

This

is by

no

means

easy, and

imless

considerable

be exercised

erroneous

results

are

easily obtained.
The of only satisfactory direct test for rosin in soap is that The

Liebermann-Storch. from
then the soap

fatty and
means

resinous acids
acid.

are

separated

by

of sulphuric

The

acids
a

are

gentle

dissolved in acetic anhydride heat, the solution being cooled

with the aid of A httle down.

sulphuric acid of 1*53 specific gravity is then added, when, if any rosin be present, a reddish violet coloration appears. If the This is not permanent, but quickly disappears.
solution
yellow

be

warm

the

violet colour
A
small
or

is not

obtained,

but

coloration

appears.

be detected by it.
which
soap by For
means

Cholesterol
;

quantity of rosin can stance wool fat is*the only subbe removed
from
the

vitiates this test

of ether.

it may

the

quantitative
methods and

determination
give good

of

the
are

amount

of

rosin, two

which

results

available,

viz., Gladding's

Twitchell's. Test-^This
test depends

Gladding'
that

Bosin

upon
the
or

the fact oleate,

so

resinate

of silver is soluble in ether, while

etc., of silver
are

stearate, palmitate,

insoluble

nearly

in that

medium.
manner
:

This
Five

test may

be carried out
of the
the

in the
to be

following

grammes with

soap

tested

are

weighed
as

and

dissolved
a

aid of heat

in

as

little

alcohol

possible,
soda

small quantity
and

of

an

alcoholic solution gently heated

the
as

of caustic
a

is added,
The of any free

the mixture

on

water

bath.

objecthere
fat will be To the

is to

ensure

complete

saponification
not

free fat the soap

contains,

if this be
and
an

done

such
as

ultimately

extracted
of soap

weighed
equal

rosin.

alcoholic
then

solution
two

volume

of ether

and

about

grammes

of

powdered shaken.

well added silver nitrate are and the mixture By this means the silver salts of the various fatty

ROSIN

IN

SOAP.

363
are

And
are

resinous acids
thrown
out
as

are

formed

; the

former

insoluble and

while precipitates,

the resinate of silver

After standing about an passes into solution in the ether. hour, the mixture is filtered direct into a separating funnel,
the To

residue

in the funnel

the filtrate in the

being washed funnel is added

ether. By

with
water,

a a

little ether.

little sulphuric

acid and
the

petroleum

the action of the acid

rosin acid is liberated and passes into solution in the The aqueous layer is run ether. off, the ethereal layer is into a weighed run off and the glas^, the ether evaporated

As silver oleate is slightly soluble residual rosin weighed. in ether, the results, when oleates are present in the soap, be made A deduction tend to be too high. of 0*0023 may from the total weight of rosin obtained for each 10 c.c. of ether used Various

in the test. modifications

time

of Gladding's

test have

been

pub*

the writer considers the above It is not to be the simplest method and as reUable as any. the method originally published by Gladding, but has been
modified

lished from

to time, but

therefrom.
Test.
"

TwitchelVs
when

This

test

depends

upon

the

fact that
no

rosin is dissolved in alcohol, hydrochloric

on

acid has

action

it, while
into

fattyacids under

the

same

are which About three grammes of the mixed fatty and rosin acids are accurately weighed and dissolved in 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol. The use of absolute alcohol is essential, for if ordinary rectified

converted

ethylic ethers

conditions are soluble in water.

spirit of wine or methylated spirit be but little acted on, erroneous acids are and

used

the
results

fatty
are

obtained. is immersed

The

vessel
a

(best a flask)containing

the solution

to keep it cool, of ice and water and a current of dry hydrochloric acid gas is passed through. In about forty-five to fiftyminutes the operation is complete,

in

mixture

the mixture

is allowed

to stand

for

one

hour

longer

so

as

to

364
ensure

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

that the
c.c.

of water time until it is clear.

funnel, shaken
and
some

250

etherification of the oil acids be completed ; are added, and the mixture boiled for a short
The

mixture
ether

is

run

into
The

separating mixture
are

petroleum then

added. of the
run

is

up, and

the

contents

funnel

allowed layer

to separate, the acid-aqueous

layer is
Next

the ether oflf,

is washed
of half
water.
a

with
gramme

hot water.

there

is added
alcohol

solution 50
c.c.

caustic potash

in 5

c.c.

and

dissolves out the rosin, but leaves any ethylic fatty ethers dissolved in the petroleum The ether. aqueous from the ether, it is then decomposed solution is separated
This

by

adding

little sulphuric
means

acid, and

the

separated

rosin
off the

collected by

of ether, and

after evaporating modification

latter is weighed.
process has

A volumetric

of Twitchell's
use

been

described, but

it is best to

the gravimetric

method
It may

justexplained.

be pointed out here that to ascertain the character a sample of the fats used in making of soap is rather diflScult.

