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InformationandCommunication Integrating Technology in Education
SeriesEditor: Michelle Selinger
Teaching Mathematics with ICT
Related titles Julia Anghilert: Teaching Number Sense Duncan Grey: The Internet in School Avril Loveless: The Role of IT Anthony Orton: Pattern in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics Brian Robbins: lnclusive Mathematics 5-11
Teaching Mathernatics ICT with

Adrian Oldknow and Ron Thylor
C O N T I N UU M LondonandNew York
Continuum The Torver Building I I tbrk Road London SEI 7NX
370 Lexington Avenue Nerv lbrk NY 10017-6501
O 2000 Adrian Oldknow and Ron Taylor All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or bv any means.eltictronic or mechanical, including photocopying. recording or an)-information storage or retrieval system, w'ithout prior permission in writing from the publishers. First published 2000 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-8264-4806-2 Designed and typesetby Ben Cracknell Studios Printed and bound in Great Britain by the Cromwell Press,Trowbridge, Wilts
Contents
Acknowledgements Introduction csr.prg: l.hat resources are, and lvill be available? I a ICT hardwarefor education
vl
vii I 2 T2
1b Softrvarefor mathematics education Bridge One CHrprsn 2 ICT and the schoolcurriculum 2a Numberand algebra 2b Geornetryand trigonometry 2c Statistics and rnodelling 2d l\,[oreadvanced mathematics 2e Cross-curricular u'ork Bridge Trvo
s0 s8
59 92 r2L
r57
170 t72 188 190 196
Cnrprsn 3 3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 3f 3g 3h
Hou'to plan for effective ICT use Not just building a fence Modelling skeletontowers Polygonsand stars The 'tea-cup'ride Distance-timematch
r99
203 206 Modelling a bouncingbat[ 209 Wristsandnecks designing long-sleeved a shirt/blouse 214 A garagedoor 220 224
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Cuapren 4 Why integrate ICT into mathematics teaching? CrnprEn 5 lVhere is it all going? Appendix Index
239 241
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Acknowledgements
rvith TrueBasic; The British Eugene Billam of Asher Researchfor assistance Educational and Communication Technology Agency; N{icrosoft Corporation for excerpts from Microsoft@ Encarta@images reprinted by permission of Microsoft Corporation; ScalalArrtResourceNY for reproductionof Leonardo's Wtruvian Man, The TeacherTraining Agency for excerpts from ICT Needsldentification materials; Texas Instrumentsfor their support s'ith softn'areand equipment. We also rvish to thank: Sam Crane. Regens Park School, Southampton.Alison Admiral Lord Nelson School. Portsmouth,Peter Ransom. David Ctarke-Jeavons, School.Romsev:Steve Dorvnes.Gordon Sadlerand lan Rimmer, The lvlountbatten Jacksonand Mark Pinsent.the Citl'of PortsmouthGirls' School; Stella Ron'landsand TheresaRowlatt, Henry BeautortSchool. \llnchester: Jenny Thinrbleby and Nicola Pennel,Hounsdou'nSchool, Hampshire.
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Introduction
The relationshipsbetweenmathematics,teachingand computersare long-standing and complex. The actualpractice of mathematicshaschangedits narureconsiderably because the availability of powerful computers,both in the workplace and on of researchers'desks. those very computersthemselvesare only pou'erful because But of the variety of clever mathernaticalapplicationson rvhich their operation relies. These include coding, data compression,fractals,cryptography and compurational geometry. Erperiments the applications computertechnoloei'ro in of rcachinghave been rridespreadot'er the last 30 1'ears so. 1'he-advent l'astairu r..i.!e.;prcad or ol communicationssuch as e-mail, the internetand video-conierencing redicalli. arrchangingour access data and information.The fierce competitionan.i thc sizc cri to the market for computer-based consumerproductshasensuredthat priceshavc tallen to a point rvhereit is nou' quite normal (in some areasof some counrrics-at teast) for students'bedroomsto be better equippedthan their school classrooms.So it is not surprisingthat many countriesare now taking stock of their educationalresponseto this'lnformationAge'. r'\'e shall need to emphasizehere, and throughout the book, that marhemaricsis rather different from many subjectsin its relationship to lCT-supportedprdagog).. We take the view that at leastone major rationalefor including the compulsor-r'stuclv of mathematicsin the secondaryschool is that it is widely applied in the rvorld outside school - and that this implies that students will need to be able to use ICT rools borh to solve mathematical problems and to communicatetheir resultsto others.Nlanv of the techniquesassociated with school mathematicsrveredevelopedto solve important problemsat times rvhentools such as electroniccalculatorsand computers$'ere not available.The very existenceof thesecomputationaltools is norv having a profound effect on the u'ay mathematicsis being developedand apptied in the rvorld ourside education.New skills of modelling, estimating,validating,hypothesizing and finding information are becoming more important than many traditional ones, such as accuracyof recall. Formal changesin educationnecessarilytake longer ro bring about than changesin practicein industry or comrnerce.An important issuefor mathernatics teachersis to ensurethat their studentsare well preparedfor their future lives and careersby gaining necessary skills, whether or not the curriculum and examination systemexplicitly encouragethem.
viii
Teaching Maths with ICT
of The widespreadpresence ICT in the mathematicsclassroomwill not necessarily have any impact in bringing into questionthe current relevanceof any particularly long-standing aspectof the mathematicscurriculum. To take an extreme example we could imagine sornevery effective multimedia software that provides a selftools suchasa slide-rule,or a table of logarithms,for learning guide to using obsolete multiplication.The point hereis that the useof the technologyas a teachingaid will not, by itself, bring into questionwhether the content and skills being taught are actually relevantat all in our currenttechnologicalsociety.Indeed,thoseresponsible curricula may be unawareof the obsolescence, for the developmentoI mathematics of or significantlydiminishedimportance, sorneof its content.Thereare also aspects of content, such as matrices and complex numbers at advanced level, that are increasingly important in other subjectssuch as geographyor engineering.These may be have been ruled out of current curricula on the grounds of difficulty in However,ICT toolscan obviate teachingand learningproficiencyof basictechniques. the need for proficiency with such techniques:many models of graphing calculators can, for example, rnanipulateboth matrix and cornplex expressions.So ICT can of on enablestudentsto concentrate more interestingand important aspects content. Despite the inertia of the formal curriculum, mathematicsteachersneedto be able to and examine nore critically the basison which the knowledge,understanding skills of the curriculum are founded. A lessobvious issue,but one u'hich is arguablyat leastas important,is that citizens in a technologicalsccietl' needto have an informed vierv ofjust u'hat computetscan, 'the computertt'on't let us do that', like do and cannot- All t,rooiten rvehearphrases such numberof subjects, stubborn) object.An increasing as if it s'as an animate(.and chemistrvand economics,rnakeuse of computer simulations.We as geograph)'. nts knon'.and our stude needto knos'. that theseare not infallible but just someone's mathentatrcal ntodel.ri r situationthat needsto be treatedw'ith a healthyamount of of are scepticism!So ntodellingand r-alidation nou' importantaspects mathematics that studentsshould e.rperience during their secondaryschool education. O[ course, most tcachersdo not have a great deal of control over the curriculum the)' teach. So thev need to bc able to apply ICT in \\'avs that enhancethe teaching and learning of the current established curriculum rvhile also seekingto bring out relationshipsbets'eenmathematicsand computer technology' some of thc impt-rrtant referred to above. The roie of ICT in the teaching and learning processis not just 'electronic constrainedto uses such as an blackboard' to assist in a teacher's 'hands-on' exposition,or for useby pupils rvorkingat a task,importantas both those in applicationsare.The technologl'ma1'aidthe teacher the preparationfor a lesson, e.g. in gatheringdata,or preparingmaterials.[t may also have a role to play in the assessment students'learning.So this is truly a book aimed to support the full of integrotion of [CT into secondaryschool mathematicsteaching. \Ve are acutelv a\r,are rvidespread of differencesin the resourcingof mathematics departments.\!'e have at times staredin wonder at demonstrationsof fancy usesof the latest state-of-the-art technologyand have come a\\'ay rvith the frustration of future. So knoiving that such equipmentu'ould be out of our reachfor the foreseeable that we have takengreatcareto be as realisticas possibleabout the kinds of resources our readersrna)'be able to get their handson. We have tried to concentrate generic on ideas which can be realized using a variety of different forrns of ICT including,
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Introduction ix
wherever possible, cheaperhand-held devices such as graphing calculators and personalcomputers-We have been fortunate to be able to work with both Texas Instruments(TI) and with the UK's MathematicalAssociation(MA) to try to ensure that as many examplesof resources possiblecan be found on the accompanying as CD-ROM and/or the TI and MA websites. We have tried to make this book as accessibleand relevant as possible to mathematics teachers from differentcountriesand cultures.Of course,thl very term 'secondary school' has different interpretations,but w'e are using it to include the teachingof pupils aged from about 1l-18 years,rvith a concentrationon those in the 1l-16 range-From time to time we will refer to the currentcontext either in the UK, or in England alone. This is becausethere arc a number of interesting national initiatives in the use of ICT in educationwhich provide some useful frameworks for the integration of ICT into subject teaching. It might be convenient to summ arize the current UK situationat this point.
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPN{ENT THE UK ICT IN

The major elementsare training,resourcesand support. Training The Nerv OpportunitiesFund (NOF) has been crcaredto channel funding from the government's National Lottery proceeds tt.ru'ards projc'cts in public spending departments such as Healthand Educarion-g1-irimiliit,n is heine sttsnrin 1999/2003 on training the vast majority of teachers and librarians currently u'orking in maintainedschoolsin the UK in the efi:ctise useoi ICT. The gor-ernment's Teacher Training Agency (TTA) hasprcrduced regulationsrharmalie it clear thar the training must be subjectfocused,shouldtake place rvith nrininrumdisruption to teachingand should be tailored to the individual teacher'sneetis. Resources The government'sBritish Educationaland CommunicarionsTechnology Agency (BECTa) is rvorking with professionalagenciesand publishers ro review the need for further softrvare development.Those in the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) responsible governmentw,ebsites for such as the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) and its Virtual Teacher Centre (\'TC), are u'orking rogether with the professionalassociations, such as the N,[athematical Association (MA), to improve accessto subject-based content. Support Financialsupportfor nervdevelopments schoolsis channelled Local in to Education Authorities (LEAs) and schoolsin England via rhe Departmentfor Education and Employment's(DfEE) Standards Fund. (There are similar mechanismsin other parrs of the UK-) Details of this are contained in a large. and very complex, document
Wthin the details of its 3l different forms of individual grants called Circular 16199. 'National Grid for Learning'- In is section Bzl,which is rather confusingly entitled very wide range of ICT purchasesrelated to the curriculum, fact this provides for a not just those needed to connect to the Internet. These include hardware, and 'class setsof portablecomputing devices;whole classteaching purchasesmay include and digitisersand other aids such as projectionequipment;digital cameras,scanners equipment which can be usedto help createeducationalresources'.At least L57oof the money must be spent on software.The budget for England is f 150 million in 2000/2001, and is set to rise for 200112002At the rime of writing the NOF-funded ICT training for all UK teachersis taking place, and the National Curriculum for the use of ICT in subject teaching has become compulsory in all coursesof Initial TeacherTraining in England. In both casesthe TTA has produced a large amount of materials to support this training. We have written a book that draws upon our own experiencesand beliefs, and should apply to any country's mathematicscurriculum. We have taken care to ensure that it meets and have included, rvithin of the requirernents the current UK training prograrrunes 'bridging' seclions,extracts from the relevant TTA materials. So, against this two context, we conclude with an introduction to the structureof the book. Chapter I is for you to work at privately! It is there to help you get a feel not only softrvareand other ICT tools, but also to get some experiencein for the hardu,are, using them to tackle some interestingbis of mathematics.Very often in working on 'start from the mathematics'!Of coutse coursesrvith teacherswe use the maxim: you rvill wanr to be thinking also about the role of such tools in teachingas u'ell- 81' the end of this chapter you should be in a strong position to knos': (a1 * har ICT there is to useAs a bridge into the ne.rtchapter $,e rvill uke at look at the different styles of ICT use exemplified in the four mathematicscasestudies that the TeacherTraining Agencv (T*fA) disrributedto schoolson its Needstdentification CD-ROI\'I in preparationfor the NOF-funded training. We also look at the TTA's revierv of ICT tools for rnathematics. Chapter 2 is u'here \\:e break the curriculum dow'n into bite-sizechunks and look for s'ays in rvhich tCT tools can support teaching and learning of specific piecesof mathematicscontent,such as numberor algebra.However there are many dangersin creating false divisions betrveenparts of mathematics,and in treating mathematics apart frorn other subjects,so we also try to inject examples of rnore synthetic, and By the end of this chapter you should be in a strong cross-subject,approaches. position to knorv: (b) which aspects school mathematicsare amenableto its useof chapterwe willexamine someof the teachingissuesraised As a bridge into the ne.xt about ICT use in the case studies on the TTA Needs ldentification CD-ROM, and review the TTA s expectedoutcomes for the ICT trainingfrom ChaptersI and 2 in developing Chapter3 builds on the practicalexperience planning,implementationand evaluationof ICT a more analyticalstructurefor the
To our friend and inspiration: Warwick Evans
Introduction
xl
use in teaching and learning. By the end of this chapter you should be in a strong positionto know: (c) how to select and plan for its effective pedagogicuse. We ask you to review your progressand to draw up an action plan for your future continuedprofessional (CPD) in the useof ICT in your teaching. development Chapter4 looks outwardsto what othershave said,and researched, about the links betweenmathematics, ICT and education. This is intendedto help you answerthe additional question: (d) rvfty-should aim to integrateICT into mathemarics we teaching? The rangeof references this chaptershould be particutarly helpful if you intend to in undertakeany academicwork, such as an MA module, as part of your CpD. Chapter 5 attempts to take a peek into the future, and to look at how ICT, mathematics and mathematical pedagogymay develop in the next generation.At least this should raisethe question: ' (e) whereis it going? Even if doesnot actuallyprovide anv very reliable anss.ers! Finally rve concludewith an appendir to assistvou in obtaining copiesof the programsand files refened to in the text. A noteof rvarning!The paceof changein ICT developmentsis very fast, so while u'e hat'e taken considerable care to ensurcthat the material is up to date at the time of u'riting, it may u'ell be that someof the uebsitesro u'hich w'erefer u'ill changerheir content or even disappearSimilarlv versions of softu'are w'hich r,r'e have used for illustrationsma)' developand not appearexactlv in the tbrm rve show.This is the inevitable price of change,but u'e hope it w'ill not detractroo much from the n'orth of the book. We are awate that different readerss'ill have different experiencesand different needs.So 1'oumav u'ell rvant to skip sectionson aspectswith s'hich )'ou are farniliar, or leat'e sectionsfor later rvhich you think less relevant to your current needs.
tt'" have triecl to give 1'ouple nt)'of opportunities for practical work to complenrcnt the text and we highlight these in this way.
We havecertainly had a greatdeal of challenge,fun and senseof rervardin putting this book together.We very much hope that you have a fair shareof each in reading through, and rvorking at, the book. W'ew,ishyou all the best in your future attempts to apply educationalICT in bringing the subjectof mathematics life for your to students. Adrian Oldknow and Ron Taylor Februarv 2000
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ChapterI What resources andwill be available? are,
This chapteris for you to work at privately! It is here to help you get a feel not only for the available hardware, software and other ICT tooli,-but also to get some experiencein using them to tackle sorneinteresting bits of mathematics. G.y often in working on courses with teachers use the maxirn: 'start from the mathematics!, we Of courseyou rvill want to be thinking also about the role of such tools in teaching as $'ell' B1'the end of this chaptervou shouldbe in a srrongposition to kno*, v.hat ICT there is to use-As a bridge into the next chapter*. *itt take at look at rhe different st1'les ICT usee.xemplif in the four mathematics of red casestudiesthat the TeacherTrainingAgencl' (TfA) distribute,J schoolson its Needs to ldentification cD-Ro\l in preparation rhe NoF-iuncle,J tor training. No$'adays$'e tendto think of computersas a ferv boxeson (or under)the desk or a thin bo'xon the kneeof the personopposite in the train. This reflects the move from the 1960sonrvards concentrate personal [o on computeruse.So companiespurchased desktopPCs (Personal Computers)to improve the productivitv of their ernplol,ees, and norv householdspurchase similar hardu'are tor the entertainment (and/or educationtof famil-vmembers-But *'hen vou purchasea PC you are buy.ingfar more than the combination silicon chips,circuit boards,video displays of .t.. o,hi.h make up the hardwareelementsof the system. Like a body without a nervous system, a PC cannot be usedw'ithoutthe system'scomputer programs(the system soft*,are called the operatingsystem),which make it responsive hardware to elementssuch as the ke.vboard and the mouse,and allow it to communicatewith peripheral hardware suchasdisks'CD-ROMs.printersand telephone lines-But again,like a body without a brain' the PC is relatively useless without computerprogramsto help us carry out the tasks$'e would like to use it for (the applications software).So for the purposes of this chapterrve rvill include hardrvare and system softrvarein the nert section.' and applications softrvare the subsequent in section. Returningto our company employeeusing a PC at herftrisdesk, the application soft$'areis likely to include familiar namesfor iterns,such as a w,ordprocessor, a spreadsheet' database, a and support for sendingand receivingmessages (e-mail). This kind o[sottrvareis often norv called genericsoftrvare(andgiven a name such as an office suite)-By 'generic' w'ereally mean rnultipurpose. Such softrvarecan
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also play an irnportant part in helping teachersto cany out their job more effectively, e.g. by betterrecord keeping.The householdPC is likely to have softwarefor playing and for for gan-res, getting intonnation frorn a CD-ROM (such as an encyclopiiedia) to the Internet. Each of these may well have educational applications, connecting but they are aimed at the individual user and may not easily relate to the actual curriculum in schools. of software:thosethatcan So we can alreadydistinguishtwo classes applications make the individual learnerand teachermore efficient, and those that can contribute to individuals' learning. In the context of the school, though, we needto consider a third context, that of helping the teacher teach a class more effectively. This will require considerationboth of the available specialistand pedagogicalsoftware in a given subject such as rnathematics, and also the kinds of hardware that are available, and appropriate,for use when teaching a whole class,or a group, of students. Thus the aim of this chapteris to ensurethat, as far as possible, you are aware of the current range of hardrvareand software to support teachersand learnersinside and outside the classroom so that you can make informed choices when planning your use of tCT. We have tried to do this in as non-technicala manner as possible,rnaking few assumptions about your previous experience.We hope that you will not feel patronized by this, and will skip over any sectionswith which you are alreadyquite familiar. The Teacher Training Agency has widely circulated its publication The Use of Information and Communications Technology in Subject Teaching: Identification of Training Needs: Secondary Mathemarl-csThis setsout the expected outcomes of ICT training for secondaryschool mathematics teachersin terms of nine points to do r,vith 'effective teachingand assessment methods- sectionA , and a-furthernine points to do 'teachers'knorvledge rvith with, information and and understanding and competence of. - sectionB'. This chapteris particularlyconcerned communicationtechnologl' with supportingyou in achievingaim B I 3: kaclrcrs shouldlatow those of ICT which features can be used,separately or together to suppon rcachingand leanting.
la
ICT IL{R-DIIARE FOR EDUCATION
Currently the term tT (Information Technology) is being increasingly replaced by the acronym ICT ([nformation and Communication Technology).In eachcaseit is to emphasize that PCs, and other computers, are just one - albeit very important element in the range of electronic devices that is revolutionizing our society.[n the introduction rve referred to the directive from the UK Department for Education and Employment (DfEE circular 16199)that explains how a source of funding may be used to support ICT in 200012001 : Schools may purchase ICT equipment (this fftoy include class setsof portable computing devices: whole class teaching aids such as projection equipment; digital cameros, scanners and iCigitizersand other equipment which can be used to help create educational resources) We will norv take a closer look at what these,and other, items of equipmentcan do.
ICT hardware for education Stand-alonePCs
Of course'systemsvary, but the centralelementof a PC usually consists of a rather drab box, with the on/off button, one or two slots for disks, and a couple of small lights on the front- On the back are a variety of socketsfor connection to the other components. Insidethe box is the rnicroprocessor (which used to be called the CpU: centralprocessingunit), with a name such asPentium II.This sendsout instructions to the other parts of the PC at a frequency measuredin Hertz (Hz), which is the rate of I cycle Persecond.Current PCs usually have 'clock rates' measured in hundreds of megaHettz, which means getting towards t billion clock-ticks per second! Instructions,and unchangingdata,neededby the microprocessor stored are in Read Only Memory (ROM)- This is rnemory that does not change,and is not volatile that is to say that rvhen you srvitch the machine off it does not become forgotten. The changing bits of data are stored in Random Access Memory (RAM), which now usuallycome in multiples of 16 Megabytes(Mb).A byte is a measureof information that dependson how the PC stores information, but it can hold the equivalent of between one and four printing characters,like a letter or a digit. So a modern pC with 64Mb RAM can hold the equivalent of about 160,000 prinred pages in its 'memory'RAM is volatile, and its contentsare lost rvhenthe PC is switched off. The other key element of the central box is usually hidden wirhin it- This is the hard disk or hard drive, w'hichis non-volatile,and rvhich can hold a massiveamounr of data' but s'hich cannot be retrieved quite as quickly,as from RAI\I- The capacirl, of hard disks is measuredin gigabytes(Gb), rvhich are a billion by'res. Again a modern PC may have about 100 times as much hard disk spaceas RAN1,and one use of the hard disk is to e.xtendthe available RAM by creating rvhat is knog'n as 'r.irrual memory'- Somesystemsrvill copy the contentsof RAM onto the hard drive rvhen you close down the computer (the 'suspend' mode) so that you can restart from g.here you left off. As rve shall see later, there may actually' be more than one hard disk, but the principal one is also usually referredto as the 'C: drive'. The hard drive of a pC u'ill come rvith some sofrware already installed on it- The essenrialsoftg'are is calle,.i an OperatingSystem(OS). There will usually be other sofr*,are,especially generic soft$'are such as a $'ordprocessor,already installed. Softu'are included within the price of a PC is referred to as 'bundled software'. The main sockets at the back are for the connection of the power supply, the monitor, the keyboard and the mouse. The keyboard is more or less that of the oldfashionedtypewriter, using the familiar sysrem.As well as rhe usual shiftQ\YERTY key and shift-tock, for moving between lower and upper case symbols, there are specialkeys called 'Ctrl' (for Control) and 'Alt' (for Alternate). In manualsyou will sometimes shorthandbeing usedwhere, e.g. Ctrl-C (or ^C) means'while hotding see dorvn the Ctr[ key pressthe C key, and then releaseboth.'Similarly Alr-C means using both the Alt and C keys. Some keyboardsconrain some light bulbs (actually . Light Emitting Diodes - LEDs) to shorv whether any of the keyboard locks (shift, alphabetic, numeric)are currently selected. There is also an additional row of usually 12 keys, called function keys, denotedby symbols like F7, rvhich have special meaningsin different circumstances. The PC's display unit is called a 'monitor', althoughsometimesthe older phrase 'Visual DisplayUnit'(VDU) is used.Nowadays thesearealmostalwayscolourdisplays,
usually with a resolution considerably finer than that of a conventionaldomestic TV The size of monitor is usually given in inches,so that a 15in. monitor will have a maximum diagonaldistancefrom corner to cornerof the b'oxof 15in.,with a rather 'aspect ratio'is the ratio between smallerdiagonal distanceacrossthe actualdisplay.The of the horizontal and vertical measurements the screen,usually 4:3, so that a 15in. 'resolution' of the monitor has a display a bit less than 12in. wide and 9in. high. The 'pixels', which are the smallestpicture drawing elements(like screenis measuredin atoms).Ahigh resolutionmonitor may have L24Apixels horizontallyand 1074vertically, more detailthan the 320 x 256 screen a typical (not digital) TV set.Of of sixteen-times picture in many colour toneswill requirea large amount of course a high resolution very quickly. Hencethe importance of RAM to store it and this needs to be accessed having large and fast video RAM. The screenmay be divided into a numberof regions, 'windows'. called The screenwill usually show a small moveableimage(an icon) which 'pointer'can looks like an arrow-head. This be moved around the screenusing the 'mouse'. This hasa small ball on its underside, which is usually draggedin contact rvith 'mouse a mat'. On the top it may have ong two or threebuttonsand/orperhapsa wheel. When you have moved the rnousepointer over a part of the display you areinterestedin there are three key techniquesavailable. The first is to make just a single click on the lefthand button, which normally highlights the image under the cursor.The second is to hold the left-handbutton down while dragging the mouseacrossits mat,which normally dragsthe image acrossthe screen. The third is to click the left-handbuttontwice in rapid succession. This double click normally causes action to take place linked with the an icon. All but the oldest PCs no\r' have operatingsystemsbasedon the componentsof lVindou's. lcons. I\[ouse and Pointer, or WIlvtP for short. Perhapsthe best kno',r'n
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ICT hardware for education
current such operating system is the family of Microsoft Wind.ows products. The picture on p- 4 showsa typical screen.Here the very top line of the screen showswe are in the 'My Computer' window. Below this is a 'menu bar' and below this are a numberof 'buttons'with iconsattached. Then thereis an 'address bar', and below this we have the actualcontentswindow with eight icons. The fourth of theseis called a 'folder' which has information about the printers that the systemhas been set up to use.Double-clickingon this folder icon opensup a secondwindow called 'printers,. The highlighting in the top line of the Printerswindow shows that it is the one now beingused(the 'active'window). Clicking on the View option in the menu bar causes 'menu'to a be 'droppeddown'. Norv the mousecan be usedto selectan item from the menu, such as Details. At the very foot of the main display screenthere are some importanticons-The group on the right tell you about the system,suchas the current. time-The buttonsin the rniddle refer to currently open windows, and can be clicked to makeone of them the active window. The 'Start'button in the bottom-leftcorneris used to install and run software,to alter system settings,and to shut the pC down. Now we return to the slots in the front of the PC's main box. One or more of these is for use with a3.25in. diskette,which typically holds about l.44Mb of dara.This is shown on the first icon in the.'My Cornputer'window, and is also given the identificationas the 'A: drive'. Some PCs may havetwo similar slots for diskettesto i::':!litate rcp;'rnq Cl::rf:'ir::r d!';!;lo:!;.;k. I:: ihri r;s,-- :.:lo;rC.,i'ill callcciii.ie the bc 'B: drive'- The secondicon in the u,indorv is the internal hard disk drive called the 'C: drive'- The third icon refers to anotherslot in the front of the box, called the 'D: drive" rvhich is a retractabletraivthat can hold a Compact Disk (CD). Most pCs include the hardrvare inside to make sounds(an 'audio card') and connectto external speakers. that 1'oushould be able to play a music CD on vour PC- Hou,ever,CDs so can be used to store all sons of data: audi.r, r'ide,r,inrage,te.{t,progranls,etc. Until recentl;'they lvereprohibitively expensivcto re-record.and this rvaseffiphasized by calling them CD-RONIs (tor 'read only memor\,'r. r\.[orerecently other forms of drive are also being added to the main box including Digital Video Disks (DVD) and'ZP-drives', rvhichare mainly used to back-up(i.e. make secure copieso0 data. S''ehave norv dealt with most of the componentsthat are usualll' to be found on any PC- Renr.nittgto the sockes on the back of the main PC box thereis usually a 'parallel port' for attachinga printer cable, and one or more 'serial ports' for attachingother devices such as a joystick. If the PC is to bc connectedto rhe telephonenetwork for access e-mail and the internet it will need to have a 'modem'. This is a device to to codeand uncodecomputersignalsinto forms suitablefor sendingvia telephone cables. It may be internal(i.e. the hardw'are inside the computerbox), or external.An external is modem is connectedto the serial port of the computec and to a telephonepoint. An internalmodemjust requiresa connectionfrom the telephonepoint to the back of the computer-The speedof a modem is siven in kilobits per second(kbps). A printing character usually represented an 8-bit binary number- so a I15.2 kbps modem is by can transfer data at a maximum ratc of around 14,000 charactersper second - ' equivalentto about four A4 pagesof printing - or one medium-sizedhigh resolurion picture!This is why documentscontaining many irnagescan take a very long time to transferThe actualtransferratealso dependsupon the kind of connectionbeing used. Using a conventionaltelephoneline, 4,000 characters secondis about the fastest per currentlyattainable.
TeachingMaths with ICT