Attention

should may

be paid to any
have. Then

particular odour
the

the

separated molecular
and
from

fat acids
weight

melting

point,

and

iodine
an

value
can

should

be

ascertained,
as

the results

opinion

be formed

to the

fats present.
The
most

following

are

some

analyses

of various

kinds of soap,

of them

being

the work

of the writer.
as

In these analyses

the combined

alkali is given

sodium

(Na) in hard soaps;

as

potassium

(K) in hard soaps.

or

The

free alkali
as

caustic soda

(NaOH),

caustic potash

(KOH),

the

case

may

be

:
"

Good Water
Free

Curd

Soap

(Tallow).
Per Cent.

23*84 0*65
.

alkali Combined alkali Salt

Fatty

5*57

1-25 acid

68*69

ANALYSES

OP

SOAPS.

365

Primrose

Soap.
Per Cent.

Water
FreealkaU.

80-26
.

0*32 5*28

Combined
Free fat

alkali
fat

0-46
47-32

Combined
Rosin Salts

1616
0-21

Castile Soap,
Water
FreealkaU

26-63
1-60 alkali
.

Combined
Salts
Fatty Free

6-27
2-31

matter fatty matter

62-87
0-62

Cold
Water
Free

Water

Soap.
24-62
0-44
"

alkali Combined alkali

6*88 0-68

Salts
Rosin Fatty

22-36
matter 45-12

Toilet Soap. Water Combined

Salts
.

6-35

alkali

7-78
0-31

Glycerine,
Fatty

etc

1*32 84-24

matter

Marseilles
Water
FreealkaU

Soap

(Manufacturers').
27-45 1-04

Combined
Salts
Free

alkali

5-38
' ^
.
.
.

1-38 1-01

fatty mQ,tter fatty matter

Combined

63*74

Mottled Water
FreealkaU

Soap

{Manufacturers^).
38-62 1-92

Combined Salts
Free fat

alkali

4-66 4-98
1-64

Combined

fat

48-28

366

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

Pale

Soap.
Per

Cent.

Water
FreealkaU Combined
Fatty

31-23
0-13

alkali

6-30

matter

62-61 0-73

Salts

Silicated Soap.
Water Silicate of soda
Alkali 22-03
3-46 5-40

Fatty

matter

68-50
0-62

Salts
Mottled

Soap.
44-26
2-14
"

Water
Silicate of soda Salts
. .

1-21 0*82
"
. .

Colouring
Alkali,

matter

free

0-62 4*16 46-79

Combined
Fatty

alkali

matter

Mottled

Soap

(Manufacturers^).
285

Water
Free
alkali

0*6

Combined
Fatty

alkali

5-4

matter

65-5

Soft Soap
Water glycerine
alkali

{London Make).
:
.

46*5 7-0
0*5

Combined
Free alkali

Fatty

matter

46-0

Soft
Water
Free

Soap
.

(ScotchMake).
47-3 0-6

glycerine
alkali alkali

Combined
Fatty

6-8 45-3

matter

APPENDICES.

367

APPENDIX
DENSITIES

A.
BAUME'S
THAN

CORRESPONDING

TO
LIGHTER

HYDROMETER
WATER.

FOR

LIQUIDS

APPENDIX
COMPARISON
DELL,

B.
SCALES,
BAUME
THAN

OF

HYDROMETER FOR

AND
WATER.

TW

AD-

LIQUIDS

HEAVIER

368

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

APPENDIX
COMPARISON OF
DIFFERENT

C.
THERMOMETRIC SCALES.

APPENDICES.

369

APPENDIX
TABLE

I).
OF
FATTY

OF

SPECIFIC

GRAVITIES

OILS

AT

15" C.

(60"F.).

Trade

weight

per gall.

9 1b.

9.i"
9i"

9i"
9
"

9
9

"

"

"

"^., 9J"
9 ^
^

"

"
^

In

the summaries
are

of the constanls

given

under

each

oil, gravities at other

temperatures

given.

"24

370

SOAP

MANUFACTURi:.

APPENDIX
.TABLE

E.
OF

OF

THE

SPECIFIC

GRAVITIES
SODA.

SOLUTIONS

OF

CAUSTIC

APPENDICES.

371

372

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

APPENDIX
TABLE

F.
POTASH SOLUTIONS
AT 60" F.

OP

STRENGTH

OP

CAUSTIC

Lb. of KOH gal.

per

0-59
1-25 1-77 2-21 2-84 3-56

4-16 4-76
5-36
5-81

6-31

6-93 7-76 8-89 10-24

12 04 14-23

17-24

APPENDIX
TABLE

G.
REQUIRED
TO
SAPONIFY

OP

AMOUNTS

OF

ALKALI OILS.

APPENDICES.

373

APPENDIX
TABLE

H.
GRAVITY AND

OF

THE

SPECIFIC OF

PERCENTAGE
AT
15"

CONTENTS

COMMON

SALT

SOLUTIONS

C-

374

SOAP

MANUFACTUBE.

APPENDIX
TABLE

I.
LIME
IN

SHOWING

AMOUNT

OF

MILK

OF

LIME.

from (Calculated

Blattuer.)

APPENDIX
TABLE OF

K.
AND STRENGTHS
OF

SPECIFIC

GBAVITIES

AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS

OF

GLYCERINE.

Specific gravity
15"^ C.

Per

cent, of glycerine

1-2660
1-2625 1-2600 1-2575 1-2550 1-2525 1-2499 1-2473 1-2447
1-2421 1-2395 1-2341 1-2287 1-2233

75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

1-2179 1-2125

APPENDICES.

375

APPENDIX
HADFIELD'S
PATENT

L.
FRAME

SOAP

AND

SLABBER.

The

soap Mr.

frame

by

Hy.

slabber recently devised and patented in Bridge, is represented Hadfield, of Whaley

and parts, the frame
or

figure 66.

It consists essentially of two

Fig.

66.

cooler and transferred

the

slabber.
one

The

latter is movable, The

and
or

may

be

from

frame

to another.

frame

cooler

is made
from

with

fixed iron hitherto

sides, and
in
use,

in that
have

respect

differs sides.

all frames

which

movable

876 The

SOAP

MANUFACTURE.

bottom
a screw

is made

movable

with
one

arrangement end of the frame, by

down the frame. when

inside the frame, and is fitted by a chain gearing from worked

of which
use

means

it

can

be moved

up and

In

the frame

soap paste, and

the

this has become

screw

is filledwith the cold and set, by working

of soap
comes can

chain

and

gearing

the block

be
use

pushed

up out of the frame.

At this point

in the

This consists of a framework of the slabbing arrangement. This that can be securely fitted to the sides of the frame. framework regulates the extent carries first a gauge which

cutting wires that travelling along cut two slabs off the block of The soap that has been forced above the edge of the frame. block is then forced up to a certain height as measured by
the gauge along;

to which

the block of soap is lifted up, and second

two

referred to, then

cut

it is cut
are

by drawing
the

the

wires

the slabs thus

up, and
now

removed;

block
more

further blocks
whole
use

pushed
are

drawing
operations

the wires back two

are

cut off.

These

repeated

until the
By

of the block of soap has been cut

into slabs. slabbing

the

of

this

new

frame, the

framing
on

and

of soap

is much

simplified and
than

carried

more

economically

and efficiently

by the older methods.

INDEX.
Palmitolic, 64. Pelargonic, 61, Pentadecatoic, 61. Physetaleic, 63. Pinic, 166. 1 Propionic, 61. Pyroterebric, 63. Bapic, 64. I t Ricinisoleic, 64. Ricinoleic, 64. Stearic, 61. I Stearolic, 64. Sylvic, 156. I Tariric, 64. j Tridecatoic, 61. I Valerianic, 61. Acids, Fatty, 60. Acrolein, 55, 58, 318.
Acid,
"
"

Acetic acid, 61. Acid, Acetic, 61. Acrylic, 63. Angelic, 63. 61. Arachidic, Behenic, 61. Brassaidic, 63. Brassic, 63. Butyric, 61. Capric, 61. Caproic, 61. Capryllic, i}}. Cerotic, 61. Cimicic, 63. Cocinic, 61. Crotonic, 63. Damaluric, ()3. Damolic, 63. Doeglaidic, 63. Doeglic, 63. Elseomargaric, 64. Elaidic, 63. Enanthylic, 01. Erucaidic, 63. Erucic, 63. Formic, 61. Gaidic, 63. Geoceric, 61. Hypogseic, 63. Isolinolenic, 64. Jecoric, 64. Laurie, 61. Lignoceric, 61. Linolenic, 64. Linolic, 64. Margaric, 61. Medullic, 61. Melissic, 61. Moringic, 63. Myristic, 61. Myristolic, 64. Oleic, 63, 153. Palmitic, 61.
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Acrylic acid, 63.