Most manuals assume everything works perfectly. However, from time to time, you may find your PC failing to respond,or behaving in an unfamiliar way. There is a combination of keys which will usually retrieve the situation: press the Ctr[, Alt and Del (Delete)buttons simultaneously(Ctrl+Alt+Del). Often this will enable the PC to start up from the beginning. This is known as a're-boot'. You will normally 'close down' your computer by clicking in the 'Start' Icon at the bottom left-hand corner of the screen. the Now we haveestablished common ground for most PCs we will take a look at a number of variantsnow available. Networked PCs Each PC on a network is called a'workstation'or'terminal'. Normally it is an ordinary PC with some extra hardwareand cabling to allow it to connect to a network. Thus it could be used as a stand-alone when not connected.Sometirnes(usually PC with older systems)the terminals do not have any externaldisk drives, and (rarely) they may not even have an internal hard drive. At the heart of each network is a 'file server'. This will have access special PC (or more powerful computer)called a to a variety of largecentral storagedeviceson which the Network Manager rvill have installed all the software. Often therewill be more than one network. For example there may be one or more networks within a school, called Local Area Netrvorks (LANs), but also the school offices may be connectedto a network linking a group of local schoolsand a central office. In addition to the usual operatingsystemsoftware it should be possible nou' to accessa rangeof softrvare,information sourcesand video clips held centrallv on thc file sen er using an 'in-school intranet'. The netu'ork may'also be connectedto the telephonesvstemso that workstationscan accessthe internet.Workstationsmav be 'open dedicated to a particular person and kept on someone'sdesk, or thev may' be access' and available to any authorized user, such as in a library. Groups of 'lT rvorkstations may be held together in a dedicated room, sometirnescalled an 'log suite', for work with classes. any of thesecasesthe normal etiquetteis to on' In w'hen you sit down at a u'ork-stationby entering your name and passu'ord,and to 'log off' when you finish your session. Laptop computers Norvadays theseoften have a very similar specification to desktop PCs, and cost a relatively small amount more. Nearly all modern laptops have clear flat colour displays inside their lids. Most have an alternative to a mouse attachedto the keypad. This might be a touch-sensitivepad, or a 'tracker ball'. They can be powered by mains electricity,or by special rechargeable batteries.Thesebatterieswill porver the laptop usually for betrveentwo and five hours. When using batteries it is very important to foltow the makers' instructions about keeping batteries in ,eood condition. A nice featureof rvorking with a laptop is that usually the operating system offers a 'suspendmode' where the computer can be 'sent to sleep'at any point and will 'u'ake up'ready to go from the sameplace in an application.While there is less room to add additional hardware than on a PC, there are usually one or trvo small
slots to take 'PCMCIA' cards, e.g.for connectingto mobile phonesor modems.Some laptops do not containbuilrin disketteor CD-ROM drives to reduceweight, but can be connectedto an externaldrive, or to a 'host' PC. Nearly all laptopshave sockets for connection to external PC monitors.Some laptops also have video socketsfor connection to the video input of a TV monitor. Notebook (and sutr-notebook)computers Designedto be very lightweight thesewill usually fit into a pocket.Mosrly rhey have a monochromedisplay screen.Newer versionshave an operatingsystem similar to that for PCs,such as Microsoft's Windows CE. The start-upscreenusually displays a number of icons for built-in applications such as diary, addressbook, spreadsheets and u'ordprocessor. Theseare usually selectedusing a number of dedicatedbuttons on the keypad ('hot keys'). They can be linked directly to a printer, or with a pC, where the information is exchangedvia a cable.They usually work from conventional batteriesas used in radios and flashlights.Insteadof using diskettesmany will accept removable memory cards known as 'flash-RoM cards'. Palm-top conrputers Smaller still than notebooks, thesecomputers usually have a touch-sensitive screen so that menu choicescan be made by tappingdirectly on a given areausing a small st1'lus-Ilanl' also have softu'are which can identify handrvriting and replace handr.rritten rext s'ith printed versionsPersonat organizers Cheaperthan palm-topsor notebooks,theseusually contain some dedicated'personal productivity'applicarions such as a diary notepador address book. Graphing calculators Of particular importance for mathematics,and for numerate subjects such as geography and science,these are a blend of calculator and computer technology. Their keyboardsnormally resemblea calculator keypad where each key may have, sa\" three different functions. For example on the TI-83, the 0 key can be used to enter the digit 0. but in combinationwith the 'alpha' key it.rvill producethe letter '\"' and in combinationu'ith the '7nd'key it will producethe symbol '<'. The display screenis usually a monochromeLCD with a limited resolutionof around 120 by 90 pixels- Graphingcalculators (GCs) are poweredby ordinary batteries but also have a hearing-aidstyle batreryas back-up.Values,data and programsstored in RAM (t}'picalll' 32Kb or more) are thus retainedeven the GC is switched off. Modern GCs may also contain large.amounts of 'flash-ROM', which can be used to store applicationssoftrvare, archive data,etc. (effectivelythe GC's hard-diskdrive). The built-in software rvill carry out all the normal mathematical,scientific, statisticaland financialcalculations. additionthe softwareenablesa wide variety [n of graphs to be drarvnand analysed.Some versionsu'ill also perform symbolic
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manipulation. Instead of a mouse, four cursor keys are used to move around the screen.Nearly all models have the capacity to exchange data with similar GCs, with and with compatible products such as data-loggers.Nearly all models have PCs, teachers'versionswith largeLCD display screens usewith an overheadprojector for (OHP). Versionsare now appearingwhich will also connect to a TV for largedisplay. Note: UK usageusually refers to 'graphic calculators',or to 'graphical calculators',whereaswe think the US usageof 'graphingcalculators'is rather more accurate.Better still would be to use somethinglike PCT for PersonalComputing Technology! Whole-class displays If you are working with a whole class, whether or not they all have accessto ICT tools themselves,you may rvell want to be able to drarv everyone'sattentionto the same display. Just as there are a number of ways of deploying ICT tools in the classroom,so there is a rangeof meansof providing rvhole-class displays. L-argecolour monitors: thesecan be up to 26in., but are usually very bulky and quite expensive. Flat screentechnologyis only just becorningavailableand will rcii-iaiit vcri e.xpci:sivc tlre sht-rrt iii ter-n), in t!'lcfutuie ,,\'c but can c.\pectthe:;etcr become far more comrnonData projectors: theseconnectdirectly to the \/GA output of a PC and contain a high-powered bulb which throrvs a colour image onto a s!-reen rvall. They or can be perrnanentlymounted,or there are portableversions.Pricesare coming dou'n fast but currently they cost around ts'ice as much as a PC- Th.y accepta variet."- input sourcessuch as PC, audio and video. of Interactive whiteboards:theseare still relativelv erpensive and relativelv rare. The computer's output is displayed on the surfaceof the board. u'hich the teachercan also rvrite on using large pens.The n'hiteboardis 'intelligent' in that you can interact with projectedapplication softs'arebr tapping directly onto portions of the board correspondingto buttons,icons, etc. for the softrvareCurrently they cost around five tirnes that of a PC. OHP displays: there are display pads w'hich connectto a PC and which produce a VGA monochrome or colour image on a ransparent screenw'hich lies on top of a conventional OHP. Unless the room is slightly darkened,and the OHP has a high power bulb, thesedisplays can be hard ro read, and are becoming obsolete.However the more robusr LCD displays for use with graphing calculatorsare far lessexpensiveand seem to rvork well in normal light. TV interfaces:a number of commercial companiesmake adaptersto connectthe VGA output frorn a PC or laptop to the !'ideo input of a conventionalTV or VHS recorder.These, used in conjunction rvith one or more largeTV sets,can provide a lou,-cost solution to providing rvhole-class disptays (see,for exarnple: http ://wrvw.I i ndy.corn). Graphing calculators: as merrtioned above, the output from most models of GCs, and associateddata-capture devices,can be displayed via OHP, TV or data projector.
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ICT hardware for education Data capture devices
Motion detectors:theseemit ultra-soundsignalswhich are reflectedby the nearestobject. By tirning the gap betweensendingand receiving a signal, the detectorcan calculatethe distanceto the nearest object. Estateagentsnow use similar devicesto measure dimensions rooms in houses. of Sendingout signals at frequentintervals, the detectorcan track the movementof an object by storing data on time and distance.Such data can be capturedremotely (such as with pupils on a running track) and later transferred a computer or graphing to calculatorfor analysisand display.For example,the TI CalculatorBased Ranger (CBR) costs about the sameas a graphingcalculatorand has a range of between0.5rn and 6m. ' Sensors:the motion detectoris a special kind of sensor:for measuringdistance. There is a wide range of sensors designedmainly for scientific experiments, which can measure, e.g., temperature, light intensity,voltage,sound intensity, force, pressure,acceleration,acidity, heart rate, amounts of CO, etc. Such sensors(or probes)are usedin conjunction with a box, called an 'interface'. which allows them to be set up by, and to download data to, computersand graphing calculators.For example,the TI Calculator Based Laboratory (CBL) c'.-rsis about tw icc as ttiuchas a grapliingcalcuiirior airdhaspiobes ftrrtemperature, light intensity and voltage. ' Digital camera.s: theseare now quite common in high streetstores.They are cameraswhich are designedfor single irnages, like a conventionalcamera, rvhich store them usually on an internal flash-ROM or diskette.These images can be downloaded to a PC where they can be edited, saved in one of the conventional formats for exchangingpictures (such as JPEG) and/or inserted into documents.There are also digital video cameras, like a conventional camcordel u'hich also have large amountsof local storage.They can transfer data to PCs which can be edited to produce,say,video clips in a standard format (such as AVI). ' Scanners:theseare devicesto produce digital imagesof sourceobjects.such as text, photographs,handwritten documents,etc. The technology is that used in fax machines,and so the sheervolume of saleshas led to rapid falls in prices. The accompanying software often includes tools to enable typed text to be scannedand turned into meaningful text, ratherthan just a graphic image. This processis called Optical CharacterRecognition(OCR). Some can also be 'taught'to recognize, and convert,handwriting.It is also possibleto use some fax machinesas scanners. Printers These have improved dramatically in recentyears,and prices have also fallen. The best quality is usually obtained with a laserprinter,but colour versionsare still very expensive.Colour inkjetprinters are now very common and can print with a quality comparablew'ith a laser printer (but usually slower). Ribbon-based(dot matrix) printers,which were the most cornmon ones ten years ago, are now virtually obsolete. Consumables (lasertoner,inkjet cartridges, coatedpaper,etc.)can be quite expensive.
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10
(OHT), labels, overheadtransparencies Special kinds of papeqe.g. for photographs, quite expensive. etc. are available,but can also be The educational context Now we have consideredthe main forms of ICT hardware we can attempt to place them in an educationalcontext.This will very much dependupon the extentto which a school already has ICT resourcesand what it seesas their main purpose.We will contexts: consider four separate [. 2. 3. 4. a teacherusing ICT to help plan, prepareand manageteaching; individual pupils using ICT outsidenormal lessons; a group of pupils using tCT within a lesson; ateacher using ICT with a whole class.
Using .ICT to plan, prepare and manage teaching In order to plan, prepareand manageyour teaching you rvill need to have accessto a PC or laptop. This might be a workstation on a school net$'ork, possibly in a area, library or staff work roorn. [t could be a laptop or computer [ab, open-access office,or at hotnc.You rvill iieed[o have PC stanri-alone )'ou usein the nrathernatics accessto the sorts of application software and hardivare for mathematicseducation relevant to the part of the curriculum in rvhich you plan to s'ork (e.g-graph-plotter. graphing calculator, data-logger,etc.), other forms of resources spreadsheet, (ret-erence etc-).lbu may needto be able instruments, books, te.xthxrks, task-sheets. and/or information. to accessthe internet to retrieve other resources You u'ill needsuitablcscneric softu'areto enablevou to preparevour lessonplans. records.evaluations.etc. You may' needto be able to scan in task-sheets, assessment information from other sources.such as a book. You rvill also need to be able to produceprinted output either in place.using a connectedprinter.or by saving your u'ork to diskette so that you can obtain hard copy using another u'ork station, etc. Individual pupils using ICT outside nonnal lessorts You may \t'an[ to plan that students follotv up w'ork, rvrite up reports, prepare for new rvork, etc-\bu n'ill needto considerstrat kinds of accessthev mav have ousidc the lesson,either in school.at a public library or centreor at home.Thus you rvill need useof school areas, to know what facilitiesexist within school,such as open-access networks outside teachingtintes.availability within the school librarl', etc., and s'hat they have to software is available.You can also ask pupils to tell you what access computers locally or rvithin their own homes. You w'il[ then need to consider rvhat sortsof software they may'have already,and horv they may obtain accessfrom other sources.It may be that hand-heldtechnology,such as graphing calculators,rvould be an alternative.Again you u'ill need to know' rvhich pupils have accessto such technology.It may be that the school has provision to lend graphingcalculatorsto stuCents take off-site. to
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A group of pupils using ICT witltin a lesson You may be able to arrangeaccess just one or two PCs in your classroom- perhaps to workstationsto a network,or PCs on trolleys, or laptops- or maybe you have access to just a few graphing calculators.One way to deploy them is to use them with a group of students. This may be because, say,different groups a.re working at different aspectsof a topic, or thaf you plan to give each group ICT accessin turn. A teacher using ICT with a whole class If the school has one or more computer suites,it may be possibleto book a computer room for one or more lessons.In this case studentswill usually have accessto a workstation (perhapsshared)for the whole lesson.If the school is well equipped it may be that one or more of the mathematicsclassroomshas several r.vorkstations.. Alternatively, it may be that there are sufficient lap-tops available (or other suitable portable devices such as graphing calculators)to share between the class.Another important form of organizationthat you need to consider is the use of a single pC, laptop or graphing calculatortogether with a whole classdisplay. It is now time to considerwhat sorts of mathematicssoftware are available.
1 2 Teachinglvlathswith ICT 1b SOFTTVARBFOR MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Becausethere are so many types of softwarecunently availableit is useful to consider threeparticularly important setsof questions for how any piece of software addresses mathematics teachers: Pedagogical:can it be used to help teachcontent,to developconcepts,to to increaseknowledge,to improve understanding, practiseand reinforce skills? Mathematical: can it be used to compute results,to producetables, to draw graphs, to solve problerns,to manipulateexpressions,to compute statistics? Organizational: can it help me to producematerialsmore efficiently, to keep records, to managetime, to communicatewith others,to find resources? In 1997 the DfEE/NCET published a review of softrvare for curriculum subjects. 'Revierv The section of software for mathematics- Key Stages3 and 4' concentrated on the following type of software for rnathematics: small softrvare: i.e. prografi$ aimed at specific, highly-focused,curriculum content e.g Lngo,Bcsir: ilrogranrnring !angtrag?s: generic softrvare: particularly spreadsheets, also databases but content-free, subject specific: e.g. graph plotting softu'are(GPS) computeraleebrasystems(CAS) dynamic geometry softrvare(DGS) datahandling softu'are(DHS) coursex'are: i.e. structured curriculummaterialsu'ith integraluse of softu'are graphic calculators (GC ) (or graphingcalculators) CD-RONI and the internet as sources data. of
\\te shall devote this part of the chapterto taking a detailed look at examples from each categor\'. Of course the available titles, and their features,changeconstantly so we can onlv reflect the current position-In order to make this more than a paper exercise tve have, rvith the help of Te.rasInstruments,provided you u'ith somesample softrvare on the accompanfing CD-ROII- Further sources of free, trial or demonstration sotiu,arecan be tound on the MathematicalAssociation'swebsite:http://www.ma.org.uk . We shall give more information about useful websitesfor mathematics tou'ardsthe end of this section. There are also other types of softrvarerelated to mathematicstesting rvhich are outside the scopeof this section.Theseinclude IntegratedLearning System (ILS), item-banksof e.ramination questions and revision testsfor public examinations. Small softrvare: i.e. programsaimedat specific,highly-focused, curriculum content Again thesecome in a variety of forms.Perhaps the most frequentlyused examples are in the form of gamesor challenges where the interactionby an individual, or a group of pupils, u'ith the computer,involves them in practisingand applying some particular mathematicalskill or knowledge.There are many advantages using ICT of
Software mathematics education for

in such a context-Here arejust a few:
13
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the cornputerrespondsto pupils in a non-judgementalway; it can motivateand hold attentionthroughthe use of moving images,sounds, etc.; pupils can respond their own time; in pupils can refinetheir strategies the resultof feedback; as the teacheris freed from having to check answers; pupils and the teachercan co-operatetogetherin working at problems posed by the cornputer.
To illustrate the-kindof softu'areavailablewe have producedsomesimple exarnples of small programs- seethe Appendix. We must stressthat theseare not 'professional versions'writtenby programmers (and so may'crash'if usedin ways that were not anticipated!),.but they are 'home-made'samplesprovided in order to discusssome of the different featuresof small programs. lVe have also provided some similar programs for the TI-83 graphic calculator.The programsare: GLASS
BEAzuNGS TRANSFORM
Load and run the programGL.,\SS.This is a sinrpleversionof compurer-aided design (CAD) softrt'arew'rittensonre vears ago ior a leading UK manufacturerof highquality drinkng glasses. The idea rs for the desienerto specitya fes' points on the screcnthrough u'hich a smooth jurve rr.ill h: 'faired' to give the impressionof the profile of the right-hand sidc'oi thc glass.[n realitv the points rvouldbe specifiedin an analoguetashion usinga poindng devicesuchas light-pen,tracker-ball mouse. or For the educational conte.rt.studentshave to define the points b1'giving their coordinateswith reference a grid. Try entering five or six points to start rvith. When to all the points have been det'ined.the softu'arefirst dras's a smooth profile curve through the points.and then producesthe (crude)impressionof the glassbt revolving the profile through 60", I ltJ' and tS0' ton'ardsthe vieu'er and dras'ing some cross
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14
kaching Maths wtth ICT
sections (ellipses). You can then modify the design by changing, adding and/or removing the points used to define the original profile. rn" object of this prJgram is to achieve a pleasant shape.In order to do this you have to learn how to control the shape by the manipulation of the control points. In order to communicate their position you have to apply, and practise,your knowledge of co-ordinatesin the first quadrant'Thus, from a mathematicalviewpoint, it is 'small uiû*ple of software, in that it exercises students'facility with a standard piece of the geometrycurriculum. There are many other commercialexamplesof small software that address this piece of mathematics, such as gamesinvolving the locationof 'buried treasure, on a pirates' island or a 'missing elephant'in Manhattan! Now load and run the program called BEARINGS. This is a much more .closed, piece of softwarethan GLASS-The computerscreen just shorvsa vertical line segment oNrepresenting North (000"), and generates anothersegmentop atsomerandomangle to it' The object of the 'game' is for the viewer to try to estimatethe bearing of p frorn N in degreesusing the conventionalnotation. when you input your estimate; for the bearing, the computer displays anothersegme oe where nt in" L.*ing of B from N is 'r"' Now the display screenprovides visual feedback,which allows you to seewhether you have rnadean under- or over-estimateyou continue,using trial_and_improvemenr, until your input is within say 5o of the exact value-
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Finally load and run the program called TRANSF'ORM. This is aTrueBasrcrM version of the programdevelopedin section5.5 of Microcomptfiers in Geometry,A.Oldkno*,, Ellis Horwood 1987-It hasbeenrvrittenexplicitty to illustrarerw.odifferent approaches in the explorationof transformationgeometry.You can useit to define your own starting (the 'object') and then to perform a sequence of transformationson it, producing thape its 'images'usinga combinationof translations, rotations, reflectionsand enlargements. Alternatively you can let the computerdefine a startingshapeand a randomly chosen targetshapeso that you havethe challengeof finding u ringi. transformation, chain or of transformations,to map the object onto the target.So, for example, you could appl), the program using the first approach as an 'electronic blackboard', projected for interactive whole-classteachingeither from a PC or with a graphing calculator.you could also use it this way in the secondmode, or studen$ could rvork .hands-on, with multiple screens.
Software mathematicseducation l5 for

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Progranrming languages: e.g. Ingo, Basic The capacityof rnoderncomputers,including graphingcalculators,is norv such that manv of the applications that previously required teachersto rvrite blocks of code in a programming languagecan now be performed rvithin the command structure of suitablesoftware.For example,the simulation of the surnsof scoresfrom a number of rolls of ts'o dice, which might have been carried out by a short Basicprogram, can now be easily carried out using the data lists on a graphingcalculator.Similarly the creation of a regular polygon, rvhich is a common task using Logo, can be performed by a number of constructionsand transformationsusing dynamic geomerry software' which also affords the opportunity to develop procedures. There are aspecrs of the nrathernatics curriculum rvherethe writing of short programs by pupils using Logo, Basic or the programming languageof a graphing calculator may well bi appropriate.Fortunately there are now versions of Ingo (MSW Logor*t) and,Basic (TrueBA.S/(fr') that are availableto schoolsat no cost via the Internet (seethe set of links on the N{athematical Association'swebsite:http://wrvw.m-a.org.uk). Here we rvill illustratesome programsinMSW LogorM,inTrueBASlCM and in the programtning languageof the TI-83 graphing calculator.If you are not very famitiar
L6
with graphing calculatorswe suggestyou skip that sectionand return to it later when you have had some experienceof its other facilities. Logo When you start MSW lôgorMthe screenshows two windows. The bottorn part, known as the Cornmander,is where you enter instructions. Most Logo comnands can be abbreviated,and they can be strung togetherusing spacesto separate them. With the cursor in the bottom line of the Comrnanderenter the string: cs FD L00 RT 90 FD 50 and pressthe Enter key (i.e. the large key on the right of the keyboard,next to '@'). Your corunands are transferredinto the 'history' area of the Commander. tf there are no errors then you should see the graphic image change on the MSW Logo'n' Screen Window. The triangular arrowhead shows the current position and heading of the cdrsor and it is known as the 'screen turtle', or just 'turtle', from the earlier use of Logo rvith floor robots called 'turtles'-
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There were just four commands:
es
FD 1OO RT 90 FD 50
ClearScreen Forward.100 units Rigrht Turn 90 degrees Forward. 50 units
Sofnuarefo r mathematic educ ion s at
17
The power of logo is in the 'extensibitity'of the language, which n'reans you teach it new words, by defining procedures. iilustrate this, type EDIT "HEX in the To cornrnandline.
t.o HEI REFEAT
This opensup anotherwindow: the Editor window. Put the cursor before the 'end' statement and pressEnter Then type the line: REPEAT 6 tFD 50 RT 601.Open rhe File rnenuand select the first option: Save & Exit. This has defined the nerv u'ord HEX which uses a REPEAI loop. This draws six sides by going fonvarcl 50 units and then turninq right through an (e.xternal) angle of 60 degrees.Enrer: CS HEX in the command line to drarv a hexagon. to EEK REPETT lro 50 RT 501 6 end
Supposettv'e \t'ant to 'tile' the screenrvith he.xagons. could start b1.tn.in_e \['e to drarv a band of them acrossthe screen.The mathematicalchallengeis ro trnd rvhere to positionthe cursor after drau'ingone hexagonso that the next one joins on cleanll'. We can define anotherprocedureusing: EDIT TSLTDE Io SLIDE P n R T 9 0 F D 1 0 0 * C O S( 3 0 ) L T 90 PD end
Here we use the commands PU and PD for penup and penDo\,!,n, that we do not so leave a trace across the last he.xagon. we have also used some trigonometry to calculatethe requireddisplacement. You can test the program by k e y i n g ,e . g . ,C S HEX SLIDE HEX.
18 TeachingMaths with ICT
'HEXBAND' and entering Finally we shall put the ideas togetherby using EDIT the program to draw eight hexagonsside by side. First, though,we have to clear the screenand move the cursor to the left-hand side of the screen. to IIEXBATiID CS PU LT 90 TD 350 RT 90 PD REPE.IT 8 TIIEK STIDEI end
Cor, ),ou now defi,nea procedure, ntaybe called HEXTILE, which pltts sayI HEXBANDS cleanly above each other?
Although Logo is usually used for graphical output, it can be usedto print numbers, The procedureITER illustrates the s,ords, etc- like other programming langueges. "x means'the variablenamedr', u'hile :x means'the value storedin the point. Here variable named r'- PR is the shorthand for Print. This little program is using an to approximations the golden ratio @,rvhich is a solution iterationto find succcssive to the equation: d= I + Lo
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Basrc When you run TTueBASICIM you have an Edit window in which you enter your programs. Like other versionsof Basic,you can use line numbersif you wish, but in most casesthey are unnecessary. Each program has to start with a PROGRAM line and finish with an END- In the first program we arejust going to give the Basic version of the golden ratio iteration prograrn for which we gave the Logo version above.When you select Run from the editor's Run menu (provided there are no errors)the output appearsin another window.
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Of course the output can be graphic as u'ell as numeric. One of the problems, though'is that the graphic rvindorvcan be re-sized, rve needto take care with so the aspectratio of the w'indou'.The program HEX usesrrvo procedures. The procedure 'screen'adjusts the co-ordinatesystemfiorthe graphic s'indog'. The proc.Jrr. .Hex' dra$'sa hexagonusing threenumbers:the co-ordinates irs ccntre an,Jthe radius oi of the circlein u'hich it lies.So the outputis a hexagons'hosecenre is at ( I,2) inscribed in a circle of radius3.
PRC6?AX iter: ,liT i =cree:r ,lill ae:zi 1 2. I i SUE screen
s E T U I N D O U- 1 0 . 1 0 . _ 1 0 _ t 0 ASt{ PIXELS p:r. p'; LET ar = pV/g-.: 9ET LIIiltxlu -10 _ ll-t - -lt'lrar EIID iI.TR :ll-IE He:: i :rc. T. . r i SET COLOP 'blrre" FOR A = O TT] 2EPI STEP PIZ3 F L O T : < u -+ r * C C G i a ] . y c + r * S I H ( a ) : liEl.-T a PLOT EITD SLIE EHD Line: lB Char:B
cor, )'oLtadapt the program to draw c vertical bancl of small he.uagons? Hov, aboofititing the displal, y,irrilorr,
20
T'iic PLC i cutlilitiiiiti is r,ci;
PLOT xl,yl;x2,y2
or
PLOTxl,y1; PLOT x2,y2
Both result in the line from (x1,yl) to (x2,y2). We shall usethis techniqueto develop a versatile graph drawing program.
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PROGRAHsraph DEFf(r:) =l+l/:< R E A D : < r i r r . i : n a : r . ' i r t e l r r . yIn.3.:{ DiT& -3. 3. -3. 3 :{ttr6.:-:.y n r n . i n a ! : sET l.tIltLrlIJ i:rin. 're'J' sET COLOR ll : znar: . 0 PLOT :znin, PL(]T 0.ynin ; 0.yna:-: LET';1 = f ri:rrirr) 'hlrre' sET COLOFi PLOT :<nin. yl ; FOR i: = znin TO -n.e..t STEP i:<r,a:-:-r:nin)/100 LETy2=f(:z) IF iBS(';2-y1) >10 THEI{ PL,IT PLIIT -.v 2 . LET yl -- y2 NE:{T :< PLOT 'green" SET COLI:)P PLrlrT :<nr u . :rn i n ; :.:rna:-::{rrr.i:-: , EI{D Run successfully.
s. Edit tlrc second and fourth lines af the program to draw graphs of
difi erentfunc tions using diffe rent axes.
Programming graphing calculators Belos' rve give more details about the use of graphingcalculatorsusing the Texas lnstmmentsTI-83 as an example.Each of our examplescan be tackled on most GCs without using any programming at al[. But here we give a brief idea of the similarities and differences between a GC programming languageand others such as [,ogo and 'PRGM'key to see a Basic. First we will enter and run the ITER program. Pressthe menu of the programsalready storedon the calculator.[f it is a nervone therervill be 'NEW' and press'ENTER'. You are no names! Move the cursor right twice to highlight norv in the program editor where you first type the name of your prograrn. Just pressthe 'T', 'Xt'gives 'I' ke1's corresponding the lettersin greenabovethem,e.gto ,'4'gives 'SlN' 'ENTER'again to startrvriting the program. 'E'and 'x' 'R'. gives gives Press
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Software for mathematics education
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The first line is enteredusing the following four keys: '1', 'STO-+', .X,T,g,rz'and 'ENTER'. This stores the value I into the variable X. In order to enter the next instruction, for the counted loop, pressthe 'PRGM' key and select item 4 from the 'CTL'menuWhen you press'ENTER'this pastes phrase'For('on the next line. the 'ALPHA' Use and 'LOG' to get the letter 'N' and thencompletethe line 'For(N, 1,10)' before pressing 'ENTER'. If you want to indent the body of the FOR-loop to help claify the loop structureyou can include extracolons using 'ALPHA' and '.'. Hence enter the line '1+l/X-+X'and press'ENTER'. To enterthe commandto display the 'PRGM'and result, press cursor right to select '[/O' (for Input and Output), and chooseitem 3: 'Disp'. For the commandto 'End' the countedloop use 'pRGM'and select item 7 from the 'CTL menu.
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In order to run the program first use '2nd' and 'MODE' to 'QUIT' the editor. Press 'PRGN[' and selectthe line containingthe programname 'ITER' which you want to execute.Press'ENTER' to pastethe nameinto the normal screen, and then 'ENTER' 'PRGM', again to run it. tf )'ou u'ant to change the program then press cursor right 'EDIT' over and dou'n to selectthe name of the program to edit. Now there is so much softs'are built in to the TI-83 that there are much more convenient ways, say, o[perfonning an iteration.plotting a hexagon. of drau'inga graphof a function like or f(r)=l+l/.r-
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Hou'ever, in order to give a feeling for the range of programming commands we r,r'illshow'a possibleversion of the HEX program - this one draws a hexagon within a circle of radius R, centre (P,Q) Note that variable namescan only use single characters. Note that'ClrDrarv' and'Line' are found on the'DRAW' menu ('2nd' 'PRGIV{'), t h a t ' D e g r e e ' i s f o u n d o n t h e ' M O D E ' m e n u , a n d , ' Z D e c i m a l ' o nt h e 'ZOONI'menu.
: F o r ' ( H ,F_r, 6 jE6, ,[ri : : F+F:+c.c, a=.(tl,t+U : : rf+F:*gi r r r . R , t + U : : Lirrei5 r Tt Urlrl) 5 : : U + 5:U+T + : End
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22
but Generic software: particularly spreadsheets, also databases Most networks and PCs come with a set of basic software already installed.This is often in the form of an integratedpackage,such asMS WorkfM, or a suite of software graphicspackage, database, spreadsheet, incorporating any or all of a wordprocessor, Internet browser, e-mail system,presentationsoftware (such as Microsoft's Office As 2000^tvt). IT is a subject on the cuniculum in most schools, often mathematics But there is a snag. departrnentsare expectedto demonstrateusesof spreadsheets. have been developedfrorn accountants'tools, and their Essentially spreadsheets of graphicaloutput usually derivesfrom presentations salesfigures.Their developers are,in the main, large software housesthat may not be particularly responsiveto the needsof education in general,and of mathematicsin particular.Also featuresma-v vary cons.iderably betweendifferent versionsof the same software.The notation used for functions is usually vety different from mathematical convention. Standard mathematicalgraphsand diagrams(such as box-plots in statistics)may be a'*'kward or impossible to produce. Spreadsheets we in So, while thereare good usesfor spreadsheets mathematics, needto remember that ICT requirementsfor school mathematicscannotbe met through spreadsheets, or other generic softrvare,alone.That said, we shall take a look at some examplesof problems tackled using the spreadsheet feature of the TI Interactive!nrsoftu'are from the CD-ROM.
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First rve'shall show the equivalent of the ITER program. We need to open the spreadsheet application.The seventh icon on the bottom tool bar show'sa tiny portion of a spreadsheet. Click on this to open lnteractive'sData Editor. We enter ' ' the starting value into a cell, e.g. rvith the cursor over the cell A l, type 1 and press the Enter key. Now, in ce[[ A2, we rvant to give a formula involving the cell above: 'l+1/' and then so put the cursoron cell 42 and press'=' to starta formula. Enter 'A either type I' or rnovethe cursorup to the A I cell. When you pressthe Enter key
Software mathematicseducation 23 for

the cell shorvsthe result, i.e. '2', but the 'edit line' aboveshowsthe formula: '1+1/A1'.
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The box aroundcell A2 hasa small 'blob'on its bottom right-handcorner.Position the mouseover the blob and pressand hold down the left mouqebutton. Slowly pull the mouse tou'ardsyou to 'drag'the box into one covering all the cells A2 down to A I l - Then releasethe left mouse bunon. You will find thar you now have a set of successivciterations.[f I'ou place the cursor say over A6 you s'ill see the formula '=l+l/A5'has beenenteredinto the edit line. If you now go to cell At and type a ditferent starting t'alue, e.g.2, then when you pressEnter, all the values in the cells A2:A I I r'r'illbe recomputed.This is the key featureof any spreadsheet. ln the next examplea set of heightsof 11 students enteredin cells A 1:A t l. Use are the mouse to click on the top of the column, i.e. the box markedA. This higtrlighrsthe rvholeA column. From the Edit menu selectcopy.Then usethe mouse to highlight the B columnsand useEdit Paste makeBl:Bll an exactcopy of A1:All. Still with the to B column higtrlight.d, go to the uppertoolbar and choosethe 9th icon i.e. the blue A over the red Z. This is the icon to sort in ascendingorder. When you click on the 'Sort ascending' icon column B shouldimmediatelychangeto be in ascending order of height. Norv it is easyto pick out, for example,the minimum, medianand maximum valuesof the heights. calculatethe mean, To just go to an ernptycell, suchas B 13,press'=' for a formula, and click on thefx) icon to seea list of the vast rangeof availabte functions. Selectthe one called 'AVERAGE('- of courseyou can alsotype this in directly - and then enter 'B l:B l l)' to cornpletethe formula.
con yoLtnow compute the value of the range (max-min) in, say, cell B 12?
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24
Maths with ICT Teaching
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Content-free, subject specific, softrvare Such software has an increasingl,v important part to play in the context of secondary school mathematics.Many graph-plotting packaeesnorv have additional facilities, such as the ability to plot data.to perform geometrictransformations, Computer etcalgebra software has other desirable features.such as graphing, and the handling of exact arithmetic.for large numbers. D1'nanricgeometry software has the ability to perform calculations on rneasurements, and hence can be used as an anall'tic and modelling tool. At the time of the DfLE\CET dcument there l('erefeu' accessible tools for data-handlingsuitable for secondar)'school use, but norv more of theseare coming on-stream,albeit at prices rether higher than the other types of softrvarein this category. A nerv species of softs'are tor rnathematical communication and computation is now becoming available which incorporates features of a mathematical rvordprocessor, u'eb bron'ser and spreadsheetrvith computation, graphing and statisticalfeaturessimilar to those found on a graphic calculator.Once again we have provided sample sofi*'are on the CD-RO\[ rshich illustratesfeatures of the main types of such softrvare. Graph-plotting softrvare (GPS) Here \,r'euse the graphing features of the demonstration version of TI Interactive! rNr.From the bottom toolbar selectthe third icon, w'ith a picture of a graph.This will take you into the Function Editor. where you can define the functions to be graphed, togetherwith their colour, style etc- Here we enter I + 1/r for y I (x) and x for y2(x). The graphs are plotted on axes in the Grapher Windou'. The default usesscalesfrom - l0 to 10 for eachaxis, but theseian easily be edited,e.g. to -3 to 3. If you pull dorvn the Calculate menu you wilt see that lntersectionis one option. This opens up the Calculate[ntersection Windorv.
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lbu can enteran initial value,such as [.5, in the Guessbox, and then pressCalculateto make the computeruse its own iterativemethod to find the intersection y1(;) and yZ(x).So, once again, of \r'e have computed a value for the golden ratio 0.
6N
s$ trxperiment with the Grapher to draw graphs of functions def,ned parametricall;', or by polar co-ordinates.
26
Cornputer algebra systems (CAS) There is a demonstrationversion of the versatile Deriverfsoftware developedby D. Stoutemeyerand A. Rich of the University of Hawaii. TI Interactive! also has quite a few featuresto support symbolic manipulation. We shall illustrate both, starting with Derive. In the Author menu select Expressionto open up the Expressioneditor window. Enter the equationto be solved for Golden Ratio: i.e. what numberis 1 rnore than its 'x=1+llx'and reciprocal? type So click on OK.
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So now rve have a different situationfrom our previousexamples, where the variable x ahvays had a numeric variable. In a Computer Algebra System (also known as a Symbol lv{anipulator)variables need not be assigned values,just as in algebra textbooks! \tr'eshall nor\'\\rorkttuough the stepsto obtain the completepicture below.
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Sofnvare mathematics education 27 for

With expression#1 highlighted, click on the Solve menu and selectAlgebraically. This opens anotherdialog box. Click on OK to accept the expressionand variable offered.
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Note that this yields the expression: SOLVE(x=l+l/x,x) ratherrhanthe solution. [f we had clicked on the Simplify button instead of on OK we would avoid this intermediatestep. For now click on the Simplify menu and select Basic to see the symbolic solution, in terms of squareroots. To evaluatethesenumerically click on Simplify Approximate. Here you can changethe number of decimal places to be displayedClicking on OK gives an intermediate n,hichrvill again need expression. to use Simplify Basic,or you can click on the Approximareburtonto get the result directly. Norv useAuthor and enter 'x * #[' or 'x # I' to multrpll' expression throughout #l b)' x. Simplifl' this, and then useAuthor again,enrering';S - (x+11'to subrractx+ I from both sides of the simplified equation in expression#8. So g'e now haye a quadratic function in a conventional form. To plor the function use Edit and Cop), Expressions, then Author and Fdit Pasteto put the quadraricequarionin the editor. Deletethe frnal '=0' and click on OK. Click on the 2-D graph icon (the last but one on rhe tool bar) ro open up a set of axes-At the top right-hand comer of the graph s'indorr click on the middle of the three icons, and then resizethe graph u'indos'b-ndragging on the sidesof irs frame. Finally use the fourth icon on the Graph toolbar to dras' the graph of the selected function from the Algebra screen. Now you should get a parabola g,hosepositive root corresponds with Golden Ratio. Now we shall see how to follou' a similar approach using the symbolic manipulation facilities of TI [nteractive! The first icon on the lorver toolbar produces a lr,lathematicsBox and the IVlathematicsPalette. The Algebra menu contains functions for symbolic manipulationSelect'so[ve('and completetheequation'x=l+l/x,x)', i.e- solve x = 1+l/x for x. Openingfurthersuch boxesyou canapproximatethe result,using 'ANS', and also manipulatethe equations with Deriv'e.Then,from the Grapher,you can as plot the graph of the resultingquadraticfunction and locate its roots,e.g. by Tracing.
28
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Dynamic geometry software (DGS) Here we use the demonstration version of Cabri GdornitrerNl This software u,as . developed at the university of Grenoble as a specific aid to geometry teaching.
29
However the software is very flexible and versatile,and can be used in many aspects of mathematics well as in areassuch as design,technology, as etc. We shall use it to explore a particular problem. You know that if you have three coins, maybe all of differentsizes,that you can pushthem togetherso that they touch eachother in pairs. Can we solve the reverse problem? Given three points, can we always find circles with thosepoints as centres,such that each pair of circles toucheseach other? We startby fixing threepointsA,B,C.The toolbarshowselevenicons.The tefrhand one' the arrow,is the usual mode where the mousejust movesa pointer acrossthe screen. If you clickon the secondicon you get a menu to do with Points.Selectthe frst of these: Point- Now use the cursor to position the pointer over the place you want one of the points, and then click the button to place it there. Repeatto put two other points on the screenNow click either on the lrst icon (called the pointer)or anywherein the grey area of the toolbar.The ne.xtstep is to join the poins by segments. to the third icon and Go selectSegmentfrom the menu. Position the cursor over one of the points (you will see a message saying'this point') andclick, thenpositionit over the otherend-pointandclick to make a segment.Repeatthis tor the other two sidesof the triangle. Now we shall make a variablepoint on one of the sides.Open the Point menu again,but this tirne selectthesecondoption: Point on.object. Move the pointerto somewhere one of the on (suchas point P in the diagram),and click. Selectthe Pointertool againand segments check that you can slide this point freely along, but not off, the segmenr.
Norv \r can constructthe circles rvhosecentresare the end-pointsof this segment (A,B) and which pass through the variable point (P). Open the menu for rhe fourth icon and selectCircle. Click on a centre-point(A) and then on a radius point (P). Repeatfor the other circle. Return to the Pointer tool and check that, as you slide P, both dependent circles changesize. Now we can find their points of intersectionrvith the other two sides (AC, BO of the triangle. Select the Points menu again, but this
+.-__
30
time the third option: Point at Intersection.Move the cursor to eachintersection and click to define a point (Q,R). Finally we createa circle whose centreis the third vertex (C) and which passesthrough one of the intersection points (Q). Create the of intersectionpoint (.S) this third circle and the remaining segmenti;Bq.If you like you can put labels on the point using the tenth icon and selecting Label from the menu. As you click on each point you can enter a label in a little dialogue box. of Now we have seensomeof the mechanics drawing we can use the resultsfor geometry.First drag P on AB until the intersections and R are as close as possible. S Now we can try to make some conjecturesfrom the picture. For example we know that tangentsat P and Q to the circles are perpendicularto the lines of centresAB and BC.
Use the hfth icon to open up the main constnrctionmenu and selectPerpendicular. Click first on P, then anywhere on AB to construct the perpendiculartoAB through P. Repeatfor the perpendicularto AC through Q. Createthe intersection point and label it /. AIso createthe segmentA/. Use the third icon and selectthe Triangle menu itern.Click in turn on A,P and /. Repeatfor A,Qand 1-From the last icon menu choose Fil[, selecta colour from the paletteand click on triangle API, repeatto fill AQI w'ith a different colour. What can you deduce about these triangles?You can also use the rneasurement tool (ninth icon) to selectDistanceand Length, and the click in turn on segments/P and IQ to check rvhetherthey are equal in this case.The point 1, rvhich is equidistantfrom sidesAB, AC must also be equidistantfrom BC in the 'ideal' case. So this gives us another way of characterizingpoints P,Q.R: they are rvhere the incircle, centreI touchesthe sides AB, BC, CA. Double click on the point P and select Edit Cut. Everything dependenton P rvill now be removed.Constructthe anglebisectorsof BAC and ABC (usethe Construction tool and click in turn on the three points defining the angle). Createand label their intersection point L Use the Hide/Shorv menu item of the last icon to hide the angle
3I
bisectors-Now createthe perpendiculars from lto eachof the three sides.Then create and label their intersectionswith the sides. Hide the perpendicularsand create the circle centrel through P, and eachof the threecircles centresA,B andC. Note: This neat result, linking the three touching circles to the in-centre was, of course,known to the Ancient Greeks.Many more interestingresultsand ideasfor explanationcan be found in the booksby Coxeterand by ['ells.
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Crrn vort set Ltpa diagram with a circle and a chorcl to illwtrate circle properties, such as tlrc centre lies on itsperpentlicular bisectot; angles suhtendedin the sam.e segmentare equal, angles subtended in opposite segmentsadd up to 180",etc.?
Con rott set ltp a diagram to show each of tlte major centres of the sam.e triangle ABC: the in-centre I, the circum-centre O, the centroid G and the ortho-centre H? As you deform the triangle cen yolt"find any invariant properties connecting I, O, G and H?
f'tp erirnent with some of the other icons,such as tlte fiftlt orte for working with transformations. For translations ).ou ma), need to create some vectors, using the third icon, andfor rotations ),oLr ma)' need to enter somenumbers using the tenth icon-
32 TeachingMaths with ICT \ Con you show that successive reflectionsin dffirent mirror lines
are equivalent to a single transformation? What is it?
Data-handling software (DHS ) Here we use the statisticalfearures the demonstrationversionof TI Interactive! 1'Nt. of First we use the List icon on the toolbar (the fifth icon) to go into the Data Editor. We will study the familiar 'handshake'problem. That is when there are four people A,B,C,D in a room, six handshakes neededto introduceeveryone to each other: are AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD }. Horv many handshakes neededfor n people?These are { 'triangle are the nurnbers'.
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In list L I rre cnterthe numbers{1.3.4.-5.6.7 the numbe of peoplein a room. In rs } as list L2 \r'e enter the corresponding nurnbe of handshakes require: r triangle numtrers- the nriddletoolharselectthe On { I.3,6,10,I 5.2 I ,28 } . the so-called graph-drau'ing (the fourteenth)icon. This brings up the Functions\Vindou,shou,ing the entrl' screenfor Stat Plots. The little picture s'irh three spots is the icon for a scattergramEnter Ll for the independentvariableand L2 for the dependentvariable.
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Clicking on Copy All puts the data onro rhe axes in the Grapher.From the Zoom menu selectStatistics. You can edit the minima and ma.xima the axes if vou like. for
Software for mathematicseducation 33

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Close the Grapherand other windou,s to rerurn to the Data Editor. Click on the seventeenth on the middle toolbar(Statistical icon Regression,y enrerrhe Statistical ro Regression Calculationrvindow'.SelectQuadraticregressionas the Calcutation r),pe. a n d L l , L 2 a s t h e X L i s t a n d Y L i s t . E n t e r I t o r t h e f r e q u e n c \ 'a n d . 1l as rhc Regression Equation.When you click on Calculate )'ou rvill see that conrputed equationis 0-5 -t' - 0.5 -r, u,hich is storedas r.l(x).
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y=';*bx*r: a_= 0.5 b : -0.J
Retuming to the Grapherwe can go to the Functionswindow and selectthe f(x) tab. on Of Then enter ),1(x) as the equationto be superimposed the scattergram. course rve needto rememberthat our original datarvasdiscrete(you can only have a whole and so can be evaluated, our number of prople!) rvhereas new function is continuous r v h i c h d o e s n ' t m a k e m u c h s e n s e i n t h e c o n t e x tu rfo r i g i n a l p r o b l e m ! oo e . g .f o r n = 3 . 7
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Softwarefor mathematics education 35

Mathematical corlmunication tools (MCT) Here we use the full featuresof the demonstrationversion of TI Interactivelrw.Using the example of the handshakeproblem we can createa documentgiving our reporr on the problem-This report can be printed, or e-mailed via the built-in web browser.
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=i:Courseu'are: i.e. structuredcurriculum materialss'ith integral useof soft$,are This form of softu'are is far more prevalent in the US-q, than elservhere, mainly becauseof the costs involved and the economiesof scalerequired.There have been some attemptsto produce integratedcourse\r'are mathematicsin the UK, but for mostly for studentspost- 16. Some o[ thesehave left a lot to be desired.For obvious reasons ll:e cannot provide examples of such materials here as part of the accompanyingCD-RO|vI. A recent qovernmentreport on software for mathematics made the following points for potential future developers: To be successfulsuch softn are should satisfy three main principles: ' ' ' It must be an integralpartof accompanf published ing materials. it must supportthe teacherbl'aclding nerv teaturesr,r,hich canpotbe provided other than through ICT. It must be supported.byrnaterialswhich help teachersto make goocl pedagogicaluseof the ICT etements.
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So it is importantthat mathematics teachers can cast a critical eye over any such allegedlyintegrated just horv useful the ICT contributionsare. schernes evaluate to
36
Graphing calculators (GC) In the time since the publication of the DfEE/NCET document on software for mathematics there have been rapid developmentsin hand-held technology.These 'flash-RoM' which enables include the developmentof both systemand application software to be downloadedfrom the Internet.The developmentof compatiblecheap data-loggers particularly motion detectors makesthe acquisition and easy-to-use of real data very practicable even in a conventional classroom.Together with the low-cost displays for whole-classteaching, suchtools have a place in severalsubjects in the curriculum and can be vehicles for encouragingco-operation between teachers across subjects.(See for example our BECTa book: Oldknow and Taylor (1998) Data-capture and Modelling in Mathematics and Science) Ideally you will have a graphic calculator (preferablya TI-83) to hand in order to try the following activities. However rnany of them can also be performed using I/ InteractivelrM First we show how to solve x = | + llx graphically in order to illustrate 'MODE' the generaltechnique.Press and make surethat 'Func' is highlighted in the fourth line. If it is not, then move the cursor to the left to highlight it and press 'ENTER'. Use'2nd' and'MODE' to'QUIT'. Now find the blue'Y=' k.-v imrnediately below the screen.Pressthis and enterthe functions l+l/x into Yl and 'Plot' x into Y2. If any of the areason the top line are highlighted,then move the 'ENTER', cursor over them and press repeatinguntil all are cleared.
Fl '.T+ t 1 f l + t l f ' l + t l : r '.?z E l+Lr:,t, Ei'*iI --.,.1 -;=
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Either press 'WINDOW'and set the values as in the screen-shot,or else press 'ZOOM' and select '4:ZDecimal'. Finally press'GRAPH' to seethe pair of graphs. '2nd Now use TRACE'for the 'CALC'menu. Select '5:Intersect'.You rvill now have to use the cursor keys to select which functions to use (even though there are onlt' tu'o of them!), and a starting point for the built-in numerical algorithm to find the intersection.
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As promised earlier we can now show an easierway to draw a hexagon using the TI-83's graphing facilities. Frorn the 'MODE' screenyou need to select both Parametricgraphing,and degrees. the 'Y=' editor enterthe pararnetricequationsfor In a circle of desiredcentre and radius. In the 'WINDOW' screenmake sure that the parameter goes from 0 to 360 in stepsof 60 degrees. T You might want to changethe 'Znd' 'ZOOld'for 'FORMAT' screen'sappearance. Use the screen where you can hide axes,put in grid points etc.Try making other polygons,or hexagons, that touch.
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Nou' lr'e can see hou' ttre graphing calculator also contains powerful softrvare for statistics. First \r'e can attack the handshake problem. Press 'STAT', select '5:SetUpEditor'and press'ENTER'twice. Then 'STAT'and '1:Edit'to go into the statisticseditor. Type in the nurnberof people in the list L1, and the number of handshakes the list L2. Then press 'STAT'and move the cursor right to select in 'CALC'. and choose '5:Quadreg'.The expression'QuadReg'appears the home on screen.You must tell it u'hich tu'o data sets to use. So enter 'LL,L2'and press 'EI\TER'.'Ll' i s f o u n df r o m ' 2 n d ' a n d ' l ' .
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\\'e can shorvthe fit graphicatlyby pressing'2nd' and 'Y=' to get to 'STAI PLOT'. S e l e c t ' l : P l o t l . . ' .H i g h l i g h t ' O n ' a n dt h e s y m b o lf o r s c a t t e r g r a m .n t e r t h el i s t s' L 1 ' E and 'L2', and highlight the square symbol.Then choose suitable'WINDOW'and a press 'GRAPH'. You should seethe scattergramwith the superimposed quadratic model. Remember,though, that the data here is discrete, yet the fitted function is
38
Teaching Maths wirh ICT
'MATH', 'PRB'menu continuous! In the there are functions for permutations and 'STAT' 'Edit' you can place the cursor over the combinations. If you go back to 'L3' at the top of the third column. Press 'ENTER' to go into the entry line. symbol We shall now enter a formula, similarly as in a spreadsheet, column L3 in terrns for 'ALPHA'and '+'. of column Ll. First find the invertedcommassymbol'by using 'nCr' comes from the 'MATH' We can the enter the formula "Ll nCr 2', where 'PRB'menu. When you press'ENTER'the whole list L3 is now computedin terrns ofLl.
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Finally we use the ideasof lists and statisticsplos to explore the box-plots of rolls of simulateddice. From the 'IVIATH', 'PRB'menu chose -i:ranlnt(' and enterthe line: randlnt(1,6,50) STO-+ Ll to place50 simulatedrolls of a slr-sideddie into list Ll. Repeatfor L2. Then rve can add lists Ll and L2 together.tenn-bv-tenn. and store the result in list L3. From the 'STAT PLOT' screenr\:e can define each of the three plots to be a box-plot of the data in lists L l, LZ and L3 respecrively. '.rFTH tl 1 :r a n d
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Sofnvarefor mathematics education Data-loggers (e.g.CBRrMand CBLTNI)
39
The use of a very portablemotion detector,such as Texas Instruments'Calculator BasedRanger (CBBrul, providesa simple meansof getting real data,gatheredfirst hand, for analysis in mathematics classes. The CBRrrv'can be set up for use either controlledby a GC or a PC. Here we give examples its use both with the TI-83 and of with TI InteractivelrM With the TI-83 you needto download the link software from the CBL. Attach the black link cable to the TI-83 using with the socket below the keyboard(press very well in!)- Attach the otherend to the round socketon the righrhand sideof the CBR. On the TI-83 press '}nd'and 'X,T,O,n'keys to get the 'LINK' menu.Cursor right .over'RECEIVE'. On the CBR open the lid and pressthe grey key marked'82/83' . TheTI-83 rvill thenshow 'Receiving'and later'Done'.Press'PRGM'and you should 'RANGER' see addedto the list of programsstoredon your calculator. 'EXEC'and Use cursordown to 'RANGER', then press 'ENTER'twice. From the lv{ainMenu select l:SETUP/SAMPLE, and then adjustthe settingsas below. For exampleto cycle throughthe possibilities 'BEGIN ON' just placethe cursor on for that line and press 'ENTER'repeatedty to seethe options available.When you have set it up, cursor to the top line of the screennext to 'START NOW' and press 'ENTER'. Now you can take your TI-83 and CBR for a walk. Point the CBR ar a u'al[, press'ENTER'on theTI-83, and walk back and forwardsuntil the CBR stops ticking ( l5 secs).
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A-svou *'alk. the distance{ime graph is shos'n at the same time. Can you interpret 'ENTER' the graph above?Can you explain the little 'spike'around 15secs? Press to set to the next menu. [f you go back to the main menu and-change settingsto the read 'REALTIIvIE: NO'then you can sampleover longer or shorterperiods.Then you can also changethe representation velocity-time or acceleration-timegraph. to TI-lnteractive!also providesfacilities to capturedata directly from the CBR. When you install Interactive you specify which serialport of rhe computer (COMl, COM2 etc-) you will use, and which connectioncable (grey or black). Plug the connector cable into the serial port of your computec and into the little round socket on the left-hand side of the CBR. The last three icons on Interactive's tool bar are for connectionto compatiblegraphicalcalculators and data loggers.The sixteenthicon sl:o',rs;iCliL li;ttlCBR. Ciicking on this opensup the Select Quict Data n,indo11,. '\fotion'and adjustthe numberof samples, and the collection interval.When you are set' then click on Run. \orv, as you move in front of the CBR so the data is logged in the CBR and also transferred the computer. to
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You can edit the settingsin the Functionswindow for the Stat Plots,e.g.changing a scattergram an xy-plot etc. Again you can edit the minima and maxima for the to axes in the Grapher windoui When you return to the Data Editor n'indow you will see that new columns, headedTime and Distancehave been added.
Sofnvare for mathem"aticseducation Data-loggers (e.g. CBRrM and CBLrM)
39
The use of a very portable motion detector,such as Texas Instruments'Calculator BasedRanger(CBRTM), provides a simple meansof getting real data,gatheredfirst hand, for analysisin mathematicsclasses. The CBRrM can be set up for use either controlledby a GC or a PC. Here we give examplesof its useboth with the TI-83 and with TI InteractivelrM With the TI-83 you need to download the link software from the CBL. Attach the black link cable to the TI-83 using with the socket below the keyboard(press very r'vellin!). Attach the other end to the round socketon the right-handside of the CBR. On the TI-83 press 'Znd' and 'X,T,O,n' keys to get the 'LINK' menu. Cursor right over'RECEIVE'. On the CBR open the lid and pressthe grey key marked '82183'. 'PRGM'and The TI-83 will thenshow 'Receiving'andlater'Done'. Press you should 'RANGER' see addedto the list of programsstored on your calculator. 'EXEC'and Use cursor down to 'RANGER', then press'ENTER' twice. From the Main Menu select I:SETIIP/SAMPLE, and then adjust the setringsas below. For example to cycle through the possibilitiesfor 'BEGIN ON' just placerhe cursor on that line and press'ENTER'repeatedly to seethe options available.When you have set it up, cursor to the top line of the screen next to 'START NOW' and press 'ENTER'Now you can take your TI-83 and CBR for a walk. Point the CBR at a wall, press'ENTER'on the TI-83, and walk back and fonvardsuntil the CBR srops ticking( l5 secs).
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As you $'alk, the distance-time graph is shos'n at the same time. Can you interprer the graph above?Can you explain the little 'spike'around lSsecs?Press'ENTER' to get to the next menu. [f you go back to the main menu and changerhe setringsro read 'REALTIME: NO' then you can sample over longer or shorter periods. Then you can also changethe representation velocity-time or acceleration-timegraph. to T[-[nteractive!also provides facilities to capturedata directly from the CBR. When you install Interactive you specify which serial port of the cornpurer(COI\,II, CON,I2 etc-) you will use, and which connection cable (g.ey or black). Plug the connector cable into the serial port of your computer, and into the little round socket on the left-hand side of the CBR. The last three icons on Interactive's tool bar are for connectionto compatiblegraphical calculatorsand data loggers.The sixteenth icon shon'sa CBL and CBR, Clicking on this opensup the Select Quick Data rvindou'. 'lr'[otion'and adjustthe number of samples, and the collection intenal. When you are set' then click on Run. lio*, as you move in front of the CBR so the data is logged in the CBR and also transferredto the computer.
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You can edit the settingsin the Functionsrvindorvfor the Stat Plots,e-g.changing a scattergram an xy,'-plot Again you can edit the minima and maxima for the to etc. axesin the Grapherw'indow.When you returnto the Data Editor w'indoivyou will see that nerv columns, headedTirne and Distance have been added.
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The CBRrrvr a special purposedevice for sensingdistances. more versatile is A device, such as T['s Calculator BasedLaboratory(CBLTN{), accepta wide range can of sensors, e.g. for light intensity,sound,temperature, voltage,pressure, etc. Here we give examplesof its use both rvith the TI-83 and g'ith TI Interactive! rNt.If vou have a TI-83 Plus graphing calculatorthen this conresrvith an Applicarion called CBUCBR. Pressthe blueAPPS bunonand >elecr Selecr'2:DATA LOGGER' and it. use it to set up the Temperature probe.Plug the black cable inro TI-83+ and CBL and the Temperature probe into Channel I on the CBL. Turn the CBL on and follow instructions the TI-83 screen_ on
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In this experiment rve shall place the temperatureprobe in a mug of warm water for a mintrteor so to heat up. Then u'henn'e seleu GO from the CBL/CBR program we can remove the sensorfrom the liquid and let it cool in air. The resulting decay data should be capturedand graphedWhen you have got'the data captured you can leave the program by pressing 'ENTER'to returnto the menu and then selecting'Quit'. If you look at 'STAT PLOT' you will seeit is set foran xy-linegraph of data in listsTTEMPandTEIvtP.You can now manipulatetheselists, changethe data display,r,vindolv etc.
42
If you do not have a calculatorwith a built-in CBUCBR Application (such as a TI83) you can download the Vernier Physicsprogram for the CBL which is contained on the CD-ROM using the TI Graphlink software.Run the PHYSICS program and probe in Channel 1. Then specify TIME GRAPH for set up for a single temperature data collection, and set the sample interval and number of samples.[f you want a real-time graph you will have to feed in information for the y-axis scales.Now the program will just gather,store, transfer and display data as before. When you leave the program the time data is stored in list Ll and the temperatures list L2. In TI in Interactive! the Quick Data window from the Data Editor window allorvs you ro set up the CBL as well as the CBR.
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Software for mathematics education CD-ROM and the Internet as sourcesof data.
43
Secondarysourcesof real-dataare very important in providing realistic contexts for, e-g- the analysis and display of data in mathematics. mathematicsteachers As we needto recognizeboth the availability and potentialof suchdata sources, but also to be cautiousabout their reliability.Again this providesopportunitiesfor co-operation with colleaguesteachingother subjects. Data-sets Here we considerthe useof one of the datasetsprovided (seethe Appendix) for use with TI Interactive!ntand with the TI-83 graphingcalculator. This gives data on the planets in our solar system which appearedin the NCET IT rr{athspack. We will explore the relationshipbetweenthe Distancefrom the sun (column F) and the period of the orbit (column E). Copy column F, open the List editor and pasteit into list Ll. Similarly copy column G to list L2.
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Websites To explore the u'orld of the internet your computer needsa device called a modem, and a connection to the telephone.You also needan internet serviceprovider rvho will suppll, a telephonenumber and a password-.fusuming !'ou can connect to the internet rlw rve n'ill no\\' usethe Web brorvserof TI Interactil's.r to explorejust a fes' u'ebsites. Click on the Globe sy'mbol,the eleventh icon on the main toolbar.This launchesthe Brorvserand automaticallvbrings up the TI Interrtctivelhome pageon T['s s'ebsite in the USA.
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This is horv you can dou'nload trial and free versions of software, such as MSW Iogo"t andTrueBnsicr\r.Non'\r'e $'ill explore the Virnral TeacherCentre (VTC) on the UK government'sNational Grid for [-earning.We rvill enter via the website of the government's tsritish FducationalCommunications and Technolo-sy agency (BECTa).
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Use the address:http://www.becta.org.uk and click on the VTC symbol. This takes you into the 'front page' of the VTC site at http://vtc.ngfl.gov.uk. See if you can follow the linla for resourcematerialson secondaryschool mathernatics until you end up at pagesto do with a 'Pupil's Entitlement'.
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Note: thereare many'suchopportunitiesto usedatain mathematicslessons rvhichare relatedto other sublectsin the curriculum,suchas science,geographv'desientechnolog\'.etc-There xre casestudies the TTA Needs on ldentificationCD-RO\1, suchas in si-ic-ncc, hich malie goo,Jsterrting rr points. Sunrmar5' \!'e havetried to give )'t-ru practicalrntroductionto the features many a of of the main typesof ICT tools rvhich have potentialbenefitsfor mathematics teachers. Once you have startedto get farniliar s'ith thc tearures such tools, you should then review of their potentialto oifer }'ou pedaSosical, mathemarical and/ororganizationalsupport. Problems and activities (.voucho,tsethe rool!) ' Fibonacci sequence. golden ratio. pentagonsand pentagrams:find out as ffrsn), linkJ betw'eentlrcrn os voL(can and useICT tools to explore them. For example, given thttt the ratio befireen the lengths of the sides and diagonals in a pentagon is go[clen ratio Q, can t,ou Jind a w'ayto constrtrct a pentagon using 'straight eclgeand contpasses'onl1,? Can you locate interestinginformation about Fibnnacci anclgolden ratio on the internet? Inv,estigate intersectiortsoJ-\,= x v.ith = k./o r dilferent vctlues k> 0 . the of ), For what v'nlueof k is the line tangent to the cun'e, and at what point does this occur?Investigctte iterationgit'ettb).xu= [ , Kn*,=k'n.,forn 0,1,2,....What the = is the largest value of kfor w'hich thissequ."nrcdoesnot diverge? Read cbout n'(t\)s testittgfor printe numbers, anclfor generating sequences of of prime numbersand implementthem as algorithms ttsittgICT tools.
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Mathswith ICT 50 Teaching BRIDGEONE

In preparationfor the ICT training for serving teachersin the UK, the government's Teacher Training Agency has produced a seriesof books to help teachersof different subjects to identify their training needs.At the time of writing thesebooks can also be downloaded from the TTA s website: http://www.teach-tta.gov.uk/ict.Here we refer to the book The Use of Information Technologyin Subject Teaching: Identifica' tion of Training Needs: Secondary Mathematics, published by the TTA in March 1999.For conveniencewe reproducehere Section I of this book: Overview of the use of ICT in teaching secondary mathernatics There are many possible uses of tCT in teaching and, as with all materials and methodologies,some have a greater potential to contribute to the teachingof different subjects. This section highlights the aspectsof mathematics teaching where ICT has the potential to make a significant contribution to teachingand learning. When making decisions about the use of ICT in subject teaching, there are three key principles which you may find useful to.apply: should be i. decisionsabout when, when not, and how to use ICT in lessons basedon whether the use of ICT supportsgood practicein teaching the subject.If it does not, it should not be used. ii. in planning and in teaching,decisi.olsabout rvhen,when not, and ho*'to of use [CT in a particular lessonor sequence lessonsmust be directll' to the teachingand learning objectives in handrelated or iii the useof ICT shouldeither allou'the teacher the pupil to achieve that could not be achievedrvithout it: or allorv the teacherto something and efficiently than teachor the pupils to learn something more effectivel-v they could othenvise;or both. These principles are important, rvhether: . . . ICT is to be used by all the pupils, individually, in groupsor as a u'hole class; ICT is to be used by some pupils only, e.g. for support or extension s'ork: ICT is to be used by the teacher, e.g. rvherethe teacherusesthe ability of a to spreadsheet calculatethe results of varying factors and to demonstratethe results in graphical form to the full class with the help of a large screen or display; where the teacherdownloads lessonplans from the NGfL, or where the teacher downloads selectedresourcesfrom the internet in advance of the lesson so that pupils can browse through them. may also play a part in decisionsabout whetheror not lc-f Practicalconsiderations e.g. teaching should be used.Thesewill include the natureof the availableresources: objectives that could be met very effectivety if a suite of computers were available computer. in the classroommight not be attainableif there is just one stand-alone
I i I
Bridge One
Using ICT in secondary mathematics lessons
51
ICT has the potential to make a signifi cant contribution to pupils' learning in mathematicsby helping them to: ' ' practise and consolidatenumber skills,e.g.by using software to revise or practiseskills and to give rapid assessment feedback; develop skills in mathematical modelling through the exploration, interpretation and explanation of data, e.g. by choosing appropriategraphical representations displaying information from a data-set;by experimenting for with forms of equationsin trying to produce graphs which are good fits for data-plots;by using a motion sensorto producedistance-tirnegraphs correspondingto pupils' own movernents; experiment with, make hypotheses from, and discussor explain relationshtps and behaviour in shapeand spaceand their links with algebra,e.g. by using software to automategeometric constructions, to carry out specified geornetric transforrnations, perform operationson co-ordinates, draw loci; to to develop logical thinking and modify strategies and assumptionsthrough immediate feedback, e.g. by planning a procedurein a sequence instructions of in a programming language,or a sequence geometricalconstructionsin of geometrysoftware or a set of manipulationsin a spreadsheet; ntake connections w'ithin and across areas of mâthematics,e.g. relate a to s;'rnbolic function. a set of values computedfrom it, and a graph generatedby it to a mathematical physicalsituation,suchas the pressure or and volume of a gas, s'hich it mo*lcls; *'ork n'ith reah-sric. and lcrge. setsof data. e.g. in using bo.r and u'hisker diagramsto comparethe spreadsof different data sets:to carry out experiments using lerge random samplesseneratedthrough simulation; e-rplore, describe and e.rplain patterns and relationships in sequencesand tables of numbers,e.g. by entering a formula in algebraicnotation to generate valucs in an attempt to match a given setof numbers; Iearn. and mentorize,b.vmanipulating graphic images,e.g. the way the graph of a function such &sy =;2 is transformedby the addition of, or multiplication b v a c o n s t a n t):, = a - - r l , ; , . = - r l + a , ) , = ( x + a ) . , - . -e t c -
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ICT also has the potential to offer valuable support to the teacher of secondory mothemarrcs bv: helping tlrcnt to prcpare teachittg materials, e.g. doo,nlouding materials for classroomuse from the internet, such as rnathernatical problems for pupils to solve $'ith accompanvingteachers'notes,softrvarefor computersand graphic calculators, revicrvs publishcdresources, or prov*idinga Jlexible and tinte-sar;ing resource that can be used in different ways and at dffirent times w:ithoutrepetition of the teacher'sinput, e.g. by enlarging fonts.adding diagramsor illustrations,adaptingparameters usedin problems; providing a means by vuhichsubject and pedagogic knowledge can be improvecl and kept up to date, e-g.accessingthe Virtual TeacherCentre in the NGfL to
- rt,
52
Teaching Maths with ICT obtain practical advice, to exchangeideaswith peers and'experts'outside the school; aiding record keeping and reporting, e.g. storing and regularly updating formative records which can form the basis of a subsequentreport.
Having read this chapteryou should now be able to identify which type or types of software would be likely to be helpful in each of the above aspects. In the next chapter we get down to detail in looking at apptications of the resourcesrnet in this chapter to the content of the secondaryschool mathematicscurriculum. Before starting this, nolv would be a good time (if you haven't alreadydone so), to setout what you think are your main needs at the moment in improving your ability to deploy ICT effectively. The TTA subject Needs ldentification books contain a four-pageform to help with this and the CD-ROIW also contains an electronic version of it- For convenienceu'e reproducethe form belou'.
lndividual Ttaining Needs
1.
Planning
In planning to use ICT to achieve subject teaching objectives. ]'ou might coruider the folloning aspectsof the TTA's Expected Outcomes as possible training needs: of a. understandingand consideringthe advan[asesand disadvantages using TCT; b. planning to use [CT so as to provide accessto the curriculum for those pupils who might otherwise have difficulties becauscof their special educationalneeds; c. preparing for lessonsusing tCT by selecting and preparingappropriate sourcesof information, relevant softu'are and the appropriatetechnology, and deciding on the most effective organisationof the classroom and pupils-
2.
Teaching
ln using ICT eftectively in your teaching, you nriglrt consider the follo*'ing aspects of the Bxpected Outcomes as possible training needs: a. extending pupils'learning in the subject through the use of ICT;
t_
Bridge One
53
b. interveningand posingquestionsto stimulate, direct, monitor and assess
the learning of pupils who are using ICT; c. employing the use of ICT with other resourcesand methodsto achieve your teachingobjectives.
3.
Assessingand evaluating
ln assessingpupils'progress in the subject and evaluating the effectiveness of using ICT' you might consider the following aspectsof the Expected Outcomes as possible training needs: a- enabling pupils to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and skills in the subject while using ICT; b. ensuringthat pupils' learning in the subject is not maskedby.the technology being used; judging how the use of ICT can alter expectationsof pupils' cattainment; d- judging the effectiveness qsing tCT in achieving teachingobjectives. of
4.
Personal, professional use of tCT
ln the context of the subject(s) that you teach, and to increase professional efficiency and reduce administrative burdens, you might con3ider the follorr ing aspects of the Expected Outcomes as possible training needs: a- using genericand/or subject-specihchardrvareand softu,are, e.g. databases, internet,presentation tools, scanners, printers etc; b- using tCT to aid record-keeping,analysisof data, target-setting, reporting, transfer of information etc; c- accessingand using resources,including from the NGFL and the Virtual TeacherCentre; d. accessingresearch and inspectionevidence.
Can you identify any of these fourteen points as ones you already feel reasonablyconfident with? can you identify, say, four of the remaining points you would class as immediate priorities? Can you identity, sa)',anotherfour of thosepoints rvhich are left as longerterm goals?
54
TeachtngMaths with ICT
THE T'fA CASE STUDIBS

Finally we suggestyou review each of the four secondaryrnathematicscasestudies on the TTA Needs IdentificationCD-ROM to see,e.g.:
a
which ICT tools the teacherhas chosen to use; how the choice of ICT hasaffectedthe organizationof the lesson; what preparationwas requiredto use the ICT.
In caseaccessto the CD-ROMs is difficult or impossiblehere is a brief summary of lhe casestudies. Case study 1: Geometry This example uses a Year 7 mixed ability class, ages II-12, in an urban comprehensiveschool. The lessonis one in a serieson anglesand parallel lines paving the way for a proof that the angle sum of a triangle is [80". The class is rvorking in a computer suite rvhich hasenoughnetworked Windows PCs for each pupil. However, the teacherhas decidedto organizethe classto u'ork in pairs to facilitate pupil-pupil discussion.The chosen ICT tool is dynamic geometrysoftware (DGS), which the class has used befloreand for rvhich the school has a site licence. The teacherhas accessto a dedicated PC linked to a video projector for whole class display. She is concernedthat studentsdevelopgood habits of record keeping w'henusing ICT and she insiststhat thel'record their trndinesboth on paper,and using the text facility of . the DGS. As u'ell as givine an oral and visual introduction to the lesson.the teacher to has prepareddifferentiatedprinted materials. She used a rvordprocessor produce s'ith differentiatedoutcomesand r.ocabulary. three different versionsof a rasksheet and printed theseout on threedifterent coloured sheetsof pagrer.
F1nu, Cnbri in sttcha v,(I)'tofirst help tcaclrthe corild )'orr use angle sutn of a triangle, and then clevelopthis ittto a general rule gons? fo r reg ula r p o l,r*
Corildyou approach this ttsingan7'otherICT tools?Hovvvt,oulcl this affect the approach?
Bridge One Case study 2: Data handling
55
This lessontakes place in a girls' inner city comprehensive school. The teacher introducesthe lessonto an averageability Year 8 class,ages 12-13, without using ICT. The pupils sit around tablesin the centre of the room and work in pairs. They using practicalmeasuringapparatus (tape measures) find the diameterof each to other'sneck and wrist, recordingtheir namesand resultson paper.The room hasa set of sixteennetworked Windows PCs around the edgesof the room. While the teacherdiscusses with the class ways in which the data might be displayed and analysed,the ICT technician sets up a spreadsheet file with the girls' data on the public area of the network. The girls then work in pairs using the PCs with a spreadsheet extract statisticsfrom the data.They calculatethe meansof the neck to sizesand wrist sizes.They sort the data to find the maximum, minimum and median of each-They calculate the range, and are shown how to find quartiles and the interquartile range as a measureof spread.They use the graphing featuresto produce a scattergram. They save their results for future use. The teacher has her laptop connected to a large screen TV/monitor on a stand, using a VGA/TV convertor. The lesson finishes with the girls back at their tables interacring with the teacher who usesthe whole-classdisplay to bring out the ideasof fitting a linear graph to the data.
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canyou plan a lesson using, e.g- spreadsheets arul/or graphing calculators to involve practical measurementsof the diameter d and circumference c of a varieq, of circular objects to leacl into the linear relationship: c = r d.
[Note: from a geometric viewpoint this approachis unnecessary the if idea of similarity is well undersrood but it does also help to bring out ideasabout inaccuracies measurements in and the reliability of approximations.l
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Casestudy 3: Number Here a small classof lower ability Year 9 students,ages 13-14, from an inner city schoolareparticipating a lessonon numeracyinvolving rnultiplying comprehensive in and dividing by 10, 100, 1000,etc. The lessontakesplace in an ICT room which has twenty networkedPCs.The teacherstartsthe lessonwith work on the whiteboard.The ICT tool the teacherhaschosenis a pieceof 'small software' in the form of a number game. The teacherdemonstrates software using a laptop computer with a colour the display pad for the OHP This requires the room to be darkened for a while. Then the studentswork in pairs using the same software on the PCs.The teacherpairs rveakerand more able pupils together.Finally the lessonfinishes with consolidation u'ork around the whole classdisplay.
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'L Can you locate resources.e.g. from catalogues of published stsfnrarev'hich could help teach aspectsof nuntber in this tr.a_r'?
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Corilcl you use other ICT tools, e.g. gruphing calculators, spreadslrcets True Basicto make your ov,n version of the or kind o.fgame used in this e.uample?
Casestudl'4: Algebra The lessontakesplacein a semi-ruralcomprehensive school rvith a top set of Year 10 pupils,ases [.t-15. The lessonis aboul usingalgebrato model the areas polygonal of sliapes, graplt thenrand to find the rna.rimurn tcr valLre sr,rbject some constraints. to This case study also appearsin printed form in the mA book ldentification of Training Needs:Secondaryh'tathematics. The chosen tCT tool is the TI-83 graphing calculator, and the lesson takesplace in an ordinary nlathematics classroomwhich is not equipped r,vithPCs. The teacher introduces the lesson using a TI-83 rvith Vieu'screen and OHP, projectedonto a s'hite-board. The pupils then carry out tasks in pairs using GCs, and recording resultson paper.The lessonconcludeswith the
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teacherrunning through the problem and inviting studentsto come to the front to sharetheir results by keying appropriateformulae into the teacher'sdisplay model of the GC"
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The px-oblem startss'ith a l(lm lc'ngthoi rope,a long u'all and one post.The pupils find the maximum areaof an isosceles triengle u'ith t\r'o equal sidesof length 5. The ertension is to use t$'o posts.trrst tu create a rectenqle and then a trapezium. .
Can you solve the triangle, rectangle and trape:ium problems nsing a GC?
Cor, 1'ou soh,e them usingotlter tCT tools?
y,r,olt rvereto ttsethis,or a sintilar; problern in a lessonwhich ICT tools (rf any) would you choose? Explain )'our reasons!
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Chapter2 ICT and the schoolcurriculum
This chapter is where we break the curriculum down into bite-sizechunks and look for rvays in which tCT tools can support teachingand learning of specific piecesof mathematicscontent, such as number or alg6bra.However there are many dangers and in treatingmathematics in creatingfalse divisions betweenpartsof mathematics, apart from other subjects,so we also try to inject exarnplesof more synthetic, and By approaches. the end of this chapter you should be in a strong cross-subject, v,hich aspectsof school mathematicsare amenableto its use.As a position to knou, bridge into the next chapterrve w'ill examinesome of the teachingissuesraisedabout ICT use in the casestudieson the TTA NeedsldentificationCD-RO\IIn the last chapter,vouhad an opportunity to learn about and, tve hop"' to e.xplore a rvide range of different ICT tools (hardrvareand softn'are) rvhich are potentialll Norv rr'etake a look at the mathematicalcontent of interestto mathematicsteachers. of the school curriculum and srart to identify a selectionof material and approaches rvhere tCT can be an integral part of the teaching and learning process.Of course there is variety in both the content and style of presentationin the mathernatics curriculurn betrveendifferent countries. For example norv rvithin the UK there are four different curricula for England,Scotland,\Valesand Northern lreland- Similarly there is varien'bets,een the amount of mandatolv lgt use rvhich teachersare obliged For exampie,in England there hasbeena recentrevision to provide for their students. of the primary school marhematicscurriculum (the National Numeracy Strategy) in which pupils of ages9-11 are expectedto be taught to be confident, cornpetentand schoolscritical usersof electroniccalculatorsbeforethey enter secondary 'theme and variations' w'hereu'e take an asPect,such as Our style here is one of place value in arithmetic, and suggest a number of different ways this can be supporteddependingon the ICT available.Where possiblerr'eprovide referencesto Our u'ritingabouttheir o\\'nexperiences- aim of point to relevantcxainples tcacltcrs is to stimulateyour imagination(and. rve hope, whet your appetite)so that you u'ill come up with ideas of your o\\,q to fit in w'ith your personal teaching style and strategies.\['e also aim, that by rvorking at applications s'hich are realistic to you in teaching,you will become more aware of the capabilities the context of rnathematics of suitableICT tools and proficient in their use-
Numberand algebra 59
In consideringthecontentwe can identify somedifferent roles for the ICT, e.g. as: (1) a generator problems,e.g. usingrandomnumbers; of (2) a checkerof results,e-g.in comparinga student'sinput with computed results; (3) a provider of context,e.g. in the form of a game. lve can also think of different ways rhe ICT may be deployed, e.g. by: ' ' . . (4) the teacherusingit with whole classdisplay,e.g. to stirnulate discussion(5) studentsrvorking in pairs or small groupsat a task or investigation, (6) the teacherusing it to preparematerialfor the class: (7) studentsusing it to communicate results.
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Bervare!There are very many ideascontainedin ttris chapterso you will probably just rvantto selecta feu'at f,rrst reading,and maybecome back for more when those have beendigested.
2a NU\TBERAND ALGEBRA
\umber As a startingpoint rvenow'takea directquotationfrom the National Curriculum for Kev Staces i and -1.i.e. pupils aged il-16, in mathematicsfor England from Septenrhcr lO-ri: lntegers: Pupils slnuld be taught to usetheir previotts understanding of integers and place value to deal *'ith arbitrarily large positive ruunbers and round thent to a given power of I0: understaruland use negative numbers,both as positions and translations on a nurnlter line: onler integers: use the concep$ andvocabularl,offactor (divisor), multiple. conrnron factor. highest comtnonfacto\ least conrmon multiple, prime rutmbcr and primt Jactor decomposition; (This can be dou'nloaded from http://rr'u'rr'. uk. net/; nc. Placevalue lf u'e start rrith the idea of rounding an integer to a given power of 10 then we can considerillustratingsome of the differentapproaches the buller poinrs (1)-(7) in above.For examplea very simple ',r,ay combining( 1) and (4) is to use a graphical of cirlculatorttr qenerate random integeru'ith, e.g. fiye digits, and to display it usins a the pancl tclr tlie or.criread pro1ector.
60
TeachingMaths wirh ICT