Action
"

"

"

of alkalies on fats, 7. on of hard waters soaps^

"

174.
of soap, 3. of water on soap, 4. Air bleaching of oils, 102. Alizarine oil, 144. Alkali, 7. in soap, Analysis of, 337. Free, 339. metals, 8. Alkalies and fats, 225. " oa fats. Action of, 7. Alkalimetry, 38. Almond oil, 94. soap, 269, 271, 278. Ammonia soda, 17. Analysis of, 17. process, 16. Analyses of dry soaps, 315. of soaps, 294. Analysis of alkalies, 38.
" "
"

"

Action

"

"

T-

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

of ammonia soda, 17. black ash, 12. of liquor, 13.

" "

378
Analysis
"

INDEX.

of caustic
"

"

potash, 44. soda, 21, 44. lime, 53. of of potash, 43. carbonate, of potassium

Brine, 50.
--

Brown
"

Strength of salt, 50. 239. soap, Windsor 267, soap,

269,

270, 271, 278.

43. Analysis
"

of pressure soap, 190. of soda ash, 43. crystals, 16. 43. carbonate, of sodium Angelic acid, 63. Anglo-American oil pressing, 86. 68. fats, Rendering, Animal fats, Occurrence oils and
"

C.
Cacao butter, 146. Calico-printer's soap, 293. Capric acid, 61. Caproic acid, 61. Capryllic acid, 61. Caraw^ay oil, 160. Carbolic acid in soap, 360.
"

"

"

"

of, 66. Animal soap fats, 121. Anise, 158. Antimonial soap, 300. for oil extracting, Apparatus Arachidic acid, 61. Arachis oil, 94.

Carbonates
342.
106.

soaps, 296. in soap.

Analysis

of

Arsenical soap, 297. 167. Artificial musk,

B.
201. machines, 61. acid, Bennet " Gibbs' process, Ben oil, 94. Benzoic soap, 300. 159. Bergamot, Bicarbonate of soda, 10. Bitter almond oil, 159.

Cassia oil, 160. Castile soap, Analysis of, 365. Castor oil, 94, 142. acids, 145. Composition of, 143. Constants of, 145. in soap, 357.
"
"

"

Barring Behenic

263.

soap, 144. Causticising soda, 18, 23. Caustic lye tanks, Capacities, 179. lyes, 178. potash, 9, 35. Analysis of, 36, 44. fats, 38. and
"
" "
"

"

"

"

"

"

lyes, Strength

of,

Black
"

ash, 11. Analysis of, 12. 13. liquor, Bleaching oil by air, 102. oils, 102. oils by bichrome, Blue mottled soap, 240. Boiling on strength, 234.
" " " " "
"

37. Caustic potash

"

"

"

"

properties, 35. 9, 18. soda, Analyses of, 21, 44. fats, 31. and Dissolving, 26.
"
"
" "

103.

"

"

"

lyes, 25. Strength

"

"

"

soap, 228. boiler, 77. grease, 120.

"

"

Bone
"

"

manufacture, Properties of, 27. Qualitiesof, 20.

-

of, 2a 18, 22.

"

Borax,
"

tallow, 77. 46. dry soap, 314. in soap, 358. Analysis of, 342. soap, 301. Bouquet soap, 269, 273, 278. Brassaidic acid, 63. Brassic acid, 63.
"

"

"

"

"

Cerotic Cimicic Cinnamon oil, 161. Citronelle, 161. Citron soap, 269, 278. Clarifying oils, 95. Clear boiling of soap, 234. Cloves oil, 162. Cocinic acid, 6L

tanks, 61. acid, acid, 63.

26.

INDEX.