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Then the classcan be asked to write down what they think the answer is to the nearest here is that the teacheris just as unprepared 10, 100, 1000 and 10000.The advantage for the actual problem as the students.So, psychologically, it may appear to be the class and the teacherworking togetherto crack the problemsposed by the machine. Of course we can get the calculator to display the set of answers.
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But this probably is not somethingmany of us would be too happy to try to explain or to students, even to ourselves!Here tve have usedone of the LIST operationsto create a list of four elementswhere X takes the values I. 2. 3 and 4. For instance, n'hen X - 2 the value is [O0*round{A/100.0). This meansA is dir-ided by lO0 to give 183.97,and this is roundedto zerodecimal placesto give -184before being multiplied by 100,giving 48400. might be more attractive.and it can help shou, The layout of a spreadsheet informative internrediate steps.SupJnse\r'eentera numbcl suchas J8397, in cell A l. power of l0? Clearly Hovvcan tve shorvthe stepstakento round to each successive \r'ecan enterthe possibleporversas l. 2. 3, -[, e-g.in cells A3:A6 - In cell B3 rr'ecan po\\'erof 10. [n cell C3 rve enter the formula'=10"A3'to shos'the corresponding '=[NT(A1/83)'rvhich w'ouldgive the correctresultfor this case.Horvever could enter rve tried to drag the formula dou'n the next ferr' rou's this s'ould be updated to if '=A2lB4' '=A3/85' in cell C4, in cell C5 and so on. We need a \\'ay of making sure that referenceto cell Al does not get changed-This is called an absolute reference, '=$A$l/83' are examples. and usesthe dollar symbol. '=A$l/83' and ln the first casethe $ in front of the I meansthat the I won't change,in the second '=B3*C3'. So this it meansneitherthe A, nor the l, will change.In D3 we can enter '=$A$ lshou,sus the value truncatedto the given po\\'erof 10. In E3 tve can enter D3' to show the discardeddigits. We need to test whether these are more than halfq,ay to the next value so rve use an [F statementin F3 i.e. '=[F(E3>0.5*83,83,0)' . This meansthat if the number in the E column, the discard,is greaterthan half that in the B column then u'e recordthe corresponding power of 10,othent'ise Justa zero. '=D3+F3'. We could have Finally we add this adjustmentto give the result in G3 by 'bitemade one complex command to do a[ this, but here s'e have chosento go in size'chunks!
Numberand algebra 6l
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Nou' you can highlight cells B3:G3 and drag them down to fill rhe block B3:G6 . tf you change the value in cell Al the table is automaticallyrecomputed, but if the number has more than five digits you will also need to extendthe table dorvnw,ards. We can use the same vehicle to illustrate points (2) and (5). Here the teacherhas designed the layout of a simple spreadsheet into rvhich studentsenter their o*.n anslvers and check $'hetherthey are corrector not. Sucha pre-designed sheetis often c a l l e d a ' t e m p l a t e ' - T h e q u e s t i o n s r e s e t u p i n c o l u m n sA a n d B , a i . e . r o u n dt h e numberin column A to the pos'erof l0 in colunrn B. Stuclents over-r)'pe 0 in the the C column $'ith their ans\l:er. Unlessthis is the correct one. column D displal.srhc. te.xt'No'. \vhen a correct valueis enteredthis changesto a -\,es'
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Of course you could make the sheet more attractive, include instructions, and/or compute a test score, but for the moment we are just aiming to show some of the 'small principles. It may well be, too, that you can find published exarnplesof software' which embed this kind of approachin a more attractive environrnent. One such example comes from the Numbers prograrn which is part of the Developing Number software pack produced by the Association of Teachers of Mathernatics(ATM)
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llcre the teachercrn use it to set up a grid (known as a Cattegno chart) giving a specifiednunrberof digits either side of the decimalpoint. A nuntbercan be entered on the grid b1' using the mouse,or the softrvareu'il[ generatea number using the 'random' button.The resultingnumber.e.g-495.13,can be copied to the areabelou' 'Number the screen.one digit at a time, by selectingthe I' button. This number can then be show'nin *'ords, and also read out aloud (assumingyou have audio output) the b.v- softs'are. The teachercan use the mouseto point to any digit of the number and the correspondine cell on the grid changesfrom yellow to red. Such flexible software can be also be used to set a variety of differentiatedtasks for individual students. A,Logo number line microrvorld lVe may also rvant to be able to shorv decirnalson a number line. Here we will develop the idea of a t ogo microrvorld. First s'e rvill produce a proced'urervhich draws a number line from 0 to I marked in tenthsand hundredths.If we plan to make use of colour, then it might be an ideato store some names. Ingo hasthe cornmandsSEI'PC (tbr SETPENCOLOR) and SETFC (for SETFLOODCOLOR). These are follorved by a list oi three numbersgiving the amountsof red, green and blue to use on a scale fronr 0-255. Thus [255 0 0] is the information requiredto define 'red'. So in Logo we could use the instruction:N'[AKE "red [255 0 0] and later use the storedvariable with SETPC :red . The utility procedure called Palettesetsthe useful colour names.
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The procedureNumline0l basically usesLogo's screenco-ordinatesystem to (-350,0) and (350,0) divided into 100 sections.There are three draw a line betrveen loops.The first draws 100 little greendivisions at every 0.01 between0 and l. The seconddraws slightly longer rnagenta ones at 0.05, 0.15, etc. up to 0.95. The third drarvsand labelsslightly longer black ones at every 0.1 from 0 to L, and draws the numberinterval [0, I l.
tle Ed Search Sq - Tesd leb . . .. .:,. T'r tft.rrlr trell I PaIet te 'unrt Hil.E ? HiiiE FIJ 5ET:,: -J5'] SETH 9r-1FD SETFrl green ,-rnrt FD SETH 0 Et: 5 FIr 5 SETfl '-i0l F:EF'EiT 10i IPU m FIJ SETi': -i50 ::ETF: :n3grrt.a PI-t 55t* '.1 Ff, 5 * ,:rr i. t U R E F E i T 1 0 I F D s : T H D Ei: 9 F! :r 5:Tg 9 A E $ F [ , 1 0 . , : n r t ] Flj SEI'- -:;:0 IETH 'l iET;{ blac!: FO E;: 10 LA;ei r ii, i 0 F E P E . T Tl t r I H i i : E ' X !-;11 I SETH 'r0 Fl, tr1* r1;11r 9ETil r! bi- Lu L.IEEL Fl-; ;aT:;. -::S! taT;{ !rr Fi' HT 3r,l
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For convenience\\:e have a little procedurecalled Resets'hich ju-stclcars the screen and runs the Numline0l procedure.
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In order to show'points on the number line rve have the equivalentof a 'mapping pin'. This procedure, called Blob, takes tr.oarguments. The first is the decimal x betrveen and I to be represented, second is the colour qf the 'pin's' head. It 0 the dra"vsa blue pin rvith a circularred top which is filled in u'ith the colour specifiedby the secondarsument:c. This usesthe Logo primitive CIRCLE :r to dra$'a circle whose centre is the turtle's cuffent position and s'hosc radius is :r- 'fhe command FILL floods the area from the turtle to the nearestboundarv in the colour set with
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Eloh ::-: :(= PIJ 5ET:i -350 + ?L1D*::z .iETPt-- : blue F-;ETHtr PD FD 20 SETF,] :r*,1 :-iETFC :c CIF:LE i FILI FLI SETFi:. hl-r,:l: EI{: :[ :-iETH 90 End
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We now define a utility called Mark with the single argument :x which uses Blob to 'stick pin'in a the line at the decimal numberr between0 and 1.
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The next tool is called Pick which usesLogo's random number generatorto pick a pseudo random integer between 0 and 100.This is used to call Blob. with the fill colour as white.
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The final tool is one to let you plot a list of decimal numbers. It uses some list prcessing and recursionto strip each number from the list and stick the appropriate red pin to the line.
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If we now issue commands: the RESET, Mark O.92 and Pick we can illustrate some of thepossible uses our decimal for number line.
Number and algebra
65
RESET Itark 0 .92 Pick
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The screenbelow showsthe result.The filled pin is at0.92, whereasthe hollow pin is at the computer's random choice. If you entered:Mark 0.49 you would see the pin's head become filled in with red as feedback for a correct identification.
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For example,1'oucould enter the list: NTAKE 'test [0.57 0.32 0.78 0.051before shou'ing the output to a class.and then use. RESET Plot :test to display your own valuesfor the classto identifvDirected numbers Norv rve turn to negativenurnbers. The hint in the E,nglishnational curriculum is to use a geometric model. So maybe rve can make good use of Logo or dynamic geometry (Cabri). In most versions of [,ogo s'e have the commands FD and BK which can both be used rvith positive or negativenumbers.Thus BK 200 is equivalent to FD -200. So we can usethesecommandsto perform 'shift operators'.[n order to deal with position it rvould be helpful if we could have a co-ordinatesystem.Again this is provided in most versions of Logo using variations on a SET command. \ltren you clear the screenu'ith CS. the turtle is at the centre,co-ordinates(0,0) and headingup the y-axis. To move to the point (-200,0) you can use either the full form: SETXY -200 0 or the shorter: SETX -200. Thesechangethe position, but not the heading,of the turtle. So to set up a number line for a little 'directednumbersmicrorvorld' rve can define the follorving procedure, using,e.g. EDIT 'Numline in MSW Logot'xt.
66
The variable X keeps track of our x-co-ordinate. We clear the screen and lift up the (up-screen', pen.Then we slide sidewaysto (-300,0) while still facing which we'll call North! Then we put the pen down, move forward 10, then back 20, then write the number stored in X, before retracing by moving forward 10. Now we can repeatedly draw six sectionsof the number line from (-300,0) to (300,0) each 100 units long. Finally rve move the turtle to the centreof the screenand change its heading to point 'East' along the positive -r-axis. Before leaving the procedure it would be sensible to show the final position of the turtle. Can you edit the procedure to insert a final 'PD' (pen down) command?
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The turtle can be moved to the positionshou'nby,e.g. FD -250. BK 2it) or SETX -250. Norv you have a test-bedrvheredirected number represenrs p.-rsition usins SETX, ora shift using FD- What you do u'ith sucha tool is entirel-v ro vou! Bur up it should be quite easy to show, for example that BK --r is the S3rnc. FD r. fcrr a-s anv -r.
Cra Id you construct a number line in dl,nanticgeornetry sofnvare such ns Cabri ?
One possible result is shown belorv.
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A more convenient approach might be to use some pre-preparedsmall software package.One example is an application developedfor the TI-73 graphing calculator, and hence which can be used with an OHP for whole class teaching. With the developmentof 'flash ROM' for graphingcalculators,it is now possibleto download such larger programs, called applications or Apps for short, which extend the functions of the calculator.The TI-73 NUMLINE App gives the user versatilecontrol over a number of different representations number lines.The follorving screens for shos'examplesof is use for negativenumbersas translations.
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This softs'are can also be used for exploring equivalent forms, and for ordering, using fractions, percentages and/or decimals as shown in the follow'ing screens.
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Carr yott suggestu,hich ICT tools might help ),ou to set up an exploration into the number of digits in the blockfor recurring decimals ?
68
Teaching Maths with..ICT
Standard form A simple starting point for work on standard form is provided by canying out an iterative process on a graphing calculator and seeing when it changes the output. First we start with 1 on the display, and then continually use: ANS * 2 to make a doubling pattern.You can also divide by 2 to generatenegativeexponents.
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A good opportunity for developing pupils' knowledge and understandingof place such as the Planet's value, including standardform, is provided by access data-sets, to data in.Chapter [, where the units of rneasurementare very large or very srnall. Constructing a data base on chemical elements could be an activity which prompts the use of standard forrn. Factors 'use the concepts and vocabulary of factor (divisor), Norv we can turn to ideas foc multiple, common factor, highest common -fuctor. Ieast comnton ntultiple, prime number and prime factor decompositiort:' Obviously rve cariuse a calculatorto help splitting an integerinto its prime factors. For example the following screensshou' hou we can use a blend of machine and mental calculation in finding the prime factors of 199S.
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With TI Interactive! you can open up a lvlath Box (first icon), and then, from the Algebra menu you can chooseFactor. factor(1998 ) 2 . 3 t. 3 7
Number and algebra
69
The /' T' Maths-Packwas published by the National Council for Educarional Technology(NCET) in t994 and is distributed via the Associarion of Teachersof Mathematics(AIM), and the MathematicalAssociation (ivIA). One of the four books is called Number and Algebra with Computers and Calculators. This refers to a numberof interestingarticles and resources. Accornpanying it is a number of activity sheets'One of these is called A database of numbers. Here the suggestionis that students should build up their own computer data-base properties of of numbers such as: Is it even? Is it a squarenumber? Is it prime? Is it a triangle number? What are its divisors? So herewe havean exampleof the seventhkind of ICT use,where studentsuse ICT to gather,store and communicate results. For an interesting collection of nurnber facts seeThe Penguin Dictionary.of Curious and Interesting Numbers by David Wells, Penguin1986. A popular way of displaying patterns in multiples is to set up a grid and to highlight, for example, all multiples of a given number.This is quite easy ro ser up in a spreadsheet, such as the Data Editor of TI Interactive!.
91, 1'outhinktthichfontutlae could be usedto generate, e.g. Lt IOxl0 number grid?
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Now we can enter a particular integer into, e.g. cell Al. Then we can produce a replica of the grid with only the multiples of Al being shown. The formula inA14 is: =IF(A3/$A$ I =INT(A3/$A$ 1),A3,' *' ) If you copy this to the block of cells AI4:123 then the pattern will be shown. There are a variety of nurnber games based upon this sort of grid. For example you could edit the formula above so that multiples of Al are shown by one symbol, e.g. an asterisk, and others are shown by a dot. Now you could copy a subsetof the grid, e.g. B l5:H2l and paste it into a new sheet and print it out. So this way you could to use a spreadsheet produceresourcematerials,illustrating the sixth of our examples of ICT use. Studentsthen have to work out which multiples are being shown by the asterisksand suggestpossiblenumbersfor them dependingupon where they think the grid was taken fromthis way could also be storedon a school's internal network A set of grids generated (Intranet) for accessby studentsand/or teachersas required. A simple rvay to generatepowers is using the ANS key on a graphing calculator. '1 ' 'ENTER' and then and For example, to produce the powers of 3 just type '3*ANS', 'Znd'and '(-)'. rvhere'ANS'is found from repeatedlyuse
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A different approachto this little ftrra.vinto integersis to look at different rvavs of implementine Euclid's algorithm tor the highestcomrnon factor of trvo integers.This is basedon the resultthat if a positive integerp is a divisor of tu'o positive integers a andb, then it is also a divisor of their differencec =la-bl. Here is a rather inefftcient way of coding the algorithm in TrueBasicnt.
PFr,ru:RAl{Erecl r.d II{PUT a. b [[ 9HILE a< >b IF a>b' THEH LET a=a-b ELSE LET b=b--EHD IF PRIITT a- b LCOP PRII{T 'HCF r= ' a EHq
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Can you adapt the ptogram to produce the least common multiple?
Number and algebra Note: Both of thesealgorithms are implemented within the sofrware of the TI-83. They are found as 'lcm(' and 'gcd('in the MATH NUM menu.
7|
We conclude this section on factors with an idea for an extendedtask, or coursework project, on prime factonzation. The starting point is to find numbers with exactly, say,fourdivisors,suchas 15 which hasthe fourdivisors:[1,3,5,15],or 343 which hasthe four divisors: U,7,49,3431.
Con youfind the smallest integer with exactb, 4 divisors?
Coroyou make up a table of the smallest nnnrber with exactly n divisorsfor e.g. n = 1,2,3,4,5,6... ?
Con yott devise a way of finding the smallest nttmber tvith any given number of divisors?
wo, ld yott advise usingICT toolsto help pose problem, to the help with the data-gathering, to check results, to communicate results - . .? If so, which tools would you think are ntost appropriate?
I\{ental methods By their very nature rve might not expect to use ICT tools in this context! Hou,ever they can be very useful aids to the teacherin finding resources, preparingmaterials, planning and record-keeping, etc. Nfental methods can also be used alongside [CT, e.g. to estimate,round, check, etc. Here u'e take a simple example of the use of the internet. In almost any area of knowled_ee !'ou can find one or nrore s'ebsites u'hich give a good set of links to other sites.This is a crossbetrveenan index and having access[o someoneelse's phone and addressbook! So rve start u'ith a vlsit to the oundle school mathematicssite createdby Douglas Butler at: hLtp : / /www.arqonet. co. uk/oundleschi mrink. htmr
From there rve find the page about lv'lathsResourcesand pick up rhe link to the MathsVR - lvlathematicsVirtual ResourcesRoom (Hampshire) created by Karim Derrick at: h t t p : / / w w ^ r .m a t h s v r . d e m o n . c o . u k
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Clicking on the link to First to 100! you can now dorvnload the Wore{rrl documenr giving the brief lessonplan for this activitl'. reproducedbelorv. The 'u'ebmaster'.and author,also invites !'ou to contributeideasand resourcesto the site. \\'hv don't 1'ouvisit the site and take up the challenge?Responses to: Karim. DerrickGmat.hsvr . demon. co - uk
Algebra Now' s'e turn to some ideasto do n'ith sequences numbers and their relationships of w'ith functions. and, later u'ith graphs. Aeain \r'e can take an e.\cerpt from the English national curriculum as a srarting point: Secluences,functions and graphs 6. Pupils should be taught to:
Sequences Q) Setrcrate co,nnlort ittte:gerscquetrces (irrcltulittg sequenccs c,f orkl or even integers, sqltered integers, powers of 2, powers of 10, triangulctr numbers): generate terms of a sequence using term-to-term and position-to-terun definitions of the sequence; use linear expressions to describe the nth term of an arithmetic seqttence,justifuing itsform bS' reference to the activi4' or context from which it was generated
Number and algebra
73
LessonPlanner
Topic:Number (mentalskills) Date: up exercise) Curriculumarea:Number z4ll l/00 lesson: Firstto t 00 (Warm Year Group: All )rears
LearningObiective:Pracdcesbasicaddition but involvesa quite complex game strategy. Resources: prize to serve as an incentive A This is a five-minuteexerciseand works best at the start and/or end of a lessonis a cwo-player lt game and can involveeither the whole classor you and a volunteer.We think rhar it works besr wirh iust the reacher and a challenger, aim beingto bear the teacher (andwin a prize!);wirh even the che brighcestclass. rhis will still take a while. The basics The aim is to be the firsr player ro ger to 100.playerscakeit in rurn to choose a whole number berween I and l0- A cumulativescore rotal is recorded on the white board/screenerc.The first player ro score 100 wins. Exomple Player I chooses l0 makingdre cumularivescore 10. Player2 chooses l0 makingrhe cumularivescore 20. PfayerI rhen chooses9 makrnga cumularivescore of 29. . . and so on. Optimum Strategy The first player ro score 89 is effectivety che winner becausewhacever happensthat playerwill win (rf I choose I, you choose l0 etc). For rhe same reason the firsr playerro score 78 will be the first player ro score 89 ... and 67 scored guaranrees78 erc. Keep backtrackingand )rou can guaranreea win if you go firsc Sincemosi players will take a while ro cocron on to chis scntegy. it need only be applied later on in dre gam.rhus extending che suspense!
Sequences Suppose have a sequence n'e such as 5, 8, I I , 14, 17 ... lt is a common task to tn' to continue the pattern,and maybe to predict the tenth ternrcic.As a fii.st5rcpit :rriglrt helpiul ru r isualizcthc bc in i-,attcrn tcrinsof pins in the numberline. So it shouldbe easy to adapt our Logo number lines for this task.
.s"" if 1'ott can *'ork ottt what to alter - or othenvise load the NttmLine 100 file.
74
TeachingMaths wit( ICT
Fe
gimap 5pt Zro
f,cb
Ctearly this is a sequencegoing up by adding 3 each time. So in a graphic calculator 'term-to-term' mle. Here is an approach we or spreadsheet could enter the data and the using the spreadsheettool of TI Interactive! Cell A3 holds l, and A4 the formula. =A3+1, which is copied down theAcolumn. Cell 83 holds 5, and 84 the formula: =F3+2, which is copieddown the B column. C3 holds: =3*A3, and D3 holds: =83C3. The labels in the first row are entered by hand.
So ne can seethat Y-3X - 2, in each case.So rve can solve to give Y = 3X+2 as the '=3*A3+2' into E3 and copy down 'position-term'rule. You could enter the formula to confirm the identity between the two rules'N{ODE' and select 'S"q'. When you On the TI-83 there is a Sequencemode. Use 'Y=' available, press 1'ouget a ratherunusualform of editor.You have threesequences is called z, y and n'. The nth term of the u sequence denotedby u(n) so the rule rvhich says that it is three more than the previous terrn becomes u(n) = u(n-l)+3 , which you 'X,T,0,n'. \Ve also need to specify enter into the editor.Note that u is "2nd' '7' and n is the starting value as 5.
:*: "
i I
Number and algebra 75
ffiri-iioFEFr-gr..l'linn= 1r ( r r - 1 ) + 3 '-.u( iEt

u{ ri i i,i;'F"ffi* ".u(rrtl=n)E .i S -t Fffi,ott.; v ( n t)l i n ) =
a+hi t*e'-4i Hari= G-T '.t*t(ni= ur{r..f'lin)=
f lotl
f lott
'lot3
In order to see the numeric output as a table we first use '2nd' 'WINDOW' for 'TBLSET' to setup the starting value and step for the sequence. Then press'2nd' 'GRAPH' 'TABLE'. for
Thl5t art=1 aTbl= I Itrdenl
5ETUF
E
3 I
6 ?
f..
rtCTt
5 11 tt l7
:ffi$ftf
zq z?
when a student has a suggestionfor an equivalent function in terms of n alone to try, it is a simple matter to put th'epotentially equivalent expression into the y sequence and to re-computethe table.
Plotl
?let2
?lct3
nHin=1 ".u(n)Eu (-n-L)+3 rl (nl ' l i r,)E (5) -.v(n)E.3*,n+l u(nl'lin)Ei5) -.tr(rr)= r..l(rrl.lrr )= i
So no$' there is plenty'of scopefor a 'guessmy rule' kind of tasksheet. Studentscan then rvork at producing their o\\'n su-egestions 'position-term' definitions, and for check their conjecturesusing ICT, suchas a spreadsheet graphing calculator.We or shos' a couple of variantson this idea,still r,r'iththe TI-g3. ln the '2nd''STHT'menu areanumberofoperations tists.Choose'5:Seq('.We on rr'ill enterour rule as: Seq(3X+2,X, l0)-+L I l,
I :Sc-rrlF ? ::i ,rrtO 5: dirr( :Fi 11( : curn9ur.r( -[.rL i Et (
eq(
s e ' r { 3 i 4 + 2 , ? i , 11 B ) , +Lr {5 S 11 14 t7 2,.
So you can see the list on the screen,or by using 'STAT''Edit'. Item7 on theLIST OPS nlenu is a useful one. We can useit to rnake list L2, say,hold thedifferences of the nurnbers list L l. in
_--'ft--
76
TeachingMatlu with ICT

LI r I 11 1t 1l tt t::: t?ifi=
tt 5 I 11 1t 1? a0 'cl
T'-
lT|r
t a = "sLi =.t-.( ;T'iliL
i_
ll
lf we change the MODE back to FUNC then we can use Y= to enter the function Y1=3X+2 and view its table.
ll4t1
rt/r Ef,X+Zl .V?=

it/3=
Plotl
fl.it3
N:
t I 11 1q 1l Z(t
iVr= 11's= '.f .:=

:,1,! g =
r EJlt+Z
Through exercisessuch as this we can use ICT to make a firm relationship between the symbolic representationas a function (or, informally, as an 'equation') and its rutmeric representation a table or list of its values. as Once this is establishedwe also have the tools at hand to rnake the links with a third, graphical, representation. already have the function in Y 1, so just choose We a suitable WTNDOW and pressGRAPH. You can use TRACE to read off data from the cursor position on the graph. Finally'. from I\[ODE, )'ou opt to have the screen split betu'eena graph and a table with 'Ge+T' IHoutd Xnirr=61
ttttax=35 li:-c I =5 Fires=l
iitr.g:';=9.4 liscl=1 Vr.lin=8
-/
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t
1
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I 1t 1t 1; | 3:.
ia.r
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ii=9 -T=Lt -
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The final screenshorvsall tfuee representations the sanle screen. on Note that: We have to be careful about values for Xmin and Xmax to make sure (XmaxXmin) is a round multiple of the number of pixels acrossthe screen,otherrvise when you useTRA,CEthe X valuesshou'an unhelpful number of decimals! We really ought to be careful about distinguishing betrveenthe discretedata from which we started,u'here the function n(n) u'as only defined on the natural numbers, and the continuous functionY 1(X) definedfor all real X. Unless the WINDOW is chosen to match the aspectratio of the disptay screen then the gradient of our linear function cannot be interpretedgeometrically.For exampleY=X will not be at 45' to the;r-axis. The low resolutionof the calculator'sdisplay screengives rise to a rather stepladdergraph in the last screenshot. Any graph shor,vn a computer on display, or on paper, is only an approximation to our ideal mental image of the graph - after all the line drawing the graph should have no thickness!
Number and algebra Linear functionsand their graphs
77
We now showthe similarapproach taken inTI Interactive!Thefourth icon in the toolbar allowsus to definea functionandcompute table. its
The fifth icon takesus into the List Editor. Clicking in 'formula'space under rhe title 'LI'of the first column opensthe dialog box for informationabout LI, and g'e define it using exacrly the samesynraxas thar for the TI-g3.
When you have enteredthe formula for Ll, you can click on the function part of the L2 column to entet L2 as the differencesof Ll. From the L2 [nformation dialog select Palette,rvhich opens up the Symbol Palette.Select the top-left icon which gives the Command Catalog. If you move the cursor down in the corrunandlist you wil[ find the list operation'deltalist(', rvith help aboutthe syntaxof the command i.e. thatit just takesa singlelist as its aigurnent.So cnter 'clefiaLisr(l- )' as rlc clcfinition I for L2.
78
The final version of the Data Editor screenis shown below. Notice that you can drag the gridlines to make more or less spacefor the entries in each list.
When you close the Data Editor the tists are pastedinto your current document.Now select the third icon, the Grapher too[. Use the Functions editor to input your flunction: y1(x)=3x+?.
F.
I
:
Y= | sturnot" I
rl-- H rF- g
r[_- g
rww
lrrrJeperrdent YurirOU,fi---
coerA!|
ft*
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When the graph hasbeendrawn you can edit the valuesused for the endsof the axes. Using the Grapher'sFormat button you also changethe step sizeson eachaxis. Then vou can use the Trace button to read off values from the curve. You can change,for example,the Trace Step in the Trace Value dialog box.
pt t rl: =lr+2
sj
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80
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Finally when you close the Grapher window you can arrangeyour document so that of it shorvs all three representations the function Y-3X+2 r.e. . . . Symbolic Numeric Graphic.
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Number and algebra
8l
Similar output can be arrangedin a spreadsheet such as Excel. Once the formulae have been evaluatedin columns A and B, you can highlight the block of numbersto be graphed as (x,y) co-ordinates.The trick is to selecrScattergram the graph type, for and then choosethe format which joins the data points with line segments. You can then edit the title, axes,labels,etc. until you have a representation with which you are happy-
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One major problem s'ith using ICT tools u,ith pupils to investigatesequences, functions,fables.graphs,etc. is that they can explore many cases very easily,without keepin-e an)' recordsof rvhat they have beendoing, what they havediscovered,what problems they have encountered. etc. So anotheruseful appticationof ICT could be tor a teacherto produce a pro-forma on which studentscan record what they have beendoing.
My Equations Name:
Class: My.sketch
Yl = Y2= Y3= My c"ble X
82
In summary we have reviewed some of the ways you can reinforce the of links betweendifferent representations linear functions: . . . 8Sa table of numberswith constantfirst differences as a straight line graph with constantgradient of as an algebraicexpression the form mx + c-
which are discretesetsof numbers,they In the caseof linear sequences, can be defined by . . = a term-to-termrule suchff u,,+r a.un+ b and a position-to-termrule such as un= p.n * Q
s,
e.g. if 1r, estigatethe cumulative sums of linear sequences. S L 4 { 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 , . . . )t h e ni t ss u m s a r e - { 1 , 4 , 9 , 1 6 ' 2 5 , - - - l what sort of function generatesthis sequence?
\,
the Iru estigate differencesof quadratic, cubic and other p o lvnorniaI sequences-
W" leave it to yoltes an exercisefirst to det'elop sonrc ICT approachesto the conventional interpretatiott of the nt and c irt y = mx * c , and then, ttsingnumeric and graphic representations,for the solution of linear simultaneous equations.
Simultaneous linear equatioru A different approach to simultaneouslinear equations is aftorded by the symbolic manipulation functions of CAS such as Derive and TI Interactive-l approachto the algorithm for solution a The following screenshorvs step-by-step the Step 9 involved substituting value i tor -v by eliminationand back-substitution. rvherethe equations are first and expanding. Can you adapt the approach to one reduced to the form y = f(x) and y - g(,r) ?
Number and algebra
83
Quadratic functions Nos'w'e look at an approachto move from linear functionsinto quadratic flunctions. The basicideais to have a pair oisimple linear functionsdeilned in a graph plotter or graphic calculatoras, sa1', Yl(-r) and Y?(r) u'ith their graphsdra*'n in a suitable u'indou'. The investigationis one on the 'arithmetic of lines'. For example can you predict the shapeof the graph of the function Y3(;) = Y t(x) + y2(x) ? tf it is a linear function, how are its gradient and y-intercept related to thoseof Y I and Y2? The surpriseshould come when we changeto: Y3(r) = Yl(x) * Y2(r) ! \\'e illustratethis rvith the TI-83, but again you can use other ICT toots simitarly by now (rve hope).
rY r E H + Z rV e E? H - 3 ..V rET r+ ?r r?r=l rVs=

\(ft =
?lEtl
Plott
?loti
EEs tr+!tl*r
[FUn']t18i1...
! Pararqet r ic-.. : Po I ar... : tln.rQt'f...
"t/t=
In order to enterthe variablesYl and Y2 you need to use the VARS menu and select Y-\ARS and Function.then 1'oucan selcct,e.s. Yl to oasteinto the equationfor Y3.
84

Il'{OCllrj -9.41 Xr'rin=
: vI
:t/ :t/
. l l
J lf
2 v:.
.T
-L.V f
Xmax=9.4 H=sl=1 ?rri n= -6.2 Vr.rE:<=6. 2 ?gcl=1 Ht-e=.= 1
Again you will needa judicious choice of WINDOW dependingon how imporrant you judge maintaining the aspect ratio to be. By tracing you should be able to relate the zeros of Y3 to thoseof Yl and Y2, andthe sign of Y3 to the signsof Yl and y2.
-3
You can also changethe screen representation- moving the cursor over the '=' B-v sign in YI and pressing'ENTER' you can stopthe graph of Yl belngdisplayed,and similarly for Y2. By moving to the teft-handedge of the screenon the Y3 line, and continually pressing'ENTER' you can cycle through a range of possiblegraph rypes for Y3. We have chosena dotted one. Now'!'ou could try to rvrite an expandedversion of Y3 as a quadratic function u'ithout brackets (or parentheses).[f 1'ou can't distinguishwhetherthe graphsare cquivalentor nore 1'ou might have to adjust the WINDO\\,'.
Pktl
i\.. r =i.i+2 r1,'3="!i-.j '-'z/ zEl't't .*'y': -F-. rV \ '..Y tljxis

iY6=
* l-t--
rl'r:
f r?r:
s=
So in this example rve are close- but not close enough! Here u'e have an e.Kample using ICT eifectively to reverse a conventional oi teaching order. lnstead of splitting a quadrarictunction into linear factors u,e have used a converse approachof arriving at a quadratic function by the product of two linear functions. Of course it is true that all products of linears are quadratic. [s the conversetrue? Horv would I'ou dentonstrateit? Ofcourse tve could extend the product of lines to producecubics! Transformations of frrnctions Another approach to quadratics is via the transformation of functions and graphs, which is usuallyonly attemptedu'ith more able students the 1l-16 age range.Yet in with ICT tools this becomesaccessibleto a rvider range of students. Supposerve start rvith the function yl(X) = X2 . Then we can easily investigate transformations suchas Y2(X) = Y l(X) + Z, or y3(X) = yl(X+2).
rf r El*ie ' .? rE 'r' t(H )+ : ..t/:E?t (ii+2]
".t/ t = '.t/ g = '.t,8 = PlEtl Fl<.tt Fl.rt::
.V?=
You can use TRACE to sort out which graph is which. Of course Yl can be any function, so the sametechniquecan be used for older students,say, to explore the transformationsof graphs of trigonometric functions, where terminology such as amplitude, phaseshift, frequency etc- take on both graphical and symbolic meanings. If we build qp the general quadratic in terms of transformations then rve arrive at the expression:y(x) = a + b(x + c)z as a much informative representationthan the conventional:ax?+ bx + c. A popular activity to do with guessingfunctions,and their transforrns,is to have a set of screenshotstaken from the graphingcalculator'sscreenand re-scaledso that they are the physical size of the calculator'sdisplay.These images can rhen be printed, and then photocopied onto overheadtransparencies. These can be cut up rvith scissorsand used for a 'match my graph' game. We provide here a set of l6 such images that you are welcome to use,but you may prefer to make up your own set.
I
-
I I
86
lr'ote: u'e must stressthat in this section u'e are being guided by the rvay that aleebraiccontent is usually describedin formal syllabusesand curricula- \\e have not chosento eive practical examplesand contexts from s'hich. sav, lineal, quadratic, polynomial, trigonornetric or inverse functions rnight be derived. lnstead we introduce these in Section c of this chapter, u'hich is about statistics and modelling. Of course the handshakeexample in Chapter I could serve as a context for quadratics - can you find others? Differences We conclude this exploration on functions with a nice way of looking at the differences of linear, quadratic and other polynomial functions. Here we have chosen a spreadsheet,using Excel as our example. Here the three values in the F column correspond to the coefficients in the conventional representationof the quadratic polynomial as ), = &r1 + bx + c. A set of consecutiveintegersare generatedin the A colunrn. The fonnula for ttre quadraticis enteredin cell 84 in tertns of cell A4 using either the absolutereferences, such as $F$ [, or the facility in Excel to define names - u'hich producessomething more like conventional algebraic notation. This for cells is copied dou'n the B column. In column C rve f,rndthe differencesof the values in column B, and similarty column D has the differencesfrom column C. Now we can enter different values for a,b, and/or c in cells F1:F3. We should find that D always has a constant value.
EIe Edit tlew tnsert FqilTrat. 1ook.,q"g6., r{a6do;'e4,,;
Ddq
sRy
S EES
B .r. U
Differences
^-a a-
b=1.2 c=-l 14 215 332 5 6 7 8. 9?8J 10 11 17
6 _6 5 6 6 6_ 5 6 6
:1- - - i5
2l
N 35 4t li' 53 _59 65
B.{ 119 181 n7
fi-
319
re+
Sheetl
Con thisbe Zero?Hott,is it relatedto tlrc t'altteof a,b orc?
Inv'estigatechanging the step-sized of the x-v,alues the A in column,e.g.for I, 3, 5, 7 . . . orfor I, 1.5, 2,2.j, . . . \
Con yottmake a general rule for qtndratics? Con you extend tlrc idea to cubics? Tb higlter order polynomials?
88
Teaching Matlu with ICT
Iteration and convergence There is a very nice activity to be found in the NCET IT Maths Pack about iteration This is describedon pages B and 9 of the booklet. Secondary arrd currvergencd. with a Graphic Calculator. Mathematics In words and symbols the processis: L2. 34. 5. 6. choose two numbers A and B (wich B t l*) think of a number X get Y by B to get Z X -
add A Eo X to divide the
result
If Z is different by Z and go back Otherwise wrice
from x, replace to step 3 down Z as the
result
We could investigate this using a spreadsheet,or TI Interactive! or a graphing calculator such as the TI-83. We can convert rules 3 and 4 into the s i n g l e r u l e : (Ans+A)/B . The follou'ing screen shou's the start of a sequencervhich after a number of 'ENTER' repeatedpresses the of key produces2 as the output. +r1:3+E
:1
I I {Firr:-+Fi.rE 1. ...i..6..7 1. F;Ef;:l8E'.189
L.31i.91t7.JL 1.3-q'-f!.j'.r.3f, I . .-f..r..l.:f .-1.-1': 9'3i+'?'_1i;'-r77

t .
1. ?3'-i??'-l'-t?7 l. 9'-l',19'33:-{'3'3
9.-f
Con you write programs in Logo, Basic or the TI-83 to intplement tlrc algorithm?
Resultscan be enteredin a table:
2 3 4 5
6
Number and algebra
89
With A=1 and B=8 rve get a result like 0.1428571429so we also have an investigation rvhich can lead into patterns in recurring decimals. Of coursethis problem can be solvedanalytically by seeingif we can find a value X such that (X+A)/B = X which we could illustrate graphically for any given values of A and B as the intersectionof two straight lines. Solving algebraically we have X = A/(B- 1) , so we can seewhy the restriction that B * I was needed.Graphically we seethat we would then have a pair of parallel lines, with no intersection. Do now have a good look through your own Number and Algebra schemesof work for classesrvhich you teachand see where these,and other ICT approaches could be integrated. In the bridge betrveenthe last chapterand this one you have seenan example of an approachto finding the rnaximum of a function using graphiccalculators.
c.r, t tou think of ot!rcr luo,\'.r approaching thisif, se)), of \'or(r only available tool wes ctspreadsheet, TI Interactive! ? or
We conclude this section on number and algebra with an unusual applicationof dynamic geometr-vsoftu'are. Here we will use Cabri to try to find the isosceles triangleof side 5 u'ith the sreatest area.This is the problemdescribedin Section 3 of the TTA's book on ICT lieeds ldentifcation in SecondaryMathemtttics.and also one of the casestudieson rheir CD-ROr\{. Algebraic modelli n g rri th d1-narnicgeometr_rFirst \1'e constructa segnlent,labelledI'It'to representa sectionof a straight u,all. Then anothersegmcntFG to represent length of a fence-We measurethe length the of FG, and drag G, sal', until it is as near 5 cm as rve can get. In algebraicterms this length is a purameter for the problem.\&'ecan now constructthe midpoint M of l\V, and the perpendicul:ubiscctor oi ['11'.Using the Compasstool from the Consrruction menu \1'ecan describea circle centreM g'hose radius is the segmentFG. \Ve must drag I'and 1l'sufficientlf iar apartfor the circle to intersectthe segmenr 1.'-t!'inB and C. It also intersectsthe perpendicularbisector in A. Now we have made the perpendicularbisector and the circle appear in dotted format. The top vertex of the triangle can slide on the perpendicularbisector,but cannot leave the circle. So rve construct the segment&14 and choosea point P on it as the vertex. [n algebraic language,MA is the dontain of the indeperulentvariabte P- Norv n'e use the Compass tool again to drau' a circle centreP rvith FG as radius. [t intersectsl,'[7 in poins Q and R- Now we use the Triangle tool to define the triangle PQR.This has been filled with colour. and its areahas been measured. norv drau' the segmentMP and measure We its length i.e. the heieht of the tnangle.As P slideson MA the heighr anciareabutlr change.So u'e can fairly easily find the geometric configuration which maxirnizesthe area (i.e. rvhen angle QPR is a right angle) and we could illustrate this by reflecring the triangle in VI['as mirror line to get a rhombus p}p'R. We can also construct the graph of area againstheight geometricalty! First w,e Show Axes, and drag the origin O to asuitableposition.Then we can dtug one or both
90
Unit Points on the axes to choose suitable scales to fit the screen. From the Construction menu choose Measurement Transfer and point first at the height measurement,and then the x-axis to define point X. Repeatwith the area measurement and they-axis to define point Y. Now wejusthave to turn thesetwo points into point Z.You could do this by drawing perpendicularsto each axis through X and Y and finding their intersectronZ. Another approachis to define the vectors OX and OY and then construct their Vector Sum OZ startingfrom O. So now Z rs a variable point dependenton P. As you drag P so the point Z describesa curve. If you construct the Locus of Z with P then you get the desired graph of the area as a function of the height. So here is a way of constructing graphs of functions without using the conventional symbolism of algebra. Given the Calculator tool in the Measurement menu, we can actually compute out all sorts of functions based on variable measurements.So we now have another analytical tool in the arrnoury.The power of this representation is that as soon as the parameterFG is altered, by sliding either of the points F or G, the whole locus deforms dynamically.
ICT and the teaching of algebra The availability of ICT tools can clearly impact both on the way algebrais taught, and on the way it is applied. The UK's Royal Society asked the Joint Mathematical Council of the Linite.cl Kingdorn (Jir'tC)[o cerrv out a revieu' of the teaching of Algebra. The report of a u'orking group chaired by Prof. Rosamund Sutherland, Teachingand Learning Algebra pre-l9, u'as publishedby the Ro1'alSociety in 1995Section 1.5 containsthe follorving quotation: The grorvth of IT has made it possible for studentsto manipulate many different types oI external representations the screen,involving on
Number and algebra symbolic, graphical and tabular forms. It is now possible to manipulate graphicalrepresentations ways which were not possibleon paper. in Harnessingthis new power rvithin mathematicsand school mathematics is the challenge for the Zlst century.
9I
A subcommitteeof the Mathematical Association studied aspectsof the use of Computer Algebra Systemsand reported in 1996in the book Symbolic Manipulation by Computersand Calculators edited by Adrian Oldknow and Jean Flower. There are now graphic calculators(such as the TI-89) which have functions for symbolic manipulation,similar to Derive. So it is becoming a real issuefor examination boards to be able to specify just what sorts of ICT tools may be permitted in examinarions. Conclusionsfrom that report are: One thing is clear,the effectiveness technologyin supporting students' of learning and understandingdepends almost entirely on how it is used. An often repeatedclichd perhaps,a self-evident 'axiom', but one which is forgottenall too easily when we focus on the technology itself. Teachers and lecturersneedplanned supportto hetp them gain the necessary expertiseto e.rplorethe full potentialof using such [T tools. They rvill needto involve students the useof new technological in devicesin a variety of mathematicalsituations.Studentsshould be encouragedto evaluatecritically the useof technology and make informed judgemenrsin their use. Examinerss'ill needto develop an au'areness the facilities oftered by of suchmachines. Curient s1'llabuses assessment and methodsu'ill needto be revierved-
I *L
92 Teaching Maths with ICT 2b GBOMETRY AND TRIGONOMBTRY

'geometry' In the English National Curriculurn the very word is hard to find! The 'Shape, areaof the curriculum, known as Ma3, is headed Spaceand Measures'- but it does contain some farniliar geometric content, such as applications of Pythagoras' theorem, circle properties, transformations,co-ordinates, construction, locus etc. However, following its revision in 1999,there are now specific references the use to of ICT by students.For example, in Key Stage 3 (age 11-14) we find: Using and applying shape, space and measures I. Pupils should be taught to:
Problem solving a) and Meas ures and co nstructio n 4. :::,t' I-oci j ) find loci, both by reasoning and b7,using ICT to produce shapes and patls We havealreadyseenthat one of the casestudieson the TTA Needsldentification CD-ROI\I for secondary' mathematics based a lesson u'hereI l-year-oldstudens is on usedynamic geometrysoftivareto exploreanglesin parallellines,leadingto the anglesumof the triangle.ObviouslyCabri wi[[ be our majorICT tool in this section, but rve shall usel-ogo for angle,andTI-83, TI Interactive!,spreadsheets True and Basic for u'ork on co-ordinates, trigonornetry etc. As rvith the last sectionrve shall begin by taking an extractfrom the English NationalCurriculumandseeing horv'[CTmight be usedto supportits teaching and learning. shoutd be taught to: select problem-solving strategies and resources,including ICT to use in geometrical work, and monitor their ffictiveness
Geometry and trigonometry 93 Geometrical reasoning

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shoutd be taught to: Properties of triangles and other rectilinear shapes
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use their knowledge of rectangles,parallelograms and,triangles to deduceformulae for the area of a parallelogram, and a triangle, from theformulafor the area of a rectangle recall the essentialproperties of special types of quadrilateral, including square, rectangle, perallelogram, trapezium and rhombus; classifu quadrilaterals by their geometric properties calculate and use the sums of the interior and exterior angles of quadrilaterals, pentagons and hexagons; ca!culole atttl usethc angles of regular polygons
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understand, recall and use pythagoras' theorem
Calculating area One great advantageof the measurementtools u'ithin dvnamic geometrt, soft*-are is that $'e now have the meansof measuringareasof closed shapessuchas rectangles, triangles' polygons and circles. So our first example is just a sort of Cabri test-bed for carr;'ing out investigations into areasfor (e,labove.It coul1 bc usedb1'a teacher as an 'electronic blackboard'or you could develop some tasksfor studentsto tackle using some pans of the basic idea. First we use Numerical Edit to enter the dirnensions of a baserectangle: here we use 8 by 5- We construct a long line AX across the screen and also define the vector AX. Then tve can transferthe eight measurementto AX to define B. Similarly *,e construct a perpendicular to AX through A and a point I/ on ir Define the yecto r Ay and transfer the f,tvemeasurementto it to define D. Perpendicularsrhrough B and D meet at C- We can define the polygon (rectangle) ABCD and measureirs area ro check it agrees rvith the known formula of: area= base x height. Now define any point ^D'on the line CD. Construct the segmentAD'and a parallel line to through it B' This meets the line DC in C'. So rve can constmct the polygon (parallelogram) ABC'D'and measureits area-lVe can also constructa diagonal BD', and then define the triangle ABD' and measure its area.\\'e can also drop perpendiculars to define the segmentsPC' andQD'. Hence we can define the (congruent) triangles AD'D and, BPC', and measuretheirarea. Now, as D' slides on I)C, \r'e can see which areas change,rvhich do not, and which are equal. Then \\'c can start to use visual irnager;' to find explanationsfor thesephenomena.
94
In the above diagram we have used a judicious mixture of line styles (thick, thin and dotted) and colours to try and bring out the featuresfor attention.Of courseour static picture is just a snapshotof what is now a dynamic image dependenton the position of D'.lf you changeeitherof the defining numbers(5 or 8) then the picture should changesize rvithout losing any of its essentialproperties. Properties of shapes A quitc different use of Cabri is by studentsthemselves, starting u'ith blank 'paper', to createthe standardshapesin (f) in such a way that they are robust, i.e. you can't move anv of the defining points or edges in such a way that the figure loses its essentialshapre. an example the diagram below shorvsa constructionfor a rhombus As of side 6 basedon some of the known properties of a rhombus- Of course the rvaf in r*'hich we construct such a Frgure gives us insight into its properties, and vice versat
Con yon work out how thefigure was constructed?can s,ottthink of alternative ways to construct it using dffirent properties? How about other common shapes?
Geometry and trigonometry 95
Belorv is another Cabri test-bed.Here six random have been lnints .4,,8,C,D,E',F joined usingRays(half-lines). Point-s A',8',C',D'.8'.F' havebeenconstructed these on ra)'s so that external angles like A'BC can be marked and measured.Using the Calculator tool in the lvleasurement rnenu -voucan find the sum of the six external angles.Nou'you deform the positionof an1'oiuhedefining Rrinu ro seetharalhough some of the angleschange the sum remainsan inv'ariant.Of coursesuch softrvare , cannot prol'e resultslike this are alu'ays tme. (Is it true if the hexagonis concave?Just what do rr'e mean by a he.ragon?can it cross over itsetf?)
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Teaching Maths witl ICT
Now we consider how Logo handles polygons. First, can we draw a general hexagon?The procedurecalled Hex below shows a 'hit and hope' approach.It would have been a matter of pure chanceif the sixth side had actually been exactly the right length and at exactly the right angle to close the polygon. Logo provides a very useful conunand called TOWARDS which returns the angle at which we needto head to be in the direction of a given point. So first we have to store the co-ordinatesof the initial point, using POS to find them. The modified procedure, Modhex, uses this idea to close, but overshoot,the polygon. We have adjusted the angle, but not the length, of the final side. In our final version, Modmodhex, we use the DISTANCE function to calculate how far we need to move with the final side to return to the original position. If, though,we want to finish pointing in the samedirection as we started then we can use the known fact about the sum of the external angles to calculate the last amount of turn.
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A general form of l"ogo procedurefor a regular polygon is given belorv,and this uses the content of section (g) of Geometrical Reasoningin the National Curriculum for England.
Geometry and trigonometry 97
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Pythagoras And so to Pythagoras! Below is one exampleof anotherdynamictest-bed. started We .by constructingthe hypotenuseBC.
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Can 1'ou think how' A was constructed so that triangle ABC is alv'ays right-angled at A? In order to simplifi' the drawing of squares on the sides we useda powerful device, called a Macro. This is just like a little program or procedure to do something new rr.rin.g irt.stntctions alreody define.d. This makesthe software extensible. ll'e will run over how' to get a rcd square drawn on side AB, and then how to turn it into a macro to use to get a green square on CA and a purple square on side BC.
98
First we useNumericatEdit to enter90 asthe anglefor rotation.Selectthe Rotatetool menuand click in turn on point B, pointA and the number from the Transformation the around through90" to P. Thenrepeat process A B 90. This rotates anti-clockwise on A,B,Q,P,A. to rotateA aroundP to Q. Selectthe Polygontool and click in turn the on Now we haveconstructed square sideAB-
To turn this into a macro select the lv{acrotool (the seventh icon- short'nas X-r) and select Initial Objects.We needjust three things to define the macro: so click in turn on points A and B and then the number 90. Use the \[acro tool again and select Final Objects (the icon changesto -+Y). Just click on the polygon ABQP as the output. Finally use the Macro tool and selectDefine lr{acro (the icon changesto X-+Y).
'square on side' and the message You need to give a name for the new macro, such as 'This which Cabri will show when you point to the object createdby the macro, e.g.
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Geometry and trigonometry
99
square'-You can also add some helpful commentsin caseyou forget what the macro was supposedto do! It's a good idea also to tick the little 'Save to file'box, so that you keep your macrossavedon your disk. Now when you use the Macro tool you will 'Square see on side' at the bottom of the list. Selectthis, and point in turn to C, A and 90- With luck you will norv get the requiredsquare.What do you think would happenif you selected C and 90 instead? A, Then you can use the macro again with B, C and 90. How many different proofs of Pythagoras' theorem can you find? Can you construct Cabri figures to illustrate thern?You will find some interesting information in David Wells' Penguin Book of Curious and Interesting Geometry. For example there is a very nice one attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. Another copy of triangle ABC is added to the bottom of the figure at NW (how could you do this?). Segmenrs CV' UXY and TZ are added to the figure. The quadrilateral BXVC is shown filled. Can you see three other identical ones in the figure? If you rotate it through 90" about B can you prove it will fit exactly over BALIW How does this.help you prove Pythagoras' theorem?
Further ideas
A nice activity is to take a design with a certain amount of symrnetry and to try ro construct it in Cabri. Flags and logos are nice starting points.
Maths with ICT 100 Teaching
Con you construct the European [Jnion flag: 12 yellow pentagrams evenly spaced round a circle within a blue rectangle?
As an example here is a Cabri version of the NatWest bank logo.
Con yolt work out how to construct it?
Ideas such as theseare regularly to be found in SYMmetryplus, the Mathematical Association's magazinefor young mathematicians. An interestinginvestigation is concernedwith Golden ratio, equiangular spirals and constructionsfor the pentagon.Robert Dixon's Mathographics, Basil Blackwell, 1987, is anotherexcellent source of geometric ideas such as these.
Before we leavethis kind of geometrywe flrst mention some unusualtheorernsto explore (and explain?) and a nice activity. Wells quotes the follorving theoremsdue to Aubel, Napoleonand Thebault.
.S", if 1'ott can constrttct Cabri test-beds for them.
Aubel's Theorem: Dras, any quadrilateral.On each side construct a square facing outwards.Join the neighbouringcentresof thesesquaresto form a quadrilateral,and shon'that its diagonalsare ahvays equal in length and are perpendicular.
Geometry and trigonometry
101
Napoleon's Theorem: Draw any triangle. On each side construct an equilateral triangle facing outwards. Join their centresto form a triangle, and show that it is always equilateral.(Note: this constructioncan also be usedto find Fermat's point - can you find out what it is and why it is interesting?) ThdbaultbTheorem: Draw any parallelogram.On each side constructa squarefacing outwards.Join the neighbouring centresof thesesquaresto form a quadrilateral, and show that it is always a square.
Circles and other loci Now we will take a look at some ideasto do with circles. Here is a conventional diagram, shown in many textbooks, to establish the relationship bet'*'eenthe angles subtendedby a chord AB of a circle at its centre O and at a point C on the major arc AB. We can mark and measureappropriaieangles and explore what happensas C is dragged round the circle.
BCO=60.0
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Of coursew'ccan usethis to suggestthe usual 'prttoi' tir-rt ie E0 [:' i: Ii,.'re anglc arrc e BCO. But what happensas C moves torvardsB, and P no longer lies inside triangle AOB? Can you adaptthe proof to cope with this kind of case?
Mathswith ICT rcZ Teaching
Con you extend the ideas to showing why angles in the sume segmentare equal, why the angle in a semicircle is a right-angle, and why opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180"?
As an alternative to reproducing dynamic versions of static diagrams, we can approachproblems fromunconventional directions. Supposeyou are adrift in a small sailing boat with only a compassas an aid. You see two landmarks on the shore, maybe a church spire and a power station chimney. You take the bearings of each,and rvork out that they are 60" apart. If you use your mobile phone to tell the coastguard, rvhat can they deduce about your position? In balder terms we seek the locus of a point P which subtends a given angle from two fixed points A and B. We will try to talk through a general strategy for tackling such problerns rvith dynamic geometry software such as Cabri. First we construct the points A and B and use Numerical Edit to write the required angle, e.g. 60". The techniqueis to define a circle centreA and a point D on it - we have used an arbitrary point C on AB as a radius point for the circle. The line AD is then like a bi-directional radar beam which we can use to scan over the plane. Our next problern is to be able to draw a line through B which makes the given angle with AD. This is easy. We just rotate D with centre A and angle 60o to give E- Norv n'e dran' the segmentAE, and a line parallel to it through B. This intersectsAD in P. 'crank' 'rvheel'centre A u'e see the point P describe the handle D round the So as rr,e a path. But s'hat is it? One rvay is to choose the Trace On/Off option and rnake P leave a trail as it moves. Another alternative is to use the Locus option in the Con-itructiontool menu. Justchoosethe locus of P s'ith D (on its domain, the circle centreA throueh O. Once again rve have onll'really partially solved the problem. The internal angle APB is 60" rvhen P is on the major arc AB, but flips to the external angle for the minor arc-
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Geometry and trigonometry Congruence and similarity
103
'traditional' geometry, now resurrectedin the new English A standard piece of 'understand and zse SS,S, SAS, ASAand RHS conditions to national curriculum is to the congruence of triangles usingformal argLtments..'. Another way into this prove is to preparea task-sheetfor use together with dynamic geometry to see whether individual, or groups of, studentscan producedifferent shapedtriangles given any three of the six lengthsand anglesof a triangle. [n this way it should be possibleto of see why ASA also includes SAA (because the angle sum of a triangle) and why RHS is rather different from ASS.
and Constructa triangle from the follorving data, if possible.lvleasure record the missing data. ltlake a sketch in your exercisebook. [f you think thereare other trianglcs w'ith different shapesusing the sarnedata then sketchthem too. acm. I bcnr. : ccm. A"
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Another aspect is 'establish the validity of standardruler and compass constiuctit-rns'. Cl;r'iousl..'thc ke\, conccptis that a circle is the locus of points in the plane equidistantfrom a given point.Another is that locus of points equidistantfrom two given points is their perpendicular bisector Can you deviseactivities to establish and/or apply theseideas? construction for an So now supposewe consider the standardruler-and-compass angle bisector.A very porverful image here is the rhombus togetherwith the properties of its diagonals,i.e. that they are perpendicularand bisect eachother. So if we have
Similarly, higher level students may use the same software to explore vectors. For example \t'e can look at various vector properties of the regular poll'gon. Here AB - a is shou'n in red andAF = b is shorvnin green. Can 1'oudefine each of the other vectors in terms of a and b?
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Geometry and trigonometry Further ideas: transformations, co-ordinates and pythagoras
109
Many of the transformation,co-ordinateand vector ideascan also be explored using, say'TrueBasic'but most are more easily explored with graphiccalculatorssuch as the TI-83 and versatilegraphplotting software,such asthat containedin 11Interactive! For examplewe shall use the tists of the TI-83 to hold rhe co-ordinates an objecr of shapewhich we plot using a joined-up scattergram (called an ry-[ine). The idea is to use STAT PLOT to draw the object shapewhose.r-coordinates held in list are L1 and yco-ordinates in list L2.Thteproblem is to work out what combinationsof Ll and L2 should go in list L3 and L4if they are to hold the (x,y) co-ordinaresof rhe image shapeunder different transformations,such as a reflection in the y-axis. you will need to define a secondsrAT pLoT ro.display the image.
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A different approach is to create a program to drarv a shape using the Line(.rI 'y l,x?.v2) command. For examplethe four-line prograrn 'PYTHAG' drarvs a rieht-angled triangle. You rvill ne.ed choosea suirable\I'INDOW and FORtvtAT to for the screenand malcesure that any function and statisticsplotting is disabled. The problcm is to extend the program to create the 'Pythagorasdiagram' as shorvn.
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There are many variations on this theme, such as creating letters of the alphabet, symmetric shapes, etc. which are of popular appealto students.
Maths with ICT 110 Teaching

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Although neither shears,nor the use of matrices, appearsin the latest English national curriculum in mathematicsfor studentsaged 11-16, they are still in other nations' curricula- In any case the post-school literature in many subjects, such as physics, geography,statistics, etc. makes use of matrix notation and students can be very disadvantagedif they have not encounteredit at school. The NCET task-sheet refers to some small-software from the Smile project, called Matrices. The activity can be undertaken using other ICT tools, such as the graph-plotting software OmnigraphrM, or with spread-sheets graphing calculators.[t can also be carried out or using dynamic geometry softrvare.We just include a few screensto illustrate the idea and leave you to work out the fine detail. The first group of screensare taken using the lists and matricesof a TI-83 and Stat Plots for the object and irnage using first Ll, LZ and then L3, L4.
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A similar approachcan be taken in most spreadshccts. How'cver u'c have to make the rules of matrix multiplication explicit u'hen entcring the formulae (not strictll' true, as some sheets provide matrix multiplication as a function). \\re need to make do use of the ideasof absolutereferenceto cells again. To producethe graph you need to start rvith a scattergramof colurnns C and D, and then insert the additional data for a second 'series' from columns E and F. [t can take a bit of practice to get control over the layout of the a.\es.and vou rsill need to drag the corners and sides of the chart rvindow until the unit squareappearssquare!
Geometry and trigonometry I 11
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In Cabri \r'e use a similar idea, using Numeric Edit to enter the four values of the matrix. Then )ou can define your object, and measureits co-ordinates.Using the calculatoryou can 'teach' Cabri the rules of matrix multiplication to obtain the coordinatesof the shearedirnage-Transferringthesevaluesto the &Kes )'ou can drauthe image-Of courseno\l't.ou can measureareas.
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and in for Therearealsoplentyof applications geometry realisticsituations someof includedin sections on modellingand2eonlinks with othersubjects. 2c thesewill be We concludethe part of this sectionon geometryby taking a look at someof the Activity Sheets, and with Computers, accompanying activitiesin thebook Geometry which includedin the NCET TheIT MathsPack The book refersto somesoftware but from BECTa andothersources, rnanyof the ideascan be explored is available within Cabri andMSW Logo. Further ideas:Locus called 'curvesof pursuit'. on is Chasinggames an activitybased what aretechnically Just on turtlesall performing the samescreen. In MSW Ingo we can haveseveral alone.So to use SETTURTLEfotlowed by a numberto give instructions this turtle Jayneleavinga red trail. Turtle we will haveturtle #0 to represent Jeanwho chases # [ represents Jaynewho movesalongsomepath leavinga blue trail. We definejust four procedures this l-ogo microworld. SETUPmovesJayneand Jeanto their for to The startingposition.CHASE hastwo arguments. first is the numberof steps take in the chase,andthe secondis the lengthof a step.
To SETtrF CE l{Atf 'red t255 0 0] H A I : E' b l ' r e [ 0 0 2 5 5 ] S'TTUFJLE 1 PtI FD 1OOFT 9O PD SETTUFTLE O PtJ E[:. 100 FD =r..{
CHASE usestwo procedures. FOLLOW makesJayneturn towardsJeanand move S forward a distance EVADE makes Jeantravel a distance along somepath. S.
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Tl'recornmandCI{ASE 50 5 resultsin the following output
Geometry trigonometry 113 and
Equal areas:Thke points Xand Yon two different lines ttuoughZ. Chooseany point P and constructthe triangles PXZand P2,. N{easuretheir areas.Drag P until they are roughly equal. Can you predict the set of points P for lr'hich the areasare exactly equal? Can you explain rvhy?
Inngine a clock. This consistsof some activities to do r.r,ith imagining loci and then confirming or amending your ideas u'hen you use softrvareto produce them. There is a piece of small software called Arms which was developedby membersof the Associationof Teachersof Mathematics and is containedin the NCET l.ocus software pack. However, the activity is equally one rvhich can be carried out using the facilities of dynamic geometry such as Cabri. The essentialidea is to have two circles of radii rand r', say. Each has a radius vector (the'arm of a clock') which
IL4
starts from bearings B and B', say. One radius vector rotates at a constant rate in a clockwise direction. The other rotatesat a multiple m of this rate (possibly a negative 'elastic' segrnent PP'. The activity multiple). The ends of the radii are joined by an is to predict the locus of its mid-point M. you start with OB at 12 o'clock (or at a bearing of 000"), The task-sheetsuggests 'to o'clock (090"). 3 O'B' at 6 o'clock (180") and takem= 1. Then try changtngO'B Now try changing both initial bearingsto 000" but change m to 2. We will run through a way to set up the test-bedfor this activity and leave you to 'thought experiments' and confirrnation with the software. Start by perforrn the constructing the line XX'and points O,O'on it. Construct vectors OX and OX'. Use Numerical Edit to enter values, such as 3 and 3 for the radii of the circles, and add Comments as required. Use MeasurementTransfer to create points R, R' on OX and OX'. Construct the circles centre O through R, and centre O' through R'. Construct perpendiculars to XX'through O and O' to meet the circles in N and N'. Hide the lines XX', ON, ON'and vectors OX, OX'. Now use Numerical Edit to enter initial values of the bearings of B from N and B' from N', and annotate as required. Use the Calculator to multiply each bearing by -1 and call the results rotl and rot2- Rotate N about O by rotl to get B, and N' about O' by. rot2 to get B'Construct vectors OB and O'B'. Use Numerical Edit to enter a value for the through. Use the calculator to multiply 0 by multiplier m and the angle I to turn O^B -mto getrot4.Rotate B about O by rot3 toget P, and B' about -1 to get rot3,and by O' by rot4 to get P'. Constructvectors OP and O'P', and make them thick. Construct rhe segmentPP'and its midpoint M. SelectTraceOn/Off and selectM. Finally select 'spring'. \!hen you Animation, and selectthe turn angle 0 , draggingout a rather short 'arms' OB and O'B'rotating reasonably slowly on release this I'ou should see the 'clock of M being tracedout as a thick red line. Just click faces', and the locus their on the mouse button to stop the animation. To clear a locus just select Hide/Shorv and then click on the pointer icon. Now you can double click on any of the numerical parametersto set anotherproblem. Reset O to 0, and useAnimate again-
Turn = 206 Radius OR = 3 MultiPlicr m = t Bearing OB = 0 Bearing O'B' = 90 Radius OR' = 3
NB
N'
rotl =0.00
-90.00 rotZ= rotrl=-206.00
Geometry trigonometry 115 and

The tethered goat: A goat is tied to the corner of a shed measuring 4m by 3 m. The rope tethering the goat is 5m long- What is the shape of the grass that the goat can reach? What would happen tf the goat was tetheredto a dffirent part of the shed. Of course this is sornething which you can investigatewith a variety of practical starting with a pencil and ruler, before moving to ICT. It is a nice problem, apparatus, for testing your problem-solving strategies, though, e.g. using Cabri.
Circles: This activity is described in an article by Greg N{orris. rvhich first appeared in the NCET l-ocus Pack.This describes some 'thought experiments' to do with touching circles. Again there are a variety of practical ways to investigate this sort of problem rvithout using ICT. The article describesthe use of some sma[[ sofrware dedicated to this problem. However with Cabri we can again make a useful test-bed. Points O and R dehne the 'blue'circle. Qis anypoint. P is a point on the blue circle.
c"1 yoLtconstruct tlte 'magertta'circle +t,hichpasses through e and touches the blue circle at P ? Its centre is S.
ll/hat is the locusof s as p is dragged round the blue circle?
Hrw does the locuschange as Q moves inside or outside the blue circle?
LI6
Trigonometry 'dynamic Starting with right-angled triangles a useful tool is a set square'. Here rve have a little Cabri test-bedwith just tu'o rnajor variables-The grointP can be moved on arc QRto define the angle ZA, and the pointA can slide horizontallf in and out towards C to define the baseAC. The sides of the triangle ABC can be measured, and their ratios calculated. Dragging the point A keeps the angles constant, so we have sirnilar trianglesABC and OPS. We can see that ratios are invariants (and that ABC is an enlargement of OP.t). Dragging the point P keeps the base constant. and changesthe vertical and hypotenuseof the triangle, and hencethe ratios.
Geometry trigonometry lI7 and
BC/AB = 0.50 ACfAB = 0.87 BC/AC = 0-58
R ri i
| \.tiP
,.'l''. 11)
^; "1
"so
A=J0.1'
BC=6.02 cm
A C = 1 0 . 3 1c m
The ratios could be copied dow'n and tabulatedagainst ZA in a spreadsheet or graphing calculator Needlessto say Cabri has a Tabulate tool in the Measuremenr menu to make this easier.
-.--.._-_3_Q,-0_i-__ *-q,g_q : - - l9'-9-- - o,S-4 : 5Q,.1:- o,f7 i *_ - -- --qq,-o:____ : ._-0,-ql _6_9.gi__ : _ g,g4
80.0 . -Eo_.9 89.0 : 0_9s: 0.98: t . 0 0;
---- -Q.Q:*---9..-A-q: 7 _ !o,0' _0.! : 2_0_._l_;0J!: ____ ___
A B = 5 . 7 7c m BC=2.88 cm
AC=5.00 cm
Once the table has beenconstructedit can be 'cut and pasted'to anotherapplication such as the Excel spreadsheet.
-.+*
I
118
A sirnilar idea can be used to illustrate the trigonometric functions for any angle. Here we start by showing anesand dragging the origin O to a suitable position. Now' ourr-co-ordinates rvill be anglesin degrees.so u'e needto reduce thex-co-ordinate's unit length by dragging its unit point tow'ards However the y-co-ordinares O. rvill-be in the inten'al [- [, I I so u'e needto increasethe ,r,<+ordinate's unit length by dragging its unit point att'ay from O. \\lth ),iumerical Edit u'e can transfer the rneasurement- l to the 1-axis and hence createa 'unit'circle (in the -r.-sense!). can create the point We of intersection E of the circle u'ith the r-a'<is. Using Numerical Edit $'e can now enter a rotation angle. such as 397. Then we can rotate E about O by this angle to get P, and construct the triangle OPQ. For the sine function we just need to measure the y-co-ordinate of P. (We measuredP's co-ordinatesand then used the Calculator tool to extractjust its;'-co-ordinate.) Nos'$'e transferthis measurernent )-axis to to obtain point I and the rotation angle to the x-axis ro obtain point X. Using perpendiculars $'e can construct the graph point S. )iou' mark S as Trace On, edit the ro[ation angle to -100, say'. and thenAnimate this number.As the 'rotor'Psweeps round the circle, so the point S tracesout the graph of the sine function.
Geometry and trigonometry l l9
You will need to be just a bit more cunning to get the correct measurements the for cosinefunction! Within the Englishhigher level curriculum 14-[6-r'ear-old students are expectedto meet the sine and cosine rules, and also know that areaof a triangle is i ab sin C . The followin g Cabri screensuggests one possible useful r-isualaid for investigating both the cosine rule (as Pythagoraswith an enor rerm) antl the area.
c = 4.88 cm 3.57 cm b = 5-58 cm AreaABC = 8-61 crn'
AngleC=59.7' s i n [ C l= 0 . 8 6 ' cos[Cl= 0.50
Gmt cmr
3.09 cm
120 TeachingMaths with ICT A nice applicationof trigonometricfunctionsis in exploring parametricand polar curves. For example,using the parametricplotting mode of the TI-83 or TI Interactive!,youcanexploregraphsoftheformx=cosr(t),y=sine(r)forvarious valuesof p andq.
Pl+t1 f loti Fl+t-::
'..iit r E;ic,:,=.iT.r 'r'tr E-lEitit T: ri'.itr E.lc*=(T)*f, ?ir E3=.irr{T}"3 ".i"i7t = Vzr = rl{tr =
T=t,er=5 H r . r i n =4 . 1 H rn.:x= 4.7 !{=.c- = I-i. I l'r'rin= I
IHfirllrl Tti i rr=FJ Ttt.=:":=J{,Lf
l_
Statistics and modelling 2c STATISTTCS AND MODELLING
IZI
Handling data The attainment target Ma4 of the newly revised English national curriculum in mathematics ages11-16 (Key Stages and 4) is called at 3 Handting Data.As with the word 'geometry' in Ma3, the word 'statistics' appears very infrequently, and 'modelling' not at all! The NCET IT Maths Pack contains a book entitled Mathematics in Contexr, subtitled tT in lv[athemotics across the Curriculum. An article entitled why Data Handling? describes the PCIA data handling cycle, introducedbyAlan Grahamin Investigating Statistics, Hodder & Stoughton, I gg1. That cycle forms the basisof the approachtaken in the national curriculum.
P- Posethe quesdon
_->
C - Collecr rhe data
+
I
Followup wirh new I guesdons raised by I *" inrerpreation I
| - Inrerprer rhe results i