379

Ooconut
" "

X
/

oil, 94, 128. acids, 132. Elseomargaric acid, 64. Composition of, 130. Elaidic acid, 63. Constants of, 131. I Elderfiower soap, 280. Saponification of, 131. ' Emollient soaps, 300. soap, 129, 133. IEnanthylic acid, 61. Oold-water soap, Analysis of, 365. ' English system of oil pressing, 80. soaps, 300. Erucaidic acid, 63. Oold process of soap-making, Erucic acid, 63. 245. Ess-bouquet soap, 280. Ool cured toilet soaps, 275. Essential oils, 56. for soaps, 275. Oolouring matters Extracting oil by solvents, 105. soaps, 282. Extraction of oils and fats, 67. toilet soaps, 273. Oolza oil, 94. F. Oommon pale soap, 236. for volumetric ;Factors analysis, salt, 10, 49. 40. I 239. soap, ' Farrier's soap, 301. toilet soap, 267. Fat blower, 181. "vOinposition of oils and fats, 55. boilers, 72. j of soap lyes, 317. in soap. Analysis I of, 345. 334. "C:Jonstituents of soap, tanks, 180. melting 162. oil, "Coriander Fats, Action of alkalies on, 7. Corn oil, 146. and alkalies, 225. Constants of, 146. and caustic potash, 38. Cottonseed oil, 134. soda, 31. acids, 138. 54. and oils, 137. composition, Composition, 55. Constants 138. I of, ' Fatty acids, 60. refining, 136. Linolenic series of, 64. soap, 137. Linolic series of, 64. Crotonic acid, 63. Oleic series of, 63. Crown pale soap, 238. Ricinoleic series of, 64. Crushing soap, 213, 276. Stearic series of, 61. Crutching soap, 215. in soap, 345. matter Crystal 10. carbonate, Filled soaps, 241. soda, 10. Filling cold-process soaps, 257. Curd soap, 241. Filtering oils, 96. Filter press for oils, 06. D. Fire soap kettles, 182. Fitted soaps, 235. Damaluric 63. acid, Floating toilet soap, 300. Damoiic acid, 63. Flower Decorticating soap, 280. oil seeds, 92. Fobbing, 229. Disinfectant dry soaps, 314. Foot stamping presses, 207. soaps, 297. Formic 61. acid, Doeglaidic acid, 63. Free alkali in soap, 339. Doeglic acid, 63. Fuller's earth soap, 301. Domestic soaps, 224. grease, 150. Dr. Leeds' scheme of soap analy- , sis, 351. a. Dry soaps, 311. Drying Gaidic acid, 63. oils, 55. 212, 223. (ieoceric acid, 61. soap,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

-_

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

' ,

"

"

380
Geranium oil, 162. Gladding's rosin test, 362. Glauber's salt in soap, 368. Glyeerides, 59, 65. Glycerine, 7, 57.
" "

INDEX.

Lacmoid,

43.

ILard,
"

119.

Composition of, 318. oil, 123. in fats, 226. Laurel butter, 94. in oils and fats, 316. I oil, 94. in soap, Analysis of, Laurie acid, 61. 349. Laurin, 65, 247. Glycerine soap lyes, 316. Lavender oil, 163. Properties of, 58, 317. Laying out a soap factory, 326. from recovery soap Leblanc soda process, 11. lyes, 319. Leeds' scheme of soap analysis^ Glycerine soap, 272. 35L Solubility of, 57. Lemon soap, 272. solutions. Strength of, Lignoceric acid, 61. 317. Lime, 52. Glycerol, 59, 318. Analysis of, 53. Glyceryl, 58, 318. Linolein, 66. Golden pale soap, 238. [Linolenic acid, 64. Ground-nut oil, 94. : series of fatty acids, 64. in soap, 356. Linolic acid, 64. series of fatty acids, 64. H. Linseed oil, 94, 138.
"

"

acids, Constants of, 120. Constants 120. of,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Hadfield's soap frame, Hand soap press, 205. Hard sorfp, 228.
"

375.

"

"

"

white soap, 258. Hardness of water, 174. Heliotrope soap, 269. History of soap, 1. Honey soap, 270, 272, 279. Hydrated soaps, 262. Hydraulic oil presses, 89. Hydrocarbon oils, 56. Hydrolysis of soap, 4. Hypogseic acid, 63.

"

Liquid Litmus,

acids, 142. Composition of, 141. Constants of, 142. soaps, 141. glycerine soap, 300.
"
"

"

"

42.