I
PCIAdota hondlingcycle In the terminology of the nationalcurriculum this becomes: . Specifying the problem and planning" . Collecting data. . Processingand representing data. . Interpretingand discussing results. There is considerable scope for the use of tCT rools rvithin the aspectsC, A and I: C as sourcesof data and ICT tools for storing and retrieving data; A to compute statisticsfrorn data and to displal,data graphically; I to comrnunicate results. Note: the efficient and rapid exploration thar ICT affords can often encourage pupils to pose further questionstor themselves, and so impacts on aspectP as well.
L22
Teaching Maths w.ith ICT
To start this section we will take a close look at how far the facilities in just one ICT tool, TI Interactive!, can support work in data handling and statistics. We will start with a data source which was included on a disk within the NCET IT Maths Pack. This contains versionsof a file called Cities, which is describedin the article City Life in the Mathematics in Contexr book from that pack. This data file contains ten data setsfrom 50 of the world's largestcities,and was publishedby the Population Crisis Committee in 1990.(Seethe Appendix for details.) The article suggestsproviding opportunities for students to formulate their own questionsin both whole-classand small group discussionand gives as examples: 'I wonder which city has the highest murder rate.' 'Which is the noisiestcity..' '... and the most congested?' 'Why don't you put in order all the data on rnurdersand we'll do the data on noise?' 'Yes, then someoneelse can do traffic flow.' Obviously we needto care with this, and any other secondarysourcesof data, whether stored electronically or not. There may be errors, either in the way the data were collected or in the rvay the data were entered.The data may have been approxirnated, incomplete, too far out of date to be useful,etc. Before vou can poseand explore your own questionsyou need to know' something about the data that are available to you. The data file is organized as a table rvith 5l rorvs and l2 colurnns.The Frrstrorv contains the headings for the colurnns, u'hich 'Field are knou'n as the names'. Thev are as tbllorvs:
Field narne I
Name of ci
COUNTRY POPULATION MURDERS FOODCOSTS

LIVINGSPACE
Name of cou
Number of murders % of incorne sDenton food Average number of people per room
% of homes with water and ele
WATER/ELEC TELEPHONES SECSCHOOL INFDEATH NOISE TRAFFICFLOW
Number of teleohonesoer 100 % of children Level of ba l4-17) in secondarvschools d noi se(l -10) (l ow -h Infant deaths (ase G-l miles oer hour in rush hour
UntorLunatell' this is not a full1, interactivebook! So u,e u'ill rnakesonle decisions about the questions rve are going to use to illustrate an lCT-assisteddata handling approach.Of course you are quite at liberty to choose a completely different set of questions. One questionu,e often ask secondary school students,if u'e want to collect a quick data set,is: 'How many telephones (mobile and conventional)do you have at home'. Clearly this number has escalatedenoffnously in many countries over the past five
Statistics and modelling
lZ3
I :t b" a
years or so- So this data file gives us some data about the spreadof telephones ten yearsor so ago-Our frst problem then is to get a feel forjust what that eighth column of data, headedTELEPHONES, actually tells us. We wilt srartby opening the Cities file in the Z/ Interactivel spreadsheet. (We will abbreviate TI Interactive!to TII from now on') Here you can seea small extract of the file, and you can scroll across and down to see more of it. We will do the data analysisand display in TII's List Editor. You can also do the samekind of things using the TI-83's STAT Editor. So our first task will be to highlight the data in column H ready to copy and paste it from the spreadsheet inro column L I of the List Editor.
The first problc-m that tu'o oi the entrieson column H are undefined(Boston is and Tehran).and markedn'ith a dash,rvhich is not a 'numeric character'.So u,e r.villget a synta.{effor tvhenpastingthe data into L l. Just remove the dashesand leave these t$'o cells. Hl I and Hl9. empty.Norv w'henyou pastethe cells H2:H5l the two empry cells w'ill be ignored.So norv our data sethas4g. not 50 entries.
124 TeachingMaths with ICT Next we can copy Ll into L2 andsort it. Justclick in the Formula field underthe listnameLl andenterthe formulafor LZin termsof Ll.
Norv rvith LZ akeady highlightedjust click on the icon rvith a blue A above aredZ and a dos'nu'ard arrow. This will sort L2 into ascendins order-
Statisticsand modelling
I25
Here we see that the minimum value is I phone per 100 people (corresponding to which city?). Of course we might have had some cities where the data recorded were 0 phonesper 100 people - would that have meant that there were no phones at all in the city? Now therearc a whole lot of list operationswhich producestatisticsfrom a given list. In the first cell of L3 we typed'mean(Ll)' and in the secondcell 'median(Ll)'.
Usine this techniquewe find that: min(Ll) max(LI) mean(Ll) median(Ll) v(Ll) stdDe variance(Ll) dim(Ll) = = = = = = I 21.98 13 20.ffi 426.96 48
The icon third from the right opens the Statistics RegressionCalculation windorv. From Regression Setup you can select the Calculation Type as One-Variabte Statistics,and enter Ll for the X List-
When 1'ouclick on the Calculatebutton the display changesto Calculation Results. Here you no$' get a very full set of statistics for our data set. These include the sum of the elements. and the sum of their squares,the population and sample standard deviations, and the quartiles.
127
As we all know, a picture is worth a thousand words, so we next look at some ways of displaying this data. The first is the histogram. So just click on the Graph icon, which shows a scattergramChange the Stat Ptot Style to Histogram and enter L1 for Xlist.
You can edit the Line and Fill details, but the most important thing is to choosethe Class Edge and Class Width valuesappropriatell'.If u'e rvanr the numbcr of phones to be sortedinto the 'bins' 0S x <10, l0S -r <20 etc.. w'e then u'ant the Edse to be at zero, and the u'idth to be 10.
Of course\1'e going to needto adjustthe limits on the axesto ger a sensiblegraphare
I28
TbachingMaths with ICT
You can read off valueswith the Trace This should producea suitablehistogrambutton.
129
l"
*lz-
This confirmsthat the modalclassis the half-openinterval [0,10)- or, for discrete dataG-9,with a countof 22 (out of 48). Of course both the shape thehisrogram, of andthevalueof themode,change you re-plotwith differentClassEdges Class if or Widths. Anotherusefulrepresentation theBox Ptot(or box-and-whisker is diagram). We cansuperimpose overthehistogramone
Tracing this 1'oucan read off the min, max, median and quartiles, as shown on the following page.
130 TbachingMaths with ICT Henceyou canalsocalculate range max- min =7 5 - I - 74, andalsothe interthe as quartilerangeasQ3 - Ql = 40.5- 3.5 =37. So now you haveseen rnostof the tools of trade for working with a singledata set.There is anotherdisplay type called 'Modified Box Plot'which you mightexplore. This is very similar to a 'RegularBox 'outliers'whichmight Plot' exceptwheretherearevalues called undulydistortthe data.An exampleoften quotedis the salarydatafor a small company, wherethe Directoror ChiefExecutive Managing mightearnin theorderof ten timestheaverage salary.In this examplethereareno suchoutliers.
The box plot is particularly useful for comparing data about the same aspecr raken frorn different groups. For example we can split our list of data on telephonesfrom 48 cities betweenthree new lists coresponding to Europe, the Americas and the Rest of the World. The respective box-plots can be superimposedon the same a.xes. Only the scale on the horizontal axis is important. Can you guess rvhich box plot corresponds to which international grouping? Do you think a similar result rvould hold true if data were collected now?
I I
Statistics modelling 131 and
Another imgrcrtantaspcct of data handling is in looking for associationsberween data- For exarnple the data on tetephonesmight be regarded as associatedrvith the relative u'ealth of the people in the cities included in the data set. Bur there is no data directll'giving comparisonson, e.g. income per capita.So we could chooseanother set of data rvhich rr'ealso think might be related to wealth, such as LIVINGSPACE, i-e- the averagenumber of people per room. Whereasthe number of phonesmight be expected to increaservith wealth, the number of people per room might be expected to decrease-So we might rnake the hypothesis that there is an inverse association betu'eenTELEPHONES and LIVINGSPACE, i-e. that the more phonesrhereare per l0o people, the less people there iue per room, on average. So we rvill now look first at producing a scattergram,and then at fitting some models, both 'by eye', and using the TII's builrin regressionmodels. Before w'e rush into copying and pasting the LIVINGSPACE data inro rhe Lisr editor we rnust not forget Boston and Tehran! Remember that we did not have any TELEPHONE data for these two cities, so they rnust be struck off our list of comparisons. Just remove the data from cells Fl l and F49 so theseare empty. Then you can copy and pastethe F column data into list L3, and copy and sort it in list L4. So hcfore \\'e go onto the ne.xtstagecan you find the values of the min, maK, mean and median for the LIVINGSPACE data from our remaining 48 cities?
Ele..Edt" Ue*:
The key features of the current Data Editor are that once lists L2 and L4 have been sorted independently they have lost all associationbetween them. We have to use the unsorteddata in lists Ll and L3 since they each refer to the samecity. Selectthe Graph icon and make a scatterplotof the co-ordinate data pairs (Ll(n),L3(n)) for n = I,2,.. .,48.
133
lbu can useTrace to step through the points of the scatterplot. Here ltadrid is beine shownas (16,2.21.
The data do seem to shorv an inverse relationship.though not necessaril1' linear a onc! Click on the Function button,ard the f(xt tab oi the Funcuonsu'indorr. Nou' r'ou can enter any function you like, and its graph rvill be superirnposed the scatterplot. on Here we try a linear function with a negative gradient.
L34 TeachingMaths with ICT
lf you think that an inverse function, such ?s y = k/r, rvould be a better fit, then you can compute valuesof r;'by forming list L5 as the product Ll*L3 of the lists Ll and L3. Then )'ou can cornputethe mean of L5 to give a value for k of about 23. So tve can also plot the graph of the function 23lx for comparison.
Nor,vyou can get TII to compute regressionmodels for vou. First a linear one. and then a porverlas'of the form ).= ar\ .
L36
TeachingMatlu with ICT
So, from the Statistics Regression Calculationwindow you just selectLinear Regression usinglists Ll and L3. You can also give a narneto the resultinglist of residualswhich will automatically cornputed stored,andalso to the function be and which will storethecomputed regression model-
'hne So the of besrt-it' is roughll') = -0.04 + 2.75, q,ith a correlation coefficient of x about -0.66. This is a bit less steepand interceprsthe;-axis a little higher up than our 'b,\'e,\'e' iit- So norv we can graph the function stored in y3(x).
137
We can also try fitting a po\\'er regressionmodel-
138 TeachingMatlts with ICT Here we seethat this modelis roughly| = 4.3 xa'aa with a correlationcoefficientof -0.78. You canplot this over the scatterplot andchange line styleof the 'by eye'fit to the give a brokenline.
ln the Data Editor you can vien' the list of residuals,shorvn here as list L5. and compute their squares,as in L6. You can use the stored regressionequation,1'.1{.r), to compute a list of predicted y-values in L7. Also you could plot a scattergramof L3 against a transformedversion of Ll to see if a linear fit u'ould be appropriate. Here L8 holds Ll raisedto the po\r'er4A1, so the line;,.= 4.3.rshould be an approrimarion to the line of best fit on the scarrergramof L3 againsr L8
139
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lirrin= -6.4 i-im.:.*;=S2.4 i::i;.,;l=tt]l trnt ti= -. 4 1,5 i 1,'ntg-v:=6. E 18 = Vs.c.l 1 l*ir.e:i=11
The really amazingthing is that pretty well all tirat we havejust done in TII can also be carried out in a graphing calculatorsuch as a TI-83. We will jusr show a few
I40
TeachingMatlx with ICT
colresponding the last stages this analysis. coursethe TI-83 can screens to of Of datawii;i TII. You cansavetheTtr lists on disk in TI-83 formatanduseTI exchange Graphlinkto transferthe dataYou can alsoexportthe datadirectly to a TI-83 from theTII's DataEditorFile menu.
tl
a
a 1t t6
I
2
L
5t t(,
LZ(ll= |
z z
3 3.2 a-E 3.2 e.3 t-?

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g=ax*b a= -.641 h= 2.75,.3 nZ=.436 n= -.65'
ln
g=.i+x^b a = 4 .2 9 4 b='.444 t' l = .6 8 4 r='.777
rVr E -.EI4LN+Z.753 rV zE 4.294N ^ -.444 rV3=

tV,l= rVg=
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Armed rvith both TII and a set of TI-83s you have enorrnous flexibility in how to plan for work in data handling. Enhanced u'ith data-loggers such as the Texas Instmrnen6' CBR and CBL you also hare the meansof capruring realdata first hand. ln the next section on modelling there are some other suggestions for ways of datacapture, such as taking readings from photographs.
PRL-IGRffT.I: PIE : Su g r{ L r)+ 5 : Fnt]t-'t' Frr0t''t' : FIE :3+R : Circle (8,8, R) :B+T :Line(E,8,6,R) : Fcrr(F, I , dim(Lr ) -l )t (F) : T+S6k1+Lr /S+T
: FlatsfJff ! Furic! B*gt ee : ffxe;i0l*t-' : Gr-id[rt-t' : ZOec.imall
: L i ne(6' 6' R + s.i rr{ : End

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:r
The TI-73 calculatorwill alsodraw pie-charts pictograms. might be useful and It to havea PIECFIARTprogramfor then-83. This programtakesthe datafrom list Ll anddrawsa pie-chart clockrvise startingfrom l2 o'clock.
I
6tr
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lLi
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Ll(li=
Statisticsand modelling Note: the flash-Rom technology of modern GCs such as the TI-83+ means that new applications software may well be developedto extend the built-in rangeof functions.
141
Simulation with random numbers We concludethe statisticspart of this section with an illustration of the use of TII to simulatethe rolls of dice using random numbers for which we used a graphing calculator in Chapter 1. [n the List Editor you can define L I to hold randtnt( 1,6,[ 00) i.e. 100simulatedrolls of a dice (integersfrorn 1 to 6 inclusive).
P.:pcat this for list L2, and thennrakeL3 the sum Ll+LZof t-l and I-2.
L42 TeachingMaths with ICT
Cor,,-ounow produceboxplotsfo.r each list?
Statistics and modelling I43

Modelling using captured images One good sourceof data for modelling can come from pictures, posters,photographs, etc. For example all or part of an image from a photographicprint can be scannedin to a computer,such as the one of Sydney harbourbridge below.
With the image savedin a conventionalJPEG or TIFF format !'ou can open it in an in image editor, such as MS p6in1r\t,and readoffco-ordinates measured pixels from the top right-hand corner of the screen.
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7
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rt t1
We have sampled the data for the 32 points s'here the vertical struts meet the lorver front curved girder, which looks fatrLy like a parabola. Entering theseinto TII we can perforrn a quadraticregression. Here r-data like 869 are storedin LI and 1'-data Ltke244 tn L2. Horvever,the origin for the picture data is at the top left-hand corner of the picture,which rs72l pixels deep. Hencerve form L3 as 72L-L2 to invert y-coordinatesto be taken fromthe bottom of the screen.L4 is found flromLll100 and
144 TeachingMaths with ICT L5 from L3l100. Fitting a quadraticregression model we get the approximate relationship: y = -0.059x2 O.834x I.962 + +
with a correlation coefficient given Uy VO.W88= 0-9994- pretry remarkable! The resulting quadratic function can be superimposed over the scattergramof L5 againstL4. Here it is geometrically important to choose scalesfor the axes so that units are the same length on both x- and y-axes-

If you have any of the following:
a
a digital camera; a conventionalcamera and a computerwith a scanner; a conventionalvideo cameraand a computerwith a video card acceptingvideo input; a digital cam-corder.
you too can be in the image capturebusiness!Anothergood examplefor a parabola should be an image taken of water coming out of a hosepipeor drinking water fountain. Wth a video camera(and with somestill digital cameras)you can take a succession of imagesof a moving body at a known number of frames per second(usually 25). For example insteadof (or as rvell as)using a motion detectorto collect sensed data from a swinging pendulum you could also captureimagesand digitize its position at known time intervals. Below are eight successive frames from such a video clip.
_! n
. _:.=* Data can be nrea.sured e.\tractedfrom theseusing an image editor. This can be and sc:rled give actualrrlctsuicnr.nts the sizr ctftni.' pertof the ima_!e knou'n,e.g. to if is the diarneterof the ball, or rhe lengthof the string.
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irFslFE p{- @ :1 Fqt -.{- ':' 1:.: :
rcTi@
Here is the resulting image from the data entered into a MSE.rceflv spreadsheet.
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-l
:klne
?3;
t i
_13; $_:
n0 h.lnlontal 'lerl.Cal l|Itle I l.tg tJ: 0 7 J.5 t{:3 olu 3 2'15 l-53 0 C83a1-j r :12 rrJ al?s 5 ?5 16{ 0t66}167 6 :15 tt 0li-n3 i .-i.. til D5 ': A | | 81 O:3lEbI .J/ 3 | I !q{ 0.36333J r0 2 116 177 0 3;5 il ::l t73 0{lri66l 1: 2 t3 1.67 O.4frj?J ll :5:l 15y 05
Scafrerplot of pcndulum posfion
l5
t
o5 0
-j
Horizontal displacement ag ainst time
o
lit
16;
t.t
15
2 .t{
r It i 5{tri
I 65 0 55-JJll
.- Li
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t6 t7 la 19
;tl :r 2:
2.04 I lrl JJ6 30.J15 i5 { i.:t
| 5.y 0 65 I i5 0.68666i lr 0ilf_Lt:11 lt 015

ti6 0TstbEI l?6 LlB?:j311 q tt.:: I r.t
{
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For ease of modelling we can export the data to the lists of Tll, with horizontal rneasutements Ll, vertical measurements L2,and time in L3, say.As usual we in in
i l I
I
I47
can show the scattergram Ll againstL3 and try to fit a function 'by eye' - in this of case a transform of the sine function of the form ! = a + b sin(c@ + A) where we needto match the period, amplitudeand phaseshift.
{xl I su.tqrot'l
'-ffiHl
ff"p".,A*Vri"Are F--..-
'l- rl
-l- Il
FI- I
+ l . 9 r i n ( 4 ( x - 0 . 1 5i ) f
-:, i:,:i';
_ra?{:i--: i-
'!
t
I
I
-:+.:;'it ,,ir,:l#:i '.i----;'lti;

.-_:ii: -'j!+'.a !J :
5r
f
f
So it look^s if r,t'e as have a prettl'good fit! But u'e can also use the TI['s Sinusoid Resressionmodel. This gives an approximatefit by the function: ) ' = 3 . 9 5+ 1 . 9 3s i n ( 3 . 8 8 .-r2 . 9 4 ) .
i I
I I
-^ r ll
148 kaching Maths with ICT
Statistics and modelling Modelling using practical activities and other contexts
149
Another good way of gatheringdata practicallyis by flexing a long plasticruler over a large sheetof squaredpaper.You should be able to get a good approximationto a quadraticcurve by just pulling the endsa shortway towardseachother.You can also make a cubic curve, with a point of inflection by pushing the ends in opposite and paralleldirections.Just hold theseshapes over the paperand run a fett-tip pen along them-Then you can read off co-ordinatesafterwards from the squaredpaper. Another practical approachis to use a pieceof hardboard,some chain and a couple of cup-hooks. Screw the hooks into the board a metre or so apart and use them to suspenda chain sonle 20 per cent longer than the gap. Again you can read off coordinatesfrom the chain. It is made easierif squaredpaper is placedon the hardboard beforehand- similar result can be obtained by suspendinga length of rhick rope A between two points. The theoretical model is actually a curve called a 'catenary', but you should find that it is welt approximatedby a quadraric. Bouncing and swinging A good sourceof quadraticmodels comes from sensingmotion. Anything falling undergravity, ignoring friction, etc.,should haveconstant acceleration. and henceits velocity should be given by a linear function, and its displacernent a quadraric by one- The CBR motion detector includesa program called Ranger. One oi rhe applications offered within the program is called Ball Bounce. [n rhe nexr chepter rve give a casestudy about the use of this application.Using Ball Bounce \.ou can hold the CBR abovethe point of release a ball and, u,ith a lrttle practice.caprure of data from successiverebounds.The softu'arethen usesthe greatest,Cistancc r-aluccapturedas its estimateof the distanceto the ground, and subtractsall the disrance data from it. Hence the imagesshow heights of bounce against time.
li153
1=t.rit61Z
Another feature of the software's Plot Tools is the facility to extracr a subsetof the data-So you can selectdata from just one bouncein order to try to fit a quadratic model.
i:t:T1-.6trt ..
dro'st oo ct co q! c! ll! gg
ii:-g1lt9:
t=t.irlri1?
150
When you leave the program, the data are stored in lists Ll (time),L2 (displacement), L3 (velocity) and L4 (acceleration). now you can analyseand display them just So as you like. The first thing to note is that we have discrete data collected from a continuous process.The programoriginally sampledaround 100 readingsat regular intervals within a 4-second span.We have extracted around 20 readings within about a l-second span. Using the Stat Plot you can display the data as a scattergram, and 'by eye' fitting of quadraticfunctions. Of course it helps to useTrace then do some to find an approximation to the maxirnum point for the graph.
i::.118632
t:1-0193312
Remember that the quadratic function only models the vertical displacementy of the ball for positive values of 1'! Remember, too, that the graph does not show the path of the ball. It is not a trajectory in space. Of courseyou can also usethe built-in regression modelsto fit a quadraticfunction to the data. Also you could transferthe data to a computer and useTII for the analysis.
b=8. ?4999:_142a L='?.4ill{ti-lt? F:3=.9.J._1973:+ I 1:{
u.fdF:eg :l=gxl +bx+c a= -4.93j.j:3.3r:r9
The correlation coefhcient (0-999987)is so close to I to su_qgest s'e rnight have that 'cooked' the data, but honesth' n'e have not- This is just a very robust e.xperiment. From the theory rve knorv that the accelerationis given by -g, assuming no airresistance,etc. Hence the velocity is given by a linear function -gt + D, and displacementb)' a quadratic function -Ll2gt] + bt + c. So n'e have also found an approximare value tor g as 2r'J-9il.r = -9.868 ms-:lt is also interesting studythe maximum heightsof the bouncesand the times at to which they occur. Norv this time we really do have discretedata, so we must approach curve fitting rvith care. What sort of function rvould you expect to model this data?
:i:.grr
f:t.r.li
Statisticsand modelling Here is a table of the extracted data for vou to use for your own analysis. N -r (s)
151
v (rn)
0
I
0.00
0.84 1.68 2.45
2 3
4
3.r0
3.69
1.30 1..02 0.78 0.60 0.46 0.37
While carrying out some w6rk like this, sdme students had begun to get the impression that every curve might be a quadratic! So they tried fitting a quadratic function to this data.Would you expecrir ro be a good fit?
adF:es
:1.::t:1-ir.1]li:l:
g=g:qt*b:*+c
tli:J1177555 e = .-..l5tr;l-144?58 h':---f'-l'_?Bg4F,.f i= 1 . R 3 =. '3'-1'-1'i 14tl.75

i::.9\(l:59? ?:t rrr.:g:'{i
Once again the correlationcoeftrcientis phenorlc'otllv clo:e to ll The corresponding second-degree equationis : = 1 ) ' = 0 . 0 2 8 . r- 0 . 3 5 6 - r + . 3 0 0 1 . 3 0 0 ( l- 0 . 1 - l ? r r : . : Clearly we have to be cautiousaboutnot using sucha tunction to inrerpolatebetu,een datapoints,nor to extrapolate beyondt = IlO.l i7 = 7.3 seconds. 1.ouhave met the If 'coefficient of restitution'you might like to use the data to estimateits value, and also to see if you can confirm theoretically' thar the quadraricmodel for marimum height againsttime is not such a surprise. One group of students decided to see if thev could simulate a quadratic displacementcurve by walking towards,and then au ay' irom, a CBR. Their results becarnea little confusedwhen they got very close to the CBR, but they generateda reasonable data set on which the classarrived at a 'bv eve' fit using transformations of .r2.
The CBR can also be set up to log data from a variety of dvnamicsexperiments,such as with spring-mass systems and pendulums. Theseoscillations make a good way of introducing the trigonometric functions outside the range 0" to 90'.
-aIf\-.
],
152 kaching Maths with ICT

0rllli F lErIl
..tr,t Erll. 64+ . !J=. i rr { rr/: =

. I t- \T::rtJ,r = -..qJ = 5
f'l+ti
f lr..tl:
.5f]{-.5t:i
:i:{|
T:.511
il,J 6 =
Now we look at some examplesof modelling and problem solving which have formed the basisof successfulpiecesof courseworkby l5- and 16-year-oldstudents. each In case we will illustrate the activity by using a different ICT tool, but you might like to think how you could approachthe task using a different ICT tool. Srvimming and running A girl is swimming off a beachwhich has a straight shoreline.When she is at poinr G, l00rn from the nearest point Non the shore,she is stungby a jellyfish. She wanrs to get back to shoreand pick up her towel asquickly as possible.Her towel is on the shore at a point I, 200rn from N. The fastestshe can swim is 2 m/s and the fastestshe can run is 5 m/s. What is the best route for her to follow from G to I' and how lone r.vill it take her?
Using P1'thagoras you can calculate the time taken to srvim direcrly from G to T. Even though this is a shorterroute, it takes longer than srvirnming directly from G to A', and then running to f - a total of 90 seconds.Can you find some point P betu'een Nand T for which the journey GP + PT iakes the shortestpossible tirne? Clearly you will need to make one of the lengths, say NP, as the independenr variable x, say, and find the other distancesand tirnesas functions of x. One u,ay to approach this is by using the spreadsheet facility of TII. The screenshot shorvsone possiblelayout. Can you suggest what formulae are usedfor, e.g.cells A3,B2,CZ, D2, E2 and F2? With this layout you can easily 'zoom' in on the table by changing the initial valueA2 and the steplength G2. You can easilyset up a differentproblem bt' r'arvingeitherthe stvimmingspeedor the rrrnning speed. You could alsc turn thc other constants,GN and Ml"into parameters.
I t
and Statistics modelling 153
ii.
Ed
fnr
!rcat
FQflnd Ioob
Dat.r
Hcb
F I F L i
i6
20
I -i
0 zo ilo r;O a0 100 120 l{0 I'iO leo 200
100 l0l 3a 107.t 116 tjZ tze oa t.|l.r2 l5'i Z LIZ 05 lAe na 2 0 - ' ,: r l 22i 4l
PT rrirrtine tqtnlti'|e .10 40 50 200 50,-r,.i la0 30 Ar:.9'-1 5i.85 1n0 32 e7.65 |d'jl 140 Ze 8't 3l '1! d.l 0i r20 ?e.oi :0 7l lc0 20 90 lt ta I z0 ti 9,r I d,i 0i 60 12 93 0i jl0 9,r l,l a t02 34 ,l LO? eo ZO l.0ri . 9ri LlI ei 0 0 t11,8r
r u r t r . :t 9 j
trrl -l
To graph the data you rvill needto usethe cellsA2:A12 as the,r-list and F2:F12 as the y-list for a scattergram.You could also write down the symbolic expressionfor the valuesin the F column in terms of the variablex (= NP) and superimposethe graph of this function.
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154 TeachingMaths with ICT The 'missing'region
The diagram shows six points arranged irregularly around a circle, and chords are drawn to join every pair of points. We know that there are uC, = l5 such lines. But how rnany regions do they divide the circle into? By counting it appearsthe answer is 3 1. Can you build up a table of the numberof points againstthe numberof regions and suggestu'hat sort of function might model this (discrete!) data?Can you find a good fit (a perfect one?). Can you explain geornetrically rvhy it takes the form it does?
>
ct .lq
t I 1i 3L
L] ="gLi=.t-iL:,i"
Here rve have put the data into the lists of the TI-83 and formed their differences.
Lta
t 11 16 I r
5a t 1 I
.6
Ld = rrcrl i =-t-..1L ),, S
The pattern in list L2 appearedto be doubling. unril the 'missing region' disruptecl things at n = 6.If the patternin list L6 conrinued,rvhar sort of function would you expect in L2? fo relate an)' resultsto the qconrc-tr1' can rccorclthc changing \\'c numbers of geometric objects. Can you find, and prove, forrnulae for both the number of Lines and Crossings,and hence derive the formula tor the nurnberof Regions?
Statisticsand modelling Points

Lines I
155
Crossings
Regions
2
3
4
3 6
0 0
1 5 l5
2 4 8 I6 31 57 99
5 6 7 8
The old max-box
r0
t5
2l
35
70
z8
There are a rvhole variety of modelling problems based upon maximizing one measurement an object subjectto constraints other ones.A simple example is of on to find the rectangleof greatestarea containedin a rope of length 4m. This gives anotherquadratic model. Working in 3D with volurnesof boxes yields cubic models. These ideascan easily be extendedto volumesof cylinders and cones.Here rve take a very well-known exampleof the ldrgestopen tray rvhich can be cut from a sheetof card-This time we will make useof the dynamic propertiesof Cabri Gdomitre. You u'ill have to constructyour olr'n version to make it behavedynamically!
6j*
tO.grdiE.tfrn&,
t'$-dg':{:
lengdt'breadth'hcigtrt = 9-99
{-50 crn
l.0l
P cm
N'leasures \\'e concludethis sectionrvith a couple of ideasto do rvith 'lr{easures'.Using the listsof theTI-83 or TII it is very easyindeedto changebetweenunits. For example, supposelist L I has a seriesof temperatures recordedin degreesFahrenheitand you want list L2 to hold the corresponding conversioninto degrees Celsius.
r_,l _-___

-1.111 t-\\tt 10 Lt.996 f 1.111 e6.E6',t lz.e2e
30 \4 5(r
h(t l{t 8f.t 3ir
Lr -JIlrJ"
ar what temperature are the Fahrenheit and Celsius readings identical?
You might like to construct yourself a dynamic temperatureconverter using Cabri. Can you work out how this was constructed?
E*e Ee
gF6orts !!'ndoin
'Heh' :
degrees C
26.6t
degrces F = 80.O0
I I
More advanced mathematics 2d MOREADVANCED MATHBMATICS
L57
In the UK, the Nuffield Foundation supportedthe developmentof a set of text books called Nffield AdvancedMathematics, published by Longmans in lgg4.Along with project groups such as SMP (the School MathematicsProject) and MEI (Mathemarics in Educationand Industry) this courseaimed to integratethe use of ICT toots in the teachingand learningprocess.Unfortunatelythesebooks are,at the time of writing, out of print. They contain a number of useful activities which can be carried out using a variety of mathematicaltCT tools and rve include a few exampleshere.The first is some numericalapproaches the derivative of a furiction. to Differentiation and integration The first idea is that of an Approximate Gradient Function (AGF). This uses the idea that the gradient of a function f(x) can be approximatedby (f(r + h) - f(x))lh for small, finite, ft. We will explore the idea with a TI-83 graphing calculator,but you can follow the sarnepath using any suitablegraph-plottingsoftrvare,including TII. We will find approximations the gradientof Yl(x) =x3 - 4x?+ 3 at the point wherex = 0.5. With to the function entered the Y= editoras Y1, you can convenientlyentera value for h in in l'2. The dehnition of theAGF in Y3 usesthe valuesof YI and Y2 alreadydefined. (These are recalledusing the Vars,Y-Vars,Function menus.)The line stvle of y3 has been selectedas dotted. (Nlove the cursorover the s1'mbolto the left of Y3 and repeatedll" pressENTER to cycle throughthe list of possibletine styles.)The graph of l'l w'ill not be displal'edsince the '=' sign has had its highhght removed.
P'l+?1 Fli.t3 f lr..t3
5 i.1r't i li +,i, c \\r'.t .t .-"r't ity't= i'y'9= ..t,1 = e
'.Tr Eii''"j-4i-i: + j it/;=. [tI '.t-ri --'y':'
i'inin= -!l ]*lr.i.::,:=5 = l,i=r-.1 1 !'nirr= -ltjl tr'ma:<= q i = . c l = l6 1 i,ir'e=-=I
II
Nos You can trace o\-er the graph of Y I cle scribing its gradienras 1'ou go, and comparing it with the 1'-co-ordinates from the Y3 graph. The TI-83 has a CALC menu from which you can compute the numerical derivative of a graph at a given x value- Just select6:d.v/drand enter0.5 for the x value. Here the TI-83's numerical algorithm gives -3.2-+9999 its approximation.SelecringTraceand moving ro the as graph of Y3 you can enter0.5 for the x value and read off -3.2749as the AGF value u'ith /r = 0.01.Trl a smallervaluein y2.
l::iT lrlii+T3i -t 1i.r'Ji
I I I I
'l -'l .l .l
T\_.
.t:r.r.li::- ::.i rt9333
jt
.\
i::.t t ?= -?.i:\3
:
I
--.<l
Il
I
_
158
'local Another approach to the derivative for a smooth function is the idea of straightness'.Fint trace Yl and select0.5, then use Zoom In, acceptingthe suggested co-ordinates for the centre of enlargement.Then use Zsquare to make sure that the units on both axes are the samelength. This will help to ensurethat a line of gradient 1 does make a 45" angle with the x-axis. Now repeatedlyTrace to x: 0.5 and Zoom In until the curve looks like a straight line. Using Trace you can explore co-ordinates 'curve' passesthrough of neighbouring points to x = 0.5 . For example we seethat the (0.5I,2.092251) frorn which we can find another numerical (O.5,2.L25) and approximation of -3-2749 to the gradient at 0.5 .
-t:t:+3
I I
i'1:l: ^ ] - \ i i 1 + 3
I I I
j-q:{1+3
in
\
8:.5 I f:3-1!9
1 1 t: \I
?i:.5
t:Z-tE5
=.51
\ \I \
1s3.033451
The TI-83 hasa built-in functioncalled'nDeriv' which is in theMATH MATH rnenu. will returnthevalueof thenumerical derivative Yl with X of So 'nDeriv(Y1,X,0.5)' = 0.5.Similarly;'Y4 = nDeriv(Yl,X,X)'will compute values thenumerical at X of derivative eachof the values X usedfor plottinga graph. at of
i u ( V r , : ' ( ,B . 5 i -3.249?3'-l
llr..tl f'lot3 ?ltti
' . t J 3 = ( V( l { + t J r ) - T r r {"i} t '^/ z .t/ t Enfier-i r.r iq/r' H'

l
iqr'r El.{^.3-4H r +3 r.\r 3 =. F-t I
ir,r 5 =l
The Nuffield approach to integration is to start rvith the solution of differential equations as anti{erivatives. Later this is seen to be equivalent (the fundarnental theorem of calculus) to finding areasunder graphs.In this example the area under the function I'l(-r) = I +-t' is approximated by rectangles.Here we can use the functionplotting and statistics(histogram) plotting of TII (or the TI-83) to illustrate the idea.
fr1' usingdiffirent steplengths,dffirent rangesand/or d.ffirent functions.
ln thefollorving imagethe list L3 is the sumof L2',andL4is givenby L3 x 0.1 i.e. the area.
More advanced mathematics 159
'{iew
*l | --rul x q\@q f" ltr# SEiE f;llctr'EE

-l
Insed
0aa
E+
listrtane f o r $ d 1a
r1 LI
: = s e q ( x . x . 0 . 0l t . 0 . 1 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 I 2
J
L2 :=yl(LI)
I 1.01 i.04 109 1.lt L.Z5 136 L.49 1.64 I.Al L2 A5
4 5
fi
a
I
E_, rr
t
ffiE
(EED
06
tJl
Justas therc\\'asa built-in functionfor numericdifferentiation. the TI-83 so has one for numeric integration.
f'rr I n f. ( 1 +.Y: ..:'.:: tit .. I ..
I
a
I . .j-j.jr;\.j..:r._:..j
- - - - - - - - -
..'.r'tE 1+.*i : I i'-i ".Y i Et-'rr rrt-. r, i-i, fJ ' ]'ii

ttrt I =l \tt'\ = ..(,J s =
. I t -ai'b -
f lt tt
f-loti
Fl.rti
--.d-
160 TbachingMaths with ICT Again we do notknowtheexactalgorithm usedbytheTI-83,but we caneasilywrite a little programto accumulate plot theapproximate functionfor the function and area storedin Yl, usingthe values Xmin andXmax setin the WINDOW. (Theseare of foundin the VARS,Windowmenu.)
FF:l:iljFjFI.l: nF:ER : t:t+F: i::ig1ii+li : i.in.i:r+U : r.U-Li.'.34+H : f':r1''t-::.i' U-H' Hi L' : F+H+Tr r..qcll+F : Ft--tltri i:i ,.tl i : Errd
You could comparethe output from the program.withthe graph generatedby fnlnt to check the closenessof the fit. Can you adapt the program to compute numerical approximationsto dehnite integralsusing,e.g.trapeziurn,midpoint and/or Simpson's rules? lterative processes Fixed-point iterationis a common topic on many post-16syllabuses. Here the useof 'cobweb' 'staircase'diagram a or providesa graphic illustrationof whether or not the processconverges.Using the 'Seq' modeon the TI-83 you can set up an iteration in the Y= editor and a suitableWINDOW.
f'l*t1
Fl+tl
FlotS
:+l'li tr= 1 ' . u i i - ; ] E u { : * - 1 }3 - . 5

--ui.:*i= t_ri-.r.t[.llpsi= '-r..1t r-;i=
r-ri:*l.tirriEr_1,.
Il.l0r:tlrl ril'l iti= I .*l'l.i'.:i= I r:l F I tlt--it .3t-t-.= I Fl c,t5r-.*r.= I -1. 175 I'itnin= i*it.r.i.,i= . lf5 I l-llzr-l = I I
'2nd' Use and 'WINDOW' to select 'FORMAT' and set the display to 'Web'. When you graph the function you now get both the graph of 1.- ;r - 0.5 and rhat of 1' = I . Their points of intersectionare the fixed points of the iteration. Use 'TRACE' and each time you move the cursor right you will open up another line of the cobu'eb. Here rl'e see that the intersection near -0.366 seems to be an attractor for the iteration, rvhile that near 1.366 seemsto be a repellor.
Ltr.f v(..r u!! Ir,lejtrE :EIrEIi Fo l.3rGtl -lElitilrli' Ceordtlf t' IEFriIi Gt-id0rr li:ie=.tltt-'f' L.=tel ljrr .ar'r'tlti't-'
-+:5
A similar, but more dynamic tool, can be createdin Cabri- A macro has been defined to drarv successivepairs of line segrnents frorn the curve to the line and back to the curve-Now you can just slide point P to changethe initiat value for the iteration.
More advanced mathematics l6l
E-+JJAJTljlll rEl 4A
y={?-o-s
Conrplex variables Just t,r shou'ofl-.rt'eca't elso usethdTI-83 to erplore functionsof a comple.rvariable! 'Complex One oi the Nuftleld bcr"rks Nurnbersand Numerical trtethods'has an investigation into the mappingof shapes suchas a cardioidundera comple.r function s u c he ' - " . First use !\IODE to selectparanletricplotting. anglesmeasuredin radians,graphs plotted simultaneously and complex numbers enabled in the form a + bi. The parametricequation ior a small cardioid is enteredin the Y= editor.The formula for its transfonn usesthe Complcx iunctions real and imag from the lvtATH menu.The line st1'leis dotted.
?lt tl fl+ti Pl.rtl: 5c i Err -f . Er 1':.:45.78'-l . - ; ' i r r E . 4 + 81 t 1 + c . c ( T.l Ef:IEli fre._rrre* I =.(:T .rc.,=-_=. Tr r E.4+rlt. i t+c.c, 1 =.iTl i.:.irr{Ti '..].1: i ;1 FlIilFl r Er-eal i.e't1.:'{r r ;.er,-ter',t
ffiJtr+F':l*-.--*<
fe.il. Fp:r.r r*'-'Hi itrf!1 H,:ri= G-T \\'ith a stritablewlNDow
+i'r't r i li: r Eir.i.i.-rie"il.lr r
you can seeboth the object and its image.
I t.ltu:ttl Tr;in=FJ Ttt.=..'':=. .':,8i 1851... T':.t.er'=. t Siuf '-1.... -. f,:::ir:l!.1... l,.ir,rrr= i = Hr.ia:..; I . :jll ir.r._f i... f, liscl =. I t/r.ii n=[
tl
I I
162 TeachingMaths with ICT now the calculator be usedfor complexarithmetic well! Of course can as
{?+f,i. i'^2 -i+l:i c.i-"i, ),'(f,+4i, i '' { i,ri . ? E - 1 . 1 : r 4 i . -1
Naturally the graphic output looks betteron the higher resolution colour TII display-
Ede Yre'v
Tmb
Zocn
ficdae
Heg
rul!{trissiqqR#+Erul?i
Co-ordinate geometry, conics and parametric equations A good startingpoint for work in co-ordinategeomerry leadineto conic sectionsand to parametric equations is afforded by the locus of a falling ladder (see the picrure below). F?'is aZm ladder whose foot F can slide in contact w'ith a slippery floor OE, and rvhosetop Ican slide in contactwith aslippery rvall ON. The srarting point is a 'thought experiment'. Concentrateon the midpoint M of ON.
What path d.oy61, think it will follow.as F slides on OE?
Flrrv about a different point of the ladder srtchas R?
can yott imagine either locusreflecterl in the axes tofornt a closed curve?
More advanced mathematics 163

6N
sS\ can you imagine how the locus generated byRwilt dtftr* slides on Fl ?
as R
oQ.
lbu know that FM - IVIT= l. If P is the point on the floor directly below M, whar can vou sav about the lengthsOP and PF? Can you find the length OM? Anorher useful imasc is to imaginea point @ such OTQF is a rectangle,and to consider its diagonal
If the co-ordinatesof M are(r,y) can you find the equationof the locus of M? If the angle OFT is given by the parameter r, can you find x and y as functions of r ? Try checking this out using the parametricplotting mode of a graphic calculator,like the T[-83. or graphing software like TII.
and 360'?
\
tlt, at does the locttslook tike if tcan take all values between 0"
crr tlcl vott nwkec Cabri constrttction which ntodels this?
Could vou use angle FTO instead?
srpp osethe d.istance is given by another parameter p, can FR both the cartesian and parametric equations of the 1'oufind locus of R?
1.64 TeachingMaths with ICT
ll
h{ g$&l -rld A;A

36t'+9t'-16=0
F:------_----
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In addition to circles and arcs,Cabri has the ability to construct conics. This tool is basedupon a construction by Blaise Pascal,and needsfir'e points to define the conic. Reflecting R in the a.xes provides four of them andjust choosing any other point of locus does the trick. Using the Equation and Coordinatestools from the measurement menu you can non' check out the Cartesian equation of the locus of R and see hos' it varies as vou slide R on Ff. The curve that manv people see in their 'mind's eye' rvhen tryin-qthe thought experiment is not the locus of .l/, but the cun'e u'hich has Ff as its tangent- If y'ou reflect FZ in the axes and construct the four loci of these segmentsrvith F you rvill not actually see a curve, but your eye will detect a smooth edge hinted out at by the boundary'of this bunch of segments. shorvthis curve you need to work rvith lines, To rather than segments. [n the Preferencesu'indorv from the Option menu -y-ou can select u'hether the locus of lines rvill be shou'n as the Envelope, or not- So the neKt image shorvsthe curve envelopedb.vthe bundle of tangent lines like F?'.This curve is called an 'astroid' and is parametric equations are: x = 2 c o s jt J = 2 s i n rr -
More advancedmathematics 165
'Astroid'curve
'Astroid'curve
An excellent source of ideas for constructions and curves is E. H. Lockrvood,s A Book of curves, cuP 1967.The other'classic'is MathematicaltrIoelels.H. I\,t.cundy & A. P. Rollett, Thrquin 19g7. we conclude this section on co-ordinate geometry rvith another e.xampleof the porveirof cabri' this time to illustrate the focus-directri-xdefinition of the conics. we have used Numerical Edit to enter values for the parametersa and e (the eccentricity)' using the calculator tool rve havecomputed the co-ordinatesof the tbcus ^F (ae'0) and the point D on the direc trix (-r/e,0). A seg.)cnt ,ty has lrccii cr-rirstrue rcci along the x-axis as the domain for the independent variablep. DistancepD has been measuredand we now seek if there are points p such thatFe = e.pD, i.e. such that e is the ratio betweenthe distances from Q tothe focus and from tothe directrix. e using the calculatorwe can compute e.pDand transferthis measurement a vector to from F The circle through that last point is the locus of all poinrs disrance pD e.
rf,r.rrrll---
i T
166 TeachingMaths wirh ICT from F. If this intersects perpendicular the,r-axis the to throughP at pointsQ andQ' then thesepointsbelongto the locus.
Eih
gff
Odinc
ldndoi,
Edp
3)C+4t'-Bx-3=0
ac = 0-50 -afe = "2.00
x ':l
PD = 9-74 cm r = 1.87 cm
J
t
I
I
I i
Using O. O' and threeother points on the locus we can define a five-point conic and read off its equation.No$', if 1'oudouble-clickon the value for e you can increaseand decrea-ic thi; to sees'hat happensas e hrst reachesI and then gets bigger. Trigonometric functions and relationshi ps The next example is from trigonometry and has a sting in its tail! The idea is to use a graphical approach to 'discovering'trigonometric identities, such as sin 2x = 2 s i nr c o sr . On the TI-83 rve have plottedthe graphsof sin.r and cos r in degrees [-360,360] in and superimposedthe graph of their product. Clearly the zeros of this function are the unions of the zeros of both sine and cosine, and so it looks like a sine wave but rvith tu'ice the frequency.However its amplitude is smallerthan those of either sine or cosine. One of its maxima is at x = 45", so the arnplitude is sin 45" cos 45" = ( tlVzl.( I/12\ - 1.12. This suggests identity: sin x cos x = I /2 sin 2x , which you the can check by graphing 'both sides of the equation' to see if they appearidentical.
I lirrin= -f,.B
iv-igsEa=Jq.t:t
fl+t1
Pl+t3 floti
".?r E=.in(Fli ".tJiEcas(X) '..tf-ttllr. i n i i'i i c,:= ( i"i)

\lft \ =
iYs=
t1,'t=
it=.c I =9rjr r,'r.ritr=-1.5 Yr.ra:r=1.5 ir'gcI =1 lirte-.-:= 1
I I
More advanced mathematics
167
The following is a true story! Kate, a newly qualified teacher,had usedthis approach with a classof 16/17 yearolds and was very pleased with the results.But there had beenan absentee. When this girl, Sam, returned,the teacherexplainedthe task and left Sam to get on by herself.After a short while Sam showedKate her results.She had discovered that sin 45; hasthe samezerosas sin x cos x, double the amplitude, and with the sign changed. Sam's 'identity'was:sin 45x- -2 sin,r cos -r. How So would you have coped with this situation?FortunatelyKate was sure of her mathematicalground, even if she could not figure out what the calculatorhad done 'wrong'. Sc'shech:rnged \\riNDO\\'to [-90,90]and .,r,es the able to shor,.,that sin 45-rwas really very wiggly indeed!
" .q r'= E i tri l { l r ".\' r =ccs (:-i:1 " .qr/ Es i n { } { )c a g (Hi

..t,
Flotl
Flc.ti
Fl+ti
i \.' rE s i rr(4 5 .q i
S =l
= rYrE
The calculator's'mistake' is easy to explain. [t usesthe same sort of algorithm as n'e usedfor a TrueBasicgraph-plottingprogram in Chapter 1. It evaluates function the at eachof the 94 or so pixels acrossthe screen.Pror-ided this is not too far away from the lastpoint it joins them rvith a 'blobby''line segment. certainyaluesof I; in sin For kr, this rvill be e.{actly 'in s1'nc's'ith -sin 2-rat the points rvherer is an integral multipleof 720191. (720 is Xmar-Xmrn and 9{ is the nurnber pi.rels.) g'hareyer of So the screenresolution there n'ilt elrr'a]'sbc somc function *-hich has this propertl,.[n fact Youmay knos' horv to erpand srn {j.r + sin l-r as I sin 17/2.r cos -ll/2 .r .
can you calculate the value of k ,.f, sa)',there A,ere100 pixets across the screen?
Another useful e.xample trigonomerr)' concernsrnotivating the use oi radians.If in you usenDeriv to explore the derivative of the sine function when r is measuredin degrees [-360,360] the result is very unexciting!Tracing rhe nDeriv function in revealsthat it is virtually indistineuishable from the -r-axis,u'ith a maximum value of only 0.01745329 Of coursethis is not particularly . surprising sincerhelinejoining (0'0) to the first maximum (90,1) hasa gradientof [/90. so rhegradientof sin x at x = 0 is not going to be much larger.[n fact rhe reciprocal 0.0 t7.l53}g ts 57.29579, of so the slope is about I in 60. \\'e can easily changethe unit from degrees, say, to right-angles. This just means\\,edivide the \\'indo\r:'sXmin and Xmax by 90 to get the interval[-a.al and graphthe functiongivenhi'.,'= sin 90 r Here \\'eseethat the graphof nDeriv no\.vlooks like a cosinetunction,but u'ith an amplitudegreaterthan l . ( A c t u a l l y1 . 5 7 0 7 9 5 7 . )

FI+t1 f'lnti fli.t::
rt/ t E=.i rr i.'-ltlti:i-i '. U*Fl.-.!-tepi r ri'LJ ".T rErrfter i u i.t't t 11,
i<, J - I l . . i - -i1,! I = . tt-al':-1t' b -
IHtrrJU lrlr.tirr= -4
Hrqa:t=4 1= l"i=.c- 1 t/r.li rr= -2 Tn.=:E=? qi=r-1= 1 Pirre=.=1
. || - -
fry re-graphing in mLtltiplesof 60'.
Wa is thesignificance 57.2g7g? at of
Whatfamiliar number appears ,f you double 1.570957?
A historical problem We conclude this sectionon ICT use to explore more advancedmathematicswith an interestinghistorical problem. As you knoq lsaac Neu'ton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1616-1716) are both credited with the invention of differential and integral calculus independentlyat about the same time. On the continent of Europe it s'as the SrvissbrothersJean(1667-1748) and Jacques(1654-1705) Bernoulli s'ho did most to publicize Leibniz's rvork. Jean rvas engaged as tutor b1' the lrlarquis GuillaumeFranqois AnroineI'Hopital (1661-1708)in Parisin 1692,[n return for a regular salary'. Jeanagreedto keep I'Hdpital informed of his mathematicaldiscoveries and to let him do as he liked with them. L H6pital published the first textbook on differential calculusAnal1'se lrtf;niements Petits, publishedin 1696.This includes des 'l'H6pital's s'hat \ve no\v call rule', rvhichhad actually beendiscoveredby'Jean Bernoulli! As one of his examples to illustrate the porverof differential calculus l'Hdpital solvedthe follorving problem in mechanics. Here a rope oi length a is attachedat A, and its free end C carries a small pullel'. Another rope of length b is attached at B, on the same level as A and I m as'ar'. This rope passes over the pulley at C and canies a mass at its free end D. U H6pital used differential calculus to determine the minimum value of the y-co-ordinate of D, i.e. the point of equilibrium of the system-Can you do this? (Maybe the symbolic manipulationof Derive or TI[ rvould help?)L Hdpital usedvalues of a - 0.4m and b - Im. You could use the angle BAC = / 2s parameterto find the parametric equation of the locus of D. Actually lve are seeingan arc of a closedcun'e. If b is greaterthan | + a then the locus is the rvhole curve, but the part above the horizontal axis only makessenseif AC is a stiff rod, ratherthan a piece of rope-Do y'.ruthink this curve is an ellipse?
More advancedmathematics 169
_0.521 10.35,
we would be very surprisedif Newton was impressedby this analytic technique.He n'ould have knou'n that the tensions in the parts of the rope CB and,CDrvould have to be equal' and that, in equilibrium, their cornponents along the tangentto the circle at A would have to be equal. Hence AC produced must be the angle bisector of /DCB- So that sives a meansof constructing solution geometrically. the
,i)-..
\sL Con ,ou constnrct the solution geometrically,?
170 2e
Teaching Maths with ICT CROSS-CURRICULARWORK
The most obvious scope for co-operation between other subjectsand mathernaticsis in the choice of data setsto use for data handling work, e.g. in Ma5 of the English The example of the cities data we used in section national curriculum in mathematics. 2c of this chaptercould typify cross-curricularlinking rnathematicsand geography. As well as sharing secondary data sources, there is also plenty of scope for collaboratingin capturingexperimentaldata.For examplesome 15-year-oldstudents in one school are working on a project involving bouncing balls and the CBR. Their project reports will be enteredas assessable courseworkboth for scienceand for mathematicsin the GeneralCertificate of SecondaryEducation(GCSE) examinations at the end of Year I l- We give more details about this kind of work in Case Study 3 in the next Chapter. Using the CBLthere is a wide variety of experimentswhich can help prompt study of irnportant mathematicalfunctions as models. For exarnple,using a pressuresensor together with plastic veterinary syringe you can record volumes in cmr in Ll and pressure in atmospheresinL2. As usual you can produce a scatterplot and try a 'by eye' fit. Here it looks as if a model such as ry = constantrnight be appropriate.L3 is defined as the product LI*L2 and we can see that its values are fairly close to each other. The plotted graph is of the function Y I = mean(L3)lx . ]
3t! 18 16 1t ti 10 I
LSili=
1.03r' 1.1$r6 1.1ir'3 1-\115 1.t:i5 1.9::t1 e.31\1
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So rve have a mathernatical model as an inverse relationship,rvhich the scientists can help explain theoreticallyfrom physical principles. A very important kind of model is that of exponential grorvth or decay. Here are similar looking results obtained from a CBL. The first uses a temperature probe to record a hot object cooling in air; the second uses a voltase probe to record the dischargeof a capacitor through a resistor-
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ft
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T:if
:i=tO
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ln one school all the pupils in Year lU took part in a Health and Fitnessprogranlme as part of an areaof the curriculum knou'n as Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE). Within this they all used a CBL and a simple probe attachedto the ear lobe to record their heart ratesbefore and after exercise.This large data set was analysed as part of the mathematicsdata handling work by all the studentsinvolved. A group of schools in Hampshire have been working on a project to integrate handheldtechnology within their schools' ICT strategyconcentratingon subjects
Cross-curricularwork
17L
such as mathematics, science,geographyand D&T. Some of the teachers'findings from this project are to be published on the TTA website: www. ieach- t.ta . gov. uk/ resear ch/ granL / index . hrm The project built upon work alreadypublishedby NCET is now to be founrdat: w w w .v t c . n g f l . g o v . u k / r e s o u r c e / ci t.s/maths/support. . ht.m1
There is plenty of scope for work linking geometry and Design and Technology. Brian Bolt's MathematicsmeetsTechnology,Cambrid ge, 1992is an excellent source of ideas-Mechanisrns, such as pistons,cranks,etc. are a rich fietd for exploring, e.g. rvith the help of dynamic geometry software. As an example the diagram belorv was produced in Cabri to model the steeringgeometry of a car.
It t
lo i
I
Ackermonsteering The system,known asAckerrnannsteering,is basedon a trapeziunr.When the front wheels are pointing straight ahead,the quadrilateral PQRS forms a trapezium. For a given wheelbase AIV and length betu'eenaxles OF, the shapeof the trapezium is defined by the two parametersp = PE, the length of the track rod ends, and = DD', e the length of the tie bar As O slideson the arc through E, the 'srub axles' PLI andST turn through different angles.This is because the four circles to rvhich the tyres are tangentsshould all have the samecentre,otherwise the front tvres u'ill soon lose their tread.The designproblem is to choosep and q so that the point [zof intersecrion of the stub axlesproducecl as closeto the line AIV aspossibletor atl posrrions lies or Q. Of coursethere also physical constraintson the maximum sizes of p and q. The diagram above s'uggests making a dynamic model, e.g. tn Cabri. You could also make an analytic model using the angle QPS = 0 as independentvariable, and splitting the quadrilateral PQRSinto two triangles.Using the sine and cosine rules you can find the angle ORS - 4 as a function of I (perhapsin a spreadsheet?), and compareit with the desiredvalue d found when V is on AIV.
__-tl,\
1,72 kaching Maths with ICT
BzuDGBTWO
As a bridge into the next chapter we examine more deeply some of the issuesraised about ICTuse in theT'lAcase studies.We will include much of the detail from just one of the four studies, including the lesson plan, and refer to the key aspects identified within the others. If possible, you should refer to the original TTA CDROM for the full details.We will work in reverseorder this time! Case study 4: Algebra at Y10 using graphing calculators
LessonPlan Subject: Age group: Topic:
Mathematics 14 to 15 years Algebra
B ac kg ro und i nfo rmat io n The class is a top examination set of higher attaining pupils. This lesson marks the transition from rvork on the areaof polygons to work on quadratic functions. [n the previous lesson, the class had tackled the problem of making an enclosure of rnaximum area using a 10 m rope. a post and a long straightwall. Pupils have used graphical calculators previously to study linear functions, a variety of forms of distance-timegraphsand for data handling applications, e.g. drawing scattergrams and associated lines oi bestfit. Tea c h i n g/l e a rn i n g o bj e criues Pupilsshould: ' be able to compute accuratetables and graphsbasedon manipulating an algebraicerpressionfor a given area; . knorv horv to find a numcric solution to the problem; ' be able to validate and interpret numerical resultsusing scale diagrams; ' be able to offer a proof of why a particular shapewill enclose a rnaxirnum area; ' be able to corununicate clearlY and concisely what they have done.
M e thodo lo g), and o rganiTat ion l. A resumdwith the whole class on the methods used in the previous lesson to solve the triangle problem using the oHP graphic calculator. 2. lntroduction to the task: to find the largestrectangulararea that can be enclosed by a lOm rope, two posrsand a long, straight wall. 3. Pupils work in pairs to find a solution to the rectangletask. They: methodicatly; 1a1devisea svsternto record therr rnvestigation (b) review their work and locate stepswhich may have generatederrors; (c) improve the straregies thar they usedto solve the problern; (d) produce a disptay to communicate their solutions and methodology to others. 4. ivlonitor progressand question or challengewhere needed.
Bridge Two 5. Selectedpupils presenttheir solution to the rest of the class.
173
Dffirentiation
Theclass somehighattaining has pupilswho will makegoodprogress. extension An activity is providedwhich requires themto applywhat they havelearned the in andrectangle triangle investigations a trapezium. to Assessment opp o rtunitie s/crite r ia pupilsorally duringsummary previous of work. Questioning observingandquestioning pupilswhile carrying groupwork. our Checking throughfinal work handed for presenrarion. in Pupils:
are able to derive correct and precise algebraicformulations using conventional symbolsand syntax; are able to produce and interpret tablesand/or graphs to help them find an accuratenumeric solution to the problem; are able to draw and use scalediagramsto validateand interpret the numerical results; explain horv they proved that their solution u'as correct: explain the methodologyandoutcomeof their investigation.
Resources \\'ork sheetsand blank A4 paper. A half-class of l6 graphiccalculators. set The teacher'seraphic calculatorlinked to an overheadprojectionpanel, OHP and display screen. Rulers,pencils,compasses etc.
Training needs The TT{ identify the follou'ing as possibleaipects}'ou nlay identifl'as training needs: ' using hand-held ICT such as graphical calculatorsto teach aspectsof nrathematics: using ICT to presentinformation, give instructionsand explain ideasto a whole class; using ICT to help assess pupils'progressand to build a recordof attainment.
'
'
----.1
I74
The main issuesidentified about the use of ICT in this casestudy are (a) the effective use of time and (b) ensuring that learning is not masked. Effective use of time In his analysis, the teacherdescribeshow using graphical calculatorshelps him to make more effective use of the time available for mathematicsteaching. The pupils are already competentand accuratewith the mathematicalprocesses neededto generatetables of values fiom formulae, and are skilled at drawing graphs. The calculator performs thesedata processingtasksautomatically.For exarnple,once pupils have entered a function in algebraic notation and specified sets of values,the graphical calculator automatically generatesa table of values and plots the graph. The automatedsearch facility speedsup their search for maximum values. Pupils are, therefore, able to spend more time on the mathematicalobjectives for the lesson, which require them to formulate functions correctly and to interpret, validate and explain their results. By changing the values entered,the teacher and pupils are able to produce many different examplesquickly and easily.The teacherusesthis to demonstrateparticular teaching points,to explore with pupils their suggestions about the values to be used, and to help pupils having difficulty by matching his examplesto their understanding. 'what Pupils are able to ask if . . .?'questions,experimentwith different valuesand get rapid resultsto aid their learning. The teacher uses the graphical calculatorsto illustrate the relationship between 'split numerical. algebraic and graphical representations. The screen'facility helps pupils see and understandthe relationshipbetween the graph, its function and how it had been createdfrom the table of values. The graphical calculatonsare usedalongside pencil, paper and other mathematical equipment in the teacher's mathernatics classroom. He has enough calculatorsfor pupils to u'ork in pairs. This enablesall pupils to practiservhat they have been taught and to continue to hypothesizeand to explore the rnathematicalrelationshipsbetrveen number, algebra and graphs in the context of the problems given. The teacherusesan overheadprojector pad or tablet so that the whole classcan see the displal' from one graphical calculator.This helps him to explain particular points and encouragesdiscussions between pupils and with the teacher.He projects the image onto his whiteboard so that he can annotate the images.The teacher involves pupils in the u'hole class teaching,by inviting them to demonstrate using the graphical calculator and largescreenduring the lesson,and to presentand explain their results to the class. Ensuring that learning is not masked In his analysis, the teacherdescribeshow activities using ICT need to be carefully planned to ensurethat the intendedmathematicallearning is achieved. By auton-ratingsome processes,he enabled pupils to focus on higher level rnathematical thinking and the identified objectives. The important decisions in rnathematicsare notcarried out automaticallyby the graphicalcalculator.For example, in order to producetables and graphsusing ICT, pupils have to derive conect and precise algebraic formulations using conventionalsymbols and syntax, and in order to make senseof the resultsgeneratedpupils needto validate their solutions.
Bridge Two
175
He keeps track of pupils' progress towards his teaching objectivesby structuring the activity so that it is essentialfor them to record their work. This enablesthem to go back, review their work and locate steps that may have generated errors. As a consequence, pupils improve the strategies the they use to solve problems.The record of their work provides the teacherwith evidencefor assessment and feedback,and enables pupils to communicatetheir solutionsand methodology the to the rest of the class. The teacherintervenesto question pupils while they are working in order to assess their progress and understanding,to identify any misconceptions and to undertake focusedmathematicsteaching.Sometirneshe stopsthe groupwork andusesthe large screento explain particularpoints. case study 3: Number at y9 using small softrvare Teaching objectives Pupilsshould: ' ' ' be able to demonstrate instant recall and mentalagility in number; achievea deeperunderstanding the number system,place of valueand metric measurements: be able to think stratesicalll'about this problem-
Izsson activities The teacher be*eins the lesson b1' recapping previous rvork on place value and multiplying and dividing b1' lr). lul and 1000.She usesnumbers greaterand less thanone as the basistor questionsto assass pupils' currenr the level of understanding. She quickll'describes holr' to operate the mathematicssoftrvare program. pupils $'ork in pairs competing against each other or the computer. The teacheruses the plenary sessionto consolidaterheir learning and apply ii to calculatingconversions in the metric system. The main issuesidentified about the use of ICT in this case study are (a) selecting and using ICT, and 1b; extending ability u.ith number.
Training needs TheTTA identify thefollou'ingaspossible aspects mayidentifyastraining you needs: ' usingthe internet access to sources information software support of and to mathenratics teaching ;
uslng a ponable computerand OHP, or other ICT resources, for whole class teachin_u. using small mathematicssoftrvareprogramsto teach aspects of number; usingprogramsthat set up competitive situations improvepupils'mental to arithmetic.
176
Selecting and using ICT In her cornmentary, the teacherdescribes how she selects ICT to help her to meet her teaching objectives in mathematics. She uses the internet as a source of information and mathematics software that she can evaluate against her objectives and use as appropriate. The teacher demonstratesthe software to the whole class to make sure they understandthe mathematicsbehind the program before they divide into pairs to use screenthat can act as a projection it. She usesa portable computerwith a detachable tablet on the overhead projector.This enablesher to project the image from the desktop computer onto a large screen that all the class can see clearly. While demonstrating the mathematicsinvolved, all pupils can benefit from the questionsshe asksand the answersgiven by individual pupils.The whole classcan benefitfrom her interaction through questionsand answers. The teacher decides to book and use an equipped IT room in the school so that pupils can work togetherin pairs on the computers. Extending ability with number The teacherinterveneswhile pupils are w,orking to check that thcl' can explain the mathematics behind their answers,to addressmistakes and misconceptionsand to In re-teachany mathematicsas necessary. her analysis,she describeshow ICT helps to extend pupils' knowledge, understandingand ability to appl)' number. The mathematicssoftware program provides a stimulating context for pupils to The teacher practiseoperationswith decimalsand to consolidatetheir understandrng. are considers that the practiceexamplesavailable on rvorksheetsand in te-xttrooks rather unimaginativeand repetitive.Pupils-findplaying an interacti\e sanreageinst the computer stimulating. Th.)'s'ant to u'in the game and ttrereforetrl' hard to get the mathematicscorrect. The text book practiceexamplesonly ask pupils to carry out particularoperations When using the computerprogram, pupils have to decide for themselvcsu hich operation is appropriateand then carry it out coffectly using mental methods.The program also developspupils'strategicthinking since they need to rvin certainplaces on the grid and block their opponentin order to r,r'in game. the Case Study 2: Data handling at Y9 rvith a spreadsheet Teaching objectives Pupils should: . . . . . collept and record data accurately; find, from a set of data,the range, mean and median; select an appropriategraphical form to representthe data: find a relationship betw'een tw'o data sets using the line oi best iit: generalizethe investigationand decide rvhetherthe relationship is valid acrossa wider population.
Bridge Two
L77
TFaining needs The TTA identify the following as possibleaspectsyou may identify as rraining needs: ' using a spreadsheet teachabout possiblerelationshipsbetweentwo data to
SeTS;
'
usinga spreadsheet veryrapidlyproduce to graphical representation the of relationship between datasets,to scaleand re-scale graphs two the and to explorelinesof bestfit; matching pupils' [T capability the knowledge, to skills andunderstanding theywill requireto useICT for mathemarical purposes; selecting usingICT for wholeclassteaching. and
' .
Lesson activities The teacherintroducesthe pupils to the task and clarifies the objectives.The pupils are to e.rplore the relationship between wrist and neck circumference.They measure each other and then enter their data into a spreadsheet. Analysis of the two data sets using a scattergramleads to discussionabout how they might explore whether the findings are valid more generalll'andhou'the data might then be employed. The main issueidentified about the useof tCT in this casestudy is the effecrive use of time. Effectit'e use of time ln her anall'sis the teacher describeshorv it is important that the pupils are already familiar with the ICT so that they can focus on the mathernatics. She does not have to teach them horv to use a spreadsheet to select, sort or graph data. The compurer or net$'ork enablesthe teacherto prepareappropriatefiles for the pupils to use so that the.tcan gain quick and easy accessto them. The teacher also explains that the pupils already have a good mathematical understandingof a scattergraphwhich enables them to make informed decisions about horv to use it to aid their analysis ancl interpretation of data. The teacheremphasizes that the ICT atlows the pupils to work quickly in recorcling, analysing and presentingthe two data sets in graphical form. This enablesthem to spend more time discussingthe possiblerelationshipsbetu,een the trvo data sets, hypothesizingand testing their hypothesesrather than drawing and redrawing graphs by hand.The teacheris able to usethe time gainedto extendthe pupils' mathematical understanding. Whilst the teacheris arvarethat ICT does not help pupils to be able to draw accurare scattergraphs, points aut that the accuracyof the graphsavoids the possibility of she pupils being misled in their interpretation. They are also able to employ ICT to scale and re-scaletheir graphsquickly and accuratelyand try a variety of lines of best fit without recalculatingor redrawing.The teacherputs the pupils into pairs to consider their data.
178
The teacher describeshow using the large display monitor allows her to make specific teaching points and discuss the pupils' conclusions with the whole class as part of the plenary session. Case Study 1: Geometry at Y7 with dynamic geometry software Teachingobjectives Pupils should: . . . 'parallelism'; develop a strong visual imagery to supportthe concept of be able to derive the angle properties of intersecting and parallel lines; be able to use dynamic geomery software to demonstratethat the angles of a triangle sum to those of a straight line.
Lesson activities The teacherbegins by involving the whole class in a short task basedon aZ-shape drawn on the whiteboard. On a large screen,she then displays images produced from the dynamic geometry software. She questions pupils to focus their thinking and Pupils are given a brief descriptionof how to use their initial understanding. assess the software. They work in pairs on the taskswhich relate to propertiesof intersecthg and parallel lines. The worksheetscontain different levels of guidance.The lesson ends with a plenary sessionrvhere pupils share their findings and the teacher reinforces key points. Pupils are set homeu'ork to produce an argurnentfor why the angles in a triangle ahvaysadd up to the same figure.
Training needs
The TTA identify the following as possibleaspects!'ou may identify as training needs: . selecting subject-specificsoftrvare to meet particular teaching objectives in mathematics; using dynamic geometry software to teach mathernatics; deciding horv and when to combine the use of tCT with conventional teaching of geometry; using ICT to presentinformation, give instructions and explain ideas to a rvhole class: . using tCT to preparedifferentiated materialsto guide pupils' learning.
. .
The main issuesidentified about the useof ICT in this case study are (a) advantages and disadvantages using ICT and (b) maintaining the focus on mathematics. of
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Advantages and disadvantages of using ICT In her analysis, the teacherconsiders the advantagesand disadvantagesof using dynamic geometry softwareto help her meet her teachingobjectives. She decidesto use dynamic geometry software becauseit provides a number of advantages over working with geometric figureson paper. The software allows the teacherand pupils to deform shapesdynamicalty and observewhich of their propertieschange and which stay the same.The teacher considersthat the vivid and dynamic images producedhelp pupils to form mental imageson which to basetheir understanding concepts,such as parallelism. of By changing variables,the teacheris able to demonstrate wide rangeof examples a without having to draw them physically.Pupils are able to explore many more cases in a shorter time, giving them greateropportunity to consider generalrules and test and reformulatehypotheses. The software requires pupils to construct figures accurately. Visual feedback enablesthem to recognizequickly when they have made a mistake and they are able to undo and correct it easily.The pupils can concentratemore on mathematical relationshipsrather than on the mechanicsof construction, enabling her to intervene more productively and havehigher expectations pupils' progress. of The teacher wishes to make use of featuresthat would not be possible using conventionalmeans.For example,zooming in on different levels of detail. and automaticmeasurement anglesor areasof figures. of The teachertakes into accountthe disadvantages using the ICT. including of problemscausedby the quality and accuracyof the screendisplay. D1'namicgeometn' software simulates reality. The images produced on the screen are sometimes inaccurate,e.g. proportionsare sometimes lvrong, so i[ is difftcult to accuratelr' measurelines and anglesdirectly off the screen.Similarly, because the resolution oi and curvatureof the screen,lines are not alrvaysstraight.The teacheris a\r'are the of difticulties and misconceptions that this might cause and addresses rhem in her introductionand as pupils work in pairs.She teaches pupilsto quesrionandcheck the accuracvof the computer generatedimages in the same rvav that they check their own constructionson paper. Maintaining the focus on nu:rthematics ln her analy'sis, teacherdescribes the how she ensures that the focus remainson the objectivesin mathematics. She projects the computer screenimage onto a large screenso thar all the class can see clearly. This enables her to ask focused questions, involve pupils in discussions, and explain key points while everyonein the classis looking at the same inrages. She involves pupils actively in whole class rnathematics teaching,both by inviting them to demonstrateusing the software and large screenduring the lesson,and to prescntand explain andlustify their conclusions the class. to She usesthe program to provide pupils with a wide range of examplesand to help give immediate feedbackon their work. This rnaintainsthe mathematical focus of the lessonand allorvs the teacherto increasethe pace of the lesson by moving quickly from specific examplesto generalizations.
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The teacher is aware that pupils could very easily run through a large number of different imageswithout keeping a recordof what they did and what they understood. So that she can keep track of pupils'progressthe teacherstructuresthe activity so that it is essentialfor pupils to record their work. The printed worksheetsinstruct pupils to make a record that helps them to go back and review their work, locate stepswhich errors,provide evidenceof their processes may have generated and solutions for the and communicatetheir findings and proofs to eachother and their teacher to assess, teacher. Although the prograrn has many helpful features,the teacher intervenes while pupils are working to question them about their understanding. This enablesher to quickly identify rnisconceptionsand to undertake focused mathematics teaching. This intervention, and asking pupils to explain to the rest of the class,enablesthem to clarify their thinking and challengeeachother's hypotheses and proofs. Sometimes she stops the group work and usesthe largescreento bring the discovery of one pair of pupils to the notice of the rvhole classor to addressa common misconception. Bxpected outcomes for training in the use of information and communications tech no logy i n seconda ry.rnathematics
A. l.
Effective teaching and assssmentmethods Teachers should knorr when the use of ICT is beneficial to achieve teaching objectives in secondary mathematics, and rvhen the use of ICT n'ould be less effective or inappropriate. In making these decisions, thel' should knou' hou' to take account of the functions of ICT and the ways that these can be used b5'teachers in achieving mathematics teaching and learning objectives. This includes: hos' the speedand autornaticfunctionsof ICT can enableteachersto demonstrate, explore or explain aspectsof rnathematics make pupils' to learning more effective; ho'*' the capacitl' and rangeof ICT can enable teachersand pupils to gain accessto historical. recent or immediate informatiou hori' the provisional nature of information store4 processedand presented using [CT allorvs u'ork to be changedeasily; how the interactiveway in which inforrnation is stored,processedand presentedcan enable teachersand pupils to explore rnodels,comrnunicate effectivelv w'ith others and presentand representinformation effectively for different audiences.
(a)
(b) (c) (d)
2.
Teachers should know horv to use tCT effectively to achieve nrathenraticsteaching objectives,incIuding: (a) using ICT becauseit is the most effective way to achieve teaching and learning objectives,not simply for motivation, reward or sanction; (b) avoiding the useof tCT for simpte or routine taskswhich would be better accomplishedby other means;
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(c) where ICT is to be used,rvhat appropriatepreparationof equipment, contentand methodologyis required; (d) avoiding giving the impressionthat the quality of presenration of is overriding importance and supersedes importanceof content; the (e) structuringpupils' work to focus on relevantaspects and to maximize use of time and resource; (f) having high expectations the outcomesof pupils' work with ICT, of including: ' expectingpupils to use tCT to answervalid questions appropriateto the subjectmatrerbeing taught; ' when appropriate,requiring pupils to savework, and evaluateand improve it; (g) making explicit the links betweenthe ICT appticationand rhe subjecr matter it is being usedto teachas well as the impact of tCT on everyday applications. 3For those aspects of lessonswhere ICT is to be used, teachers should be able to identify in their planning: (a) the way(s) in rvhich ICT rvill be usedto meet teachingand learning objecrives mathemarics; in (b) key questionsto ask and opportunitiesfor teacherinterventionin order to stirnulare and dircct pupil_s' learning; (c) the w'at'(s in tvhic-h I puoits' prosresswill be assessed recorded: and (d) criteriato en-\ure thatludeements aboutpupils' attainment and progress in nrathcmatics nor nraskedbccauseICT has beenused; arc (e) anf inipact .ii the u.e gf ICT on the orgenization and conductof the mathenlati.-s lcssonand hos.this is to be rnanaged,(f) hou' the ICT uscd is appropriateto the particular mathernatical objectives in handand t,r pupils' capabilities, taking accountof the fact that sornepupils ma1'alread-r' very competent.and sornemay needadditional supporl be Teachers should knos' horv to organize classroom ICT resources effectirelv to meet learning objectives in mathematics, including horv to: use ICT w'ith the u,holeclassor a group for introducing or reviewing a topic and ensuringthat all pupils cover the key conceptual features the topic, of organizeindivicluals. pairsor groupsof chitdren norking rvith tCT to ensurethat eachparticipantis engaged, that collaborative effort is balanced. and that teacherinten-entionand reporting back by pupils takesplace rvhere appropriate: make ICT rcst-rurces alailable to pupils for research other purposes rvhich or ma\ arlsectthcr sP(rntanitrusl_v during lcssons as part of plannedacti\,it.y, or ensuring that the rcsourceis usedprofitably to achievemathematics-related objecrives: positionresources easeoi use,to minimize distraction. lor and vvithdue regardto healthand safetv;
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(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
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(e) ensure that work done using ICT is linked to work away from the screen. allowing ICT to support teaching rather than dominate activities. 5. Teachers should be able to recognize the specific contribution that ICT can make to teaching pupils with special educational needsin mainstream classrooms based upon the need to provide accessto the curriculum in a manner appropriate to pupils' needs, and to identify where ICT can provide mathematics-specific support. Teachers should be able to choose and use the most suitable tCT to meet teaching objectives, by revierving a range of generic and mathematics-specific software critically.
6.
7.
Teachers should know how to contribute to the development and consolidation of pupils' ICT capability within the context of mathematics through: (a) explicit discussionand, where necessaryteaching of the ICT skills and applications which are used in mathematics; (b) using terminology accuratelyand appropriately,and explaining to pupils any terminology which arises from the application of ICT to mathematics; (c) using ICT in ways rvhich provide models of good practice for pupils, and ensuring that pupils employ corect procedures s'hen using applications.
8.
Teachers shoutd understand horr to monitor and assesspupils' learning in mathematics when ICT is being used, and hou to evaluate the contribution that ICT has made to the teaching of mathematics. Thev should be able to: (a) monitor pupils'progressby: i. being clearabout teachingobjectivesand the use oi ICT in achievins them; ii. observing and intervening in pupils' tCT-basedactivities to monitor and support their progressiontorvardsthe identified objectives, iii. asking key questionss'hich require pupils to reflect on rhe appropriateness their use of tCT. of (b) recognizestandardsof attainment in the mathematicsrvhen ICT resources are used,including: i. recognizinghow accessto computer functions might changeteacher expectation pupil achievernents; of ii. identifying criteria by which pupils can shorv what they have learnt as a result of using [CT-basedresourcesfrom the Internet or CD-RON{, and insisting that pupils acknorvtedgethe referencesourcesused in their u'ork, iii. horv to determinethe achievement individuals rvhenthe.'product'is of the result of a collaborative effort, for example through obsen'ation, record keeping, teacherintervention and pupil-teacher dialogue;
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iv. how to ensurethat assessment lCT-basedwork reflects pupils'learning of and the quality of their work within mathematicsrather thanjust the quality of presentation the complexity of the technology used; or (c) useformative, diagnosticand summative methodsof assessing pupils' progressin mathematics where ICT has been used,including how to set up ICT activities with targeted objectivesfor assessment make provision in and thoseactivities for alt pupils to demonstrate achievement,conceptual understanding and learningthrough the use of ICT. 9. This section of the Bxpected Outcomes has been omitted since it refers only to pupils aged3-8 and 3-ll.
B . Teachers' knowledge and understanding of, and competence rvith,