M.
Maize oil, 94, 146. Manufacture of soda, 11. Manufacturers' soaps, Analysis of, 365. Margaric acid, 61. Marseilles soap. Analysis of, 365. Medullic acid, 61. Melissic acid, 61. Melting soap fats, 180. Mercurial soap, 297. Methods 227. of soap-making, Methyl orange, 42. Milk of lime, 52. Strength of, 52. Milled toilet soaps, 273. Millefleur soap, 279. Milling soap, 211, 292. Mineral in soap, 357, 360l matters
"

Indicators, 42. Industrial soaps, 289. Iodine soap, 301. Iron soap frame, 192. Isolinolenic acid, 64.

"

Jecoric

acid, 64.

"

Koettstorfer

test, 248.

"

oils, 56. soap stock, 243.

INDEX.

881
163. Oil, Layender, Linseed, 94, 138. Maize, 94, 146. Mustard 94. -seed, Neroli, 163. Niger, 94. Oliye, 94, 132. Orange, 164. Palm, 94, 123. nut, 127. Poppy-seed, 94. Rape, 94, 147. 162. Rose geranium, Sassafras, 164. Sesame, 94. Star anise, 164. 94. Sunflower-seed, Tallow, 117, 121. 94. Walnut, 149. Whale, Winter-green, 164. Oil seed crushing, 80.
"

soap frame, 194. acid, 63. of, 365. soap, Analysis 239. soaps, Musk, 165. Artificial, 167. Baur, 167. oil soap, 280. Tincture of, 167. Mustard-seed oil, 94. 168. Myrbane, Myristic acid, 61. Myristolic acid, 64. Morgan's Moringic Mottled
" "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

N.
Naphthol soap, 296. Natural waters, 173. Nature of soap, 2. Neroli oil, 163. Niger oil, 94. 168. Nitrobenzene, 55. Non -drying oils, 94. Nut

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

oil^

"

grinding, 82. heating, 83.

Oils and
" "

dry soap, 314. Oatmeal Occurrence of animal oils, 66. of yegetable oils and fats, 67. 94. Oil, Almond, Anise, 158. 94. Arachis, Ben, 94. Bergamot, 159. 159. Bitter almond, Caraway, 16J. Cassia, i60. Castor, 94, 142. Cinnamon, 161. Citronelle, 161. Cloyes, 162. 94, 128. Coconut, Colza, 94. -^ Coriander, 162. Corn, 146. Cottonseed, 94, 134. filters, 96.
"

presses, 84. fats, 54. Composition, .55. in, 316. Glycerine Clarifying, 95. Vegetable, 94. Oleic acid, 63, 153.
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

soap, 259.

"

"

"

Olein, 7, 65, 246. Oleine, 144, 155. Olive oil, 94, 132.
" "

"

"

"

Orange
"

acids, 134. Constants of, 134. flower soap, 279. oil, 164. soap, 273.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Pale
"

household soap, 258.

"

soap, 244.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

foots, 101. 162. Geranium, 94. Ground-nut, Lard, 123. Laurel, 94.

Anah^sis of, 366. Palmitic acid, 61. Palmitin, 7, 65, 247. Palmitolic acid, 64. Palm-kernel oil, 127. Palm-nut oil, 127.
" " " "
"

"

"

acids, 128. Composition of, 127. Constants of, 128.

382
oil, 04, 123. acids, 126. Composition of, 125. Constants of, 126. soap, 126. Paraffin dry soap, 314.
"

INDEX.

Palm

"

"

"

"

oils, 56.

soap, 241. 33. Analysis of, 34. Pelargonic acid, 61. Pentadecatoic acicL 61. Perfumes, 158. \/ Petroleum oils, o6.
"

Pearlash,
"

Refining oils by caustic soda, 99. Reichert test for coconut oil, 354. Remelting soap, 219. toilet soaps, 268. Rendering fats, 68. animal tallow, 68. Revolving soap press, 210. Ricinisoleic acid, 64. Ricinoleic acid, 64. series of fatty acids" 64. Rock salt, 49. Rose geranium oil, 162.
" " "

Salicyl soap, 300. Sal soda, 10. carbonate, Salt, 49. Analysis of, brine, 50. 43. Potassium Properties cake, 11. carbonate. Salting out, 231. 35. of, Salt in soap, Analysis Potassium Solubility of, 369. carbonate. 51. 35. making, of, Pressing solutions. Strength of, 50. oils, 79. vegetable Sampling Pressure soap for analysis, 335. soap boilers, 189. Sand in soap, 360. soaps, 258. household Primrose soaps, 298. soaps, 244. Santal soap, 269, 278. 238. soap, Saponification, 66, 224. Analysis of, 365. Propionic under pressure, acid, 61. 258, 263. Pyroterebric acid, 63. Sassafras oil, 164. Saturated solutions, 172. B. Screw oil press, 86. Ralston *s slabbing machine, Sebacic acid, 55. 197. 94, 147. Rape Sesame oil, oil, 94. Shaving soaps, 279, 298. soaps, 147. Rapic acid, 64. Silicate of potash, 47. Recovered of soda, 47. greases, 149. in 10. Refined alkali, soap,359. I Silicated Analysis 94. Refining of, 366. oils, soap, by acid, 97. soaps, 243.
"

soap, 241. Phenol phthalein, 43. y Phosphate of soda, 47. "/^ Physetoleic acid, 63. Pinic acid, 156. Planning factory, 326. a soap Plodding 277. machines, 94. Poppy-seed oil, Potash, 9. Silicate of, 47. Potashes, 32. Analysis of, 34. Qualitiesof, 33. Potassium, 8, 31.
"

soap, 272, 279. 155. boil, 236. Composition of, 156. Gladding test, 362. in soap, 361. Liebermann Storch 362. Rosin, TwitchelFs test, 363.
"

Rosin,
"

"

"

"

"

test,

"

soaps, 157. Runnings, 243.

"

"

"

9, 32.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

INDEX.

383
212, 223. Soap-drying machine, 280. Elderflower, 300. Emollient, 280. Ess-bouquet, factory. Laying out a, 326. Farrier's, 301. fats and oils, 54. Filled, 241. Floating toilet, 300.
"
"

Hilicated soft soap, 309. Silicates in soap, Analysis of, 342. 296. Silk soap, Skin soaps, 300. for soap, 197. Slabbing machine 196. soap,
"

"

"

"

of, 3. 269, 271, 278. Almond, analyses, 364. analysis, 334. Alkali, 337. in, 342 Borax in soap, Carbonates 342. Soap analysis. Dr. Leeds' scheme,

Soap, Action
"

"

"

"

"

"

/-.

"

"

351.

Soap analysis.
"
"

"

"

Fat in, 345. Free fat, 345. 349. Glycerine,

Flower, 280. frame, Hadfield's, 375. 194. Morgan's, 193. Whitaker's, 190. frames, Iron, 192. 191. Wood, Fuller's earth, 301.
"
" " "

Glycerine, 272. 239. Golden,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Salt, 349. for, 335. Sampling Silicate soda, of Starch, 351. Sugar, 350. in, 343. Sulphates in, 336. Water

pale, 238.

/
" "
"

342.

Soap
"

analysis,
" "

269. Heliotrope, History of, 1. 270, 272, 271".^^ Honey; Hydrolysis of, 4.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

300. Antimonial, 297. Arsenical, 200. barring machines, 300. Benzoic, 240. Blue mottled,

"

"

Iodine, 301. kettles, 182. Lemon, 272. Liquid glycerine, 300. lyes. Composition of, 317. in, 316. Glycerine
"

"

"

Recovering

glycerine,

319.

"

"

"

"

"

"

boilers, 182. boiling, 228. Borax, 301. dry, 314. 269, 273, 278. Bouquet, 239. Brown, Windsor, 267, Brown
_

Soap
"

"

"

"

"

269,

"

270, 278.
Soap, Calico-printer's, 293. Carbolic, 296. Castile, 238. Citron, 269, 278. Cold water, 300.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

179. \ machinery. alkalies, 6. makers' pressure, under making Mercurial, 297. Millefieur, 279. Milling, 292. 239. Mottled, 210, moulds, Musk oil, 280. 296. Naphthol, Nature of, 2. dry, 314. Oatmeal,
Oleic acid, 259. 273. Orange, flower, 279. Pale, 258. 244. household, Paraffin, 241. dry, 314. V 241. Petroleum, 215. machine, plodding 311. powders,
"

258.

"

"

"

"

colours,

275, 282.
239.

"

"

Common,
"
"

"

"

"

"

Crown

"

"

crushing Curd, 241.

pale, 236. toilet, 267. pale, 238. 214. machines,

212.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

cutting machine, Dry, 311.

"

"

384
Soap,
"

INDEX.

"

"

Pressure-made, 258. Primrose, 238. household, Properties of, 59.

"

244.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

221. pumps, Rose, 272, 279. Salieyl, 300. Sand, 298. Santal, 269, 278. Shaving, 279, 298. Silieated, 243.

Soft soap, 301. Analysis of, 366. Soluble oil, 144. Solubility of soap, 5. Solvent action of water, 171. Solvents for oils, 105. Squeezing soap, 277. Stamper oil press, 85. dry soap, 314. Standard
"

"

"

sulphuric
41.

acid

solution,

"

"

"

"

Silk, 295. Skin, 300. Soft, 301. Solubility

"

"

"

squeezing Sulphur, 297. Superfatted, 301.

of, 5. machine,

Star anise oil, 164. Starch in soap, 351. Analysis Steam soap pans, 183.
"

"

of, 351.

215.

"

"

stamping

press, 208.

203. machines, stamping dry, 314. Standard Stock, 281. 300. Tannin, Tar, 297. 300. Thymol, Tooth, 298. Transparent, 287. Violet, 271, 279. 199. waggon, White, 25S^^ Castile, 238. hard water, 258. Windsor, 267, 270, 280. Wool, 290. XX crown pale, 239. household, 244. XX domestic, 258. Yellow Soda, 9. ash, 10. Analysis qf, 15.
"
" "

Stearic acid, 61. Stearin, 7, 65, 247. Stearolic'acid, 64. Stock toilet soaps, 281. Strength of glycerine

solutions,

"

317.
Sugar
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

in soap, 350. Analysis of, 350. in soap, Analysis Sulphates of, 341 Sulphur soap, 297. Sunflower-seed oil, 94. Superfatted soaps, 301. Sweet spirit of oils, 57, 317.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Table
"

of caustic
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

lyes, 37. potash soda lyes, 28. glycerine solutions, 57. salt solutions, 50. strength of milk of lime,
203. machine, presses, 203.

"

52.

"

"

Tablet-cutting stamping Tallow, 113.

"

"

"

Qualitiesof,
10, 15,
"

14.

"

crystals,
"

"

"

Analysis of, 16. in soap, 357.

"

"

10. manufacture, Silicate of, 47. Sodium, 8. 1 borate, 46. 9. carbonate, Analysis of, 43. Properties of, Tannin Tar soap, 297. 17. 10, 49. Tariric acid, 64. Sodium chloride, in soap, 349. Testing caustic potash, 44. 47. phosphate, soda, 44.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

acids, 119. Adulterations of, 117. Composition of, 116. Constants of, 119. oil, 117, 122. Pressed, 117. Rendering, 68. 118. soap, soap, 300.

"

"

"

"

"

INDEX.

385
Water,
"

Testing
"

potash, 43. carbonate, 43. potassium soda ash, 43. carbonate, 43. sodium Thymol soap, 300. 167. Tincture of musk, Analysis of, 365. Toilet soap. 211. machinery,
" "
" "

"

"

soap, 4. 170. as a soap material, 170. Composition of, Effect of hardness on soaps, Action
on

174.
Water
"

in soap. Analysis of, 336. Properties of, 171.

/ soaps, 266. V 298. Tooth soap, Tower salts, 11. Train oil, 168. Transparent soap, 287. soaps, 285. Tridecatoic acid, 61. Turkey red oil, 144.
" "

Softening, 175. Solvent action of, 171. of, 174. Waters, Hardness Natural, 173.
"
"

"

Whale
"

oil, 148. soaps, 148. 193. Whitaker's soap frame, Castile soap, 238. White hard-water soap, 258. 258. soap, 280. Windsor soap, 267, 270,
"
"

"

"

Valerianic acid, 61. Vegetable oils, 94.

"
"

and

fats.

rence Occur-

Winter-green oil, 164. 32. Wood-ashes, 191. Wooden soap frames, Wool grease, 153.
"

of, 67.

Violet soap, 271, 279. Volumetric analysis, Factors

46.

"

oil, 155. soaps, 290.

for,

Volumetric
42.

analysis
analysis

indicators,

Volumetric

XX solutions, 40. XX

crown

pale soap, 239. household soap, 244.

W.

Washing Walnut

crystal, 315. oil, 94.

domestic Yellow soap, 258. Yorkshire grease, 150.

25

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