information and communications technology
10.
In relation to the ICT content set out in paragraphs 11 to 18, teachers should be able to: (a) evaluatea range of information and communication technologies, and the contentassociated with them,justifying the selectionand use of ICT in relation to aspectsof their planning, teaching,assessment and class management, including for personalprofessionaluse; (b) understand and usecorrectly the specialistterms associated with the ICT used in the mathematicsrvhichare necessar)'toenablethem to be precisein their explanations pupils,to discussICT in relation to rnathematics a to at professionallevel, and to read inspectionand classroom-focused research er"idence rrith understandine.
Teachersshould be competent in those areas of ICT which support pedagogv in every subject, including that they: ' (a) can emplov common ICT tools for their orvn and pupils' benefit and can use a rangeof ICT resources, the level of general users(rather than as at net$'orkor systemmanagers), including: i- the cornmon userinterfaces, using menus,selectingand swapping behveenapplications,cutting, pastingand copying files, and cutting copying and pastingdatawithin and betweenapplications; ii- successful[1' connecting and setting up ICT equipment,including input and output devices; iii. loading and running softrvare; ir'. file management; r'- seekingand using operatinginformation, including from on-line help flacilities and userguides; vi- coping u'ith everydayproblemsand undertaking simple,routine maintenance, rvith due considerationto health and safety; vii. understanding irnportanceof passwordsand the general security of the equipmentand access it. to (b) linorv and un,Cerstand characteristics inforrnation, the of including:
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r84 TeachingMaths with ICT

i' thatinformation mustbe evaluated termsof its accuracy, in validity, reliability, plausibility, ; bias ii' that informationhasto be storedsomewhere, it takesup memory (storage space) that thereareimplications and whensaving andcompressing files; iii' thatICT svsterns pr.r.nt staricinformarion can ;;;;;;i;; information; iv' thatinformation canbedirectry anddynamicaily linkedbetween applications; v' thatapplications information and canbe shared with otherpeopleat remote locations. 12. Teachers shourd,in rerationto secondarymathematics and agesof pupils:
(a) know how to use ICT ro find things our, including i' identifying sourcesof information and discriminating berweenthem; ii' planning and putting together a search strategy,including framing useful questions,widening and narrowing down r"ii"h"r; iii' horv to searchfor information, incLaing using key words and strings and logical operators such as AND, OR and NOTjnd"^", and directories; iv' collecting and structuring data and storing it for later retrieval, inteqpretation and correction; r'. interpreting what is retrieved; vi' considering validity, reliability and reasonableness outcomes; of (tl) know' horv to use tcT to t1v things out, make things happen and understand hou'they happenincluding: i i. exploring alternatives. ii. nrodellingrelationships: iii. considering causeand ef-fect: ir" predicting patternsand rules recognizrngpatterns,anclhypothesizin_e; r'. knos.ing hou. to gir.e instructions: vi. sequencing actions; 'ii' defining conditions,e-g-'d thishappens, that..,; do viii'understanding horv feedback works'and the difference bets,een things rhat do and do not rely on feedback; (c) knou' ho*' to use ICT to co*municate and exchange ideas: i' presentingideas, including: identification of audienceand purpose; deciding the best meansrvith rvhich to communicate; ii' exchanging ideas, including identifying the mosr appropriaremedium, and information. 13' Teachers should knorv those features of ICT rvhich can be used, separately or together, to support teaching and rearning in mathematics.incltrding: (a) speed and automatic tunctions - the function of ICT which enablesroutine tasks to be completed and repeated quickly, allowing the user to concentrate on thinking and on tasks such ., unuiyring and looking for patterns within data, asking questionsand rooking for uns*uers, and expraining and
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presentingresults,as appropriateto secondarymathematics, including how ICT can be usedto: i. measureeventsat long or short time intervals in order to compressor expandeventswhich would normally take very short or long periods of time, and illustrate thern to pupils at speedsappropriate their paceof to learning; ii. measureand record eventswhich might otherwisebe impossibleto gatherwithin a classroomenvironrnent; iii. explore sequences actions and link the sensingof eventswith the of control of actions (b) capacityand range- the function of ICT, as appropriateto secondary mathernatics, access to and to handle large amountsof information; change timescales. remove barriersof distance,give teachers or and pupils accesi to and control over situationswhich would normally be outsidetheir everydayexperience,including: i. the rangeof forms in which ICT can presentinformation; ii- the rangeof possibleappropriate ICT sources,including local sources such as CD-ROM, and remote databases such as the Intemet and the National Grid for Learning; iii- how to judge the accuracyof the information and the credibility of its source; ir'- ho$' ICT can be usedto gain accessLoe.Kpertise outsidethe classroom, the school and the local corrrnlunitvthrough comrnunications u.ith e.\perts, (c) provisionalitl'- the function of ICT rvhichallou'schanges to be made easilrand enablesalternativesto be exproredreadily, and as appropnateto secondarl'mathematics: i- horv to make best useof the ability to make rapid changes.includine hou' to createtext, designsand models rvhich may be explored and improved in the lighr of evaluation; ii. horv to judee w'henand rrhen not to encourageexploration and change using ICT: iii. how saving rvork at different stagesenablesa record to be kept of the developmentof ideas; (d) interactivity * the function of tCT which enablesrapid and dynamic feedbackand response, appropriateto secondarymathematics,including as how to determinethe most appropriatemedia to use. 14Teachers should understand the potential of ICT to make the preparation and presentation of their teaching more effective, taking account of: (a) the intendedaudience, includrng matchingand adaptingn,ork to sublect matterand objectives, pupils'prior attainment,readingability or special educational needs;recognizingthe efficiency with which suchadaptations can be made using ICT; (b) the most appropriate forms of presentation meerteachingobjectives; to
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15. Teachers should: (a) in relation to secondarymathematics,understand the ICT requirements of the statutory curriculum for pupils and the application of ICT as a key skill; (b) be familiar with the expectationsof pupils' ICT capability, relevant to secondary mathematics,and know the level of ICT capability they should expect of pupils when applying ICT in mathematics. 16. Teachers should know how each of the following is relevant to secondary mathematics : (a) generic proceduresand tools, including: i. understandingthe key featuresand functions used within mathematics; ii. using ICT to preparematerial for pupil use; (b) referenceresources,including: i. how to search referenceresources; ii- horv to incorporate the useof referenceresourcesinto teaching; (c) the ICT specific to rnathematics; (d) the contribution made by ICT to the professional, commercial and industrial applicationsof their subject; (e) the major teachingprogramsor 'courseware'to ensurethat material is matchedto the pupils' capabilities: i. rvherecontent and activities are presentedin sequenceto teachspecific topics; ii. u'hereteachingactivities are combined with assessrnent tasksand tests.
17. Teachers should be arvare of: (a) the current health and safetl' legislation relating to the useof computers,and be able to identify potential hazardsand minimize risks: (b) legal considerationsincluding thoserelated to: i- keeping personalinformation on computers,as set out in the Data ProtectionAct; ii. copyright legislation relating to text, imagesand sounds and that relating to copying softu'are; iii. material which is illegal in this counrry; (c) ethical issuesincluding: i. access ille-ealand/or unsuitablematerial through the internet: to ii. acknowledgingsources;confidentiality of personaldata; iii. the \\'ays in which usersof inforrnation sourcescan be (and are) monitored; iv. material which may be socially or morally unacceptable. 18. Teachers should know horv to use ICT to improve their own prot'essionalefticiency and to reduce administrative and bureaucratic burdens, including: (a) using ICT to aid administration, record-keeping, reporting and transfer of information;
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(b) knowing about current classroom-focused researchand inspection evidence about the application of ICT to teaching mathematics,and where it can be found; (c) knowing how to use ICT to join in professionaldiscussions and to locate and access teaching plans, material and other sourcesof help and support, including through the National Grid for Learning; (d) knowing how ICT can supportthem in their continuing professional development.
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Chapter 3 How to plan for effectiveICT use
This chapterbuilds on the practical experiencefrom Chapters I and 2 in developing a more analytical structurefor the planning, implementation and evaluation of ICT use in teachingand learning.By the end of this chapter you should be in a strong position to know how to selectand plan for its effective pedagogicuse.We rvill also ask you to review your progressand to draw up an action plan for your future continuedprofessional (CPD) in the use of ICT in your teaching. development ln this chapterwe will considera numberof casestudiesand exarnples u'hich in ICT has been used to enhancethe teachingand learning of mathematics. \\'e u'ill judge the extent to which they addressthe analy'seeach exarnple/case study to outcomes in parts Aand B section2,ofthe TTAdocument (Jseof ICT in Secontlan' Mathematics ( Identification of Training Needsl. The level of detail of this analvsi-s diminishes throughout the chapteras u'e hope that you rvill be getting morc cont-rdent and expert in deciding professionalissuesfor yourselfWe u'i[[ keep in mind the threekey aspects ICTuse outlined inchapter lb: of Pedagogical: can it be used to help teachcontent, to develop concepts,to increaseknowledge, to improve understanding, practise and reinforce to skills . . .? Mathematical. can it be usedto compute results,to produce tables,to drau graphs,to solve problems,to manipulateexpressions,to compute statistics. . .? Organizational: can it help rne more efficiently to produce materials,to keep records,to managetime, to communicatewith others, to find resources. . .?
Anotherusefulchecklist provided the BECTa/NCET is Pupil's Entitlement: by
How to planfor effective ICT use ICT: A pupils' entitlement
189
The NCET document: Mathematics and IT - a Pupil's Entitlement categorizes ICT tools by the natureof the mathematicalactivity involved. The six categoriesare: Learning from feedback: The computer often providesfast anrJreliable feedback which is non-judgmentaland impartial. This can encourage studentsto make their own conjecturesand to testout and modify their ideas. Observing patterns: The speedof computers and calculatorsenablessturdents to producemany examples when exploring mathematicalproblems.This supportstheir observations patternsand the making and justifying of generalizations. of Seeingconnections: The computerenablesforrnulae,tablesof numbersand graphs to be linked readily. Changing one representation and seeingchangesin the others helps studentsto understandthe connectionsbetweenthem. lVorking n'ith dynamic images: Srudentscan usecomputersto manipulatediagrams dvnamically.This encourages them to visualize the geometry as they generatetheir own mentalimages. Exploring data: Computersenablestudentsto u'ork rvith real data rvhich can be represented a variety of u'ays.This supportsinterpretationand analysis. in computer: When students designan algorithm(a set of instructions) to makc a computer achievea particular result, thel' are compelled to expresstheir conlmandsunambieuousl.v in the correct order; they make their thinking explicit and as ther refine rheir ideas. The follos'ing table summarizesthis analysis.We have also included references *-ithin the boclyof the text of the ca-se study *'here this is relevant, for example {Ala} TIA Expected Outcomes
Case Scudy iAl l. Not jusr buildinga FenceSkeletowers 2. Polygon Stars-T cup ride
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TeachingMaths with ICT NOT JUST BUILDING A FENCB
How mony posts?How many rails?
Background The following casestudy was written by a newly qualihed teacher. This activity arose from the mathematicsdepartment's desire to develop pupils' reasoning and idea of proof/justification. Currently most pupils are able to organize dataand tabulateit in ways that enable them to spot patternsand describe simple inductive rules and/or formulate sirnple generalizationsHowever, they u,ould rarely give reasonson why their rule or forrnula worked. The departmentalso wanted to increasetheir confidence in using algebrato model situationsand their knor.r'ledee algebraicconventionsand of techniques.The follorving is an accountof the s'ork done s'ith a mlred ability set of Year 9 pupils to help them make progress in these aspecrsof the mathematics curriculum. The school is an.inner-cityall-girls comprehensive. How'ever, hasbeen it tried with both lorver ability Year 7 and higher abilitv Year 8 pupils using slightly different starting points and extensions-Pupils had accessro various grid papers, matchsticksand TI-80 graphic calcularors(GC). Lesson Plan Teac hin g/le a rnin g obj ect iv es Pupils should: ' ' ' ' be able to formulate linear rules based on geometric patterns; be able to explain why their rules work in terms of the w'ay they see the patterns grow; collaborate with other pupils to pool and compare results; be able to presenttheir findings clearly and concisety to a group/rvholeclass.
M ethodolo gy and organization 1. Introduction to whole class'usingcontext of 'grorving matchstick triangles' to establishpupils'understanding of number patternsand rules (use OHP). Ask for next pattern,ten triangles how many matches.tnitiatly pupils to work in pairsexplaining andjustifying answers.
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2. Tabulateresultswith whole class and ask for 'rule'. Dernonstrate how this data can be enteredand the 'rule'can be checkedon the graphic calculator. {A3a} 3. Pupils to work in pairs on a range of problerns(some similar so that different 'equivalent' forms can be compared)and combine to form a group of four to sharefindings and prepareposter/OHTfor rest of class.They will have GCs to help them establishand/orcheck their rules. {A4b} 4. Check on progressand question or challengepupils (such as looking for the inverse) have a range of different growth patternsof increasing difficulty including some leading to quadraticformulae.{A3b} 5. Overall time on topic 2/3 S}-minute lessons including pupils'presentations and feedback. Differentiation Having a rangeof different growing patternsof increasingdifficulty, including some involving quadratics,will ensureall pupils are appropriatelychallenged.Also, ask them to generatesome of their own patterns. As sessme nt op p o rtuniti es/c r i t eria The initial interactionand discussionwith pupils will help to establishpupils' knorvledgeunderstanding. Observing and questioningindividual pupils and groups while they are carrying out the work. Listening to the presentations and looking at their rvork including the posters summarizing their fi ndings Pupils: ' ' ' are able to find and write down their generalizations conventional algebraic in form, some progressingto inverses and quadratic forms: carry out simple algebraicmanipulationsto check for equivalentexpressions; can give reasons, explain and justify their rules in terms of the spatial patterns/arrangements.
Resources Ir{atchsticks, rangeof different grid paperssuchas squareand isometric dotty paper Variety of diagramsof growing patterns l6 graphic calculators,sufficient for I betweentwo Teacher'sgraphic calculatorand view screentor whole classdisplay on OHP. The rvhite boarddisplay will be useful for writing the pupils'rules as well as shorving the graphic calculator display and will be helpful for linking the form and notation usedby the GC comparedto the pupils' own notation.
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Teaching Maths with tCT
Other points This is the first time most pupils have usedthe data handling/spreadsheet facilities of the graphic calculator.Pupils working in pairs should help alleviarethe difficulties 'which about keys to press'.{A3f} The large posterof the GC indicating the menus 'under eachkey' will also act as a reminder.Also, the GCs can be easily usedin the maths classroomso there is no needto book the computer suite. At a later stagewe can plot the table of results and look at the links between the graphs and their forrnulae The starting point - tricky triangles
Ten triongles, how monymotches? Why? The activity was introduced by looking at tricky triangles.The first few diagrarns were forrned on the OHP using matchsticks and pupils were asked to work out the number of matchesfor ten triangles. [n the first instancethey worked in pairs and were asked to explain and justifv their ansrvers. could continue the patrern 'b-v All adding trvo rnatchcseach [rme'- I[ s'as then decidedthat a rule rvasneededto speed up the process. and enablepredictionof the numberof matchesfor greaternumbers of triangles.The pupils oftered severaldifferent suggestions. order to famili arize [n pupils rvith the Tl-utl tor useu'ith turther s'ork and,to displa-v resuls for all to see. the the data \t'ereenteredinto an Ot{P r-ersionof the graphic calculator.
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The pupils were able to drau' up the tables o[ resultsin lists L t and L2 using the calculatorST.{T function. They'then tried out their rules in L. and cfuecked resulrs the againstthoseenteredin L2. (A2d) This initially encouraged trial and improvemenr a method for getting the solution. [t u'as interesting to note that in later presentations to the class,pupils used this phrasenaturally when describing their work. The calculatoracceptsthe conventionalalgebraichierarchyand witl allow L I x 3 + l,3Ll+l orevcn Ll -l+1.l-hishastheadvantage pupitsare not forceci r,r'ritc that to 'te.rtbook' their rules accordingto some conventionand allou's for developmentand discussionabout acceptableforms. Pupils had little problem converring their own formula, which might havc been w'rittenin terms of say a symbol t or n, into one using Ll etc. The main advantageof the calculatoris the rapid feedbackpupils receive-Lack of, or misuseof brackets,for example,is soon picked up.
.)
193
Pupils were given a variety of differentspatialsequences, ranging in difficulty, to work on- They quickly devisedtheir own methodsfor finding rules.A number used the difference method and reco gnizedthat the number you add on to get the pattern must have some bearingon the formula. Othersrelied on the spatialarrangements and begangroupingdotsor lines to help find a rule. While somediscontinued using the calculator to check results others,lessconfident,continued to use it for trial and improvement.Also, thoseconcernedwith presentation found it quicker to enter their resultsinto the 'calculatortables'thanto spendtime drawing one in their books. For some of the harderproblemsthe pupils again returnedto rhe calcularor. They only usedthe technologywhen it was relevantand helpful ratherthan for the sakeof it. {A2b}{Aae} The rnoreable pupils werechallenged find the inverserulesor ro to rnove on to more difficult arrangements. The sameidea was usedwith threeclasses with spatialarransements but and rules (linear, quadratic. . .) appropriateto the ability of the pupils. As a meansof sharing their findings one class went on to produceposters.Another class(slightly lower ability) usedthe OHP to presenttheir findings.This encouraged them to explain rheir thinking and justify their results.Pupils expressed their rules in ser,eral different ways; 2 x n was written as n x 2, 2n, or even n2 all of which were accepted the by calculatorSomepupils had discovered this for themselves and took greardelight in explaining this to the rest of the class,especiallywhen thel' rvererold that this also demonstratedthe commutative law. ln her presentation girl u'roteher 'linear' rule as nr. \\hen asked*-hctherthis one looked confusingpupils were quick to point out that this 'looks like n to the po\\-er 3, Miss, which meansn x n x n, nof n x 3'. Thit led to the classdecidrnsthat the shorthandform of n x 3 u'as best written 3n (.the'textboc,k'conventronr. ( )ther p.inr-s that came up in the various presentations \r'erethat one puprl hal crprc>scdth.'ir rule as 3a + a u'hile the sarnesequence u'as expressedbv another pupil as 4a - are thesethe same I a-sked.) Arule rvasrvritten3n + 3 b1'one group anti rn + [).r 3 b1another,are thesethe same?These presentedfurther opportunitiesrtr return to the 'different'equivalent calculatorto e.xplore forms.Algebraic manipulationhad been given ownershipand the pupils rvereeagerto find out if someone lse'sversionof a e rule really doeswork. Wantingto tr)'out nrorealgebra!- that really is e u'trrrhq'hile outcorne! Review and evaluation - activity revierv The following is an analysis{A8a}of the lesson(s) using the ACTIVITI' REVIEW prompt. The purpose this sheetis to providesome promprsto euidc your analvsis of of the activitv.
l !
194 TeachingMaths with ICT 1. What did you expect get from thetask,i.e.purpose learning to and intentions? T/tese are def ined in the TeaChrng/tearning obiectrles in tle I esson pl an 2. What additional knowledge skillsdid you need: and aboutthetechnology Usrng ttre data landling f acilities dssoCiated htit| tle'stat' key and '/rsfs'tbe CalCulator's abitity to n^nrpulate For tle f oilor,lup lesson, lort to ptot data and superinpose f unctionsaboutthemathematics FarrlY Conrdent tJit6tle matlenatiCs, but talked to mentor dbout tAe expectattons and teret o chattenge appropriate f or t/trs Year 7 gr oupaboutteaching strategies approaches? and Hottto engage all pupils in tle ilAole Class interaCtion, use o tbe grcirng destgn and matclstrCks as an rflrtrr,ltask accesstble to ail papzis-Tle us3 o rttore open-ended questtonrng at tle start oi i43 |ssscn to establrsl l4at pupris a;rea/Y knoutGttt/ng t/tc pupris *tc /ts3lss rft p6,rrSto tnsur tlerYone rs rrtlolVe/ rt4s goo/ ,deaa I ;ra3Sciiaboratil3 ttork and olten usi tlrs appro^cl rn nY tessonsPu:.,Is)34,rnsc mual ttlcn t4ey lave to expl4in t/terr tlrnktng tc ctl:rs. It dlso inproVes tleir listenrng sktlls. 3. What additional knowledge skillsdid thepupils need: and abourthetechnolog-v Ho,tto anter, edit and nantpuidte data rn lrstsaboutrhemathematics An abrlrtYto a,nalYse groiling patterns and Con{ert obserVdtrons in '',t d s into aon(entrondl matlenatical synbo I s or aboutlearning strategies approaches? and Be prepared to explore, {Bf2bl' look f or patterns and trY tArngs cut, delelop t/terr use o VrsuatinagerY to explain tAetr tlrnLlng. Vlork and Co-oper4,te*ltth other pupr/s rn t/terr group- Explarnand CornnurtrCd,t ideas to otler puptls rn the cl4ss
lg5
4. Wasthe focusof yourteaching developing on skillsor understanding? Both I ttanted pupr/s to dele/ap pap ils reasoning and commun/catton skills tArougl an accessible context. I d,lso *tantedto derelop papr/sunderstanding oF equilalent algebralc expressrofis and rntroduce tlem to algebrarc nd,nrpulation and gtre purpose f or f urtler utorkon tlis top/c- Attlough t tAink rt is mucl more rmportlnt tlat pr:pr/scan use algebra to ormulate/no4el Srtuations5. Did thepupilsfocuson understanding pressing or buttons? At tle begrnnrng tle irrst /ass on some trm htas spent gett/ng oi used to tle data lany'lrng Faalnres on the GC.Ho*te(er, puptls tlere quiCkto Cometo terns ulft4tlese and aFter dfl rflrtrd,t hiatus ttere able to use tAe GCutrtl ConrdenCe explore, CheCkand f alidate to tlerr atgebr atc ruies6- In whatwayswereyouranswers questions and5 affected theuseof to 4 by the technology thetopic? for Tle teClncioAylai:/ as art i^tra't34als7,- puptlsntsrc abte to try out tletr rdeas cn:4: Sa.au,Alor an/, ft prolr/c/ tlen i,lrt/z ttrst4flt - iee/b4!2 on tl: /a,,4,i, c3 i4:,r 3on;eCturesan/ ornuiae7- \lbuld the useof thetechnokrg) this ropicchan-se orderin rvhich tor the concepts tveretaueht'l MtgAttrY to rntrc/uaj sln.ic nodeilrng and ornai 4lgebrarc ConlentrofiS cdrir--r- PuprisCoped ,,tellhtttl the synbolisn in tAe ccnText ci Erct;n$ s32n3iri3 pafitrns and 4ad irttic driirCuity uSrflgthe e C 8. what werethebenefitvdisadvanragesusingthetechnology? of
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4e ) all
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BeneFrts, see 5,6 an/ 7- Drsa,dlaffiages, some inrtial problems Settrn! to |noi tle GC-t /,ad Consrderedusrng'mouseplotter, and/or a spreadsLeet in the sclool's computer room but close tle oC becaus o3 rts tasy use rn tle classroom and tLe srmtlarrty ol the GC's ttotdtron nlrtl tle standard atgebraiC Con(ention9. \\'hatrt.ould;'ou diitercnrli, do nc.tirinre'l As paprls beComeiamtlrar utrtl tle aC I utrlt get tle papr/s to ptot t 4 e r e s u l t s ' a n / i r n k ' [ b eg r a p l s t o t A e r u l e s s u c | a s t l e k t n d o r u l e , tlat produCes a strarglt ltne and the conneCtron v,lrth gradrent the
and tAe /nt2f r ?^t
t_
t96 Teaching Maths with ICT 3 b MODBLLING SKBLETON TOWERS
We haveincludedhereanother exampleof a teacher usinga practical contextto help Year 10 pupils developtheir algebraicmodellingskills. As you readthroughthe following account to identifywhich of the 'IndividualTrainingNeeds'apply to try this activity.
fn which do youfeel confident already?
tyn ich would yott identify os ),ortr prioritl,?
You might like to use the Activity Revierv Sheet to help you s'ith this process. Background Following the purchaseof our TI-82 calculators.I was very keen to develop activities that related to ivta3 (Algebra) and in particular,modelling sequences. I had in mind an activity that used the STAT Plot facility to scarrergraph sequence a and then 'fit'this data to an equation using the function graphing facility. I u'as aiming this activity at a set t Year l0 class. If I s'as to develop this activity, I neededto accomplish tu.o things: ' Spend some time investigating numbers generatedfrom a seriesof linear, quadratic,cubic, quartic . . . functions and then investigatethe differences.This was a prerequisiteas I wanted pupils to discover that this could be a key to the type of function that they were dealing with. Generate the sequencethat the pupils \r'ere going to fit from a practical situation as I wanted pupils to be able to prove their function both geometrically and algebraically.
'
The following Task Sheetsummarizesthe two activities:
__J,
Modelling skeletontowers
Exploring Sequencesusing the TI-g2 Make a growing patternusing multilink cubes. Record the cumulativenumber of cubes neededfor each layer. Enter the layer nurnberin List I and the cumulative nurnber of cubes in List 2. Select a suitable window and plot the data as a scattergraph. Explore the differences in your sequenceto try to determine the type of function that it could be; i.e. linear,quadratic,cubic, quartic etc. Try to determine the exact function by superimposing your guess using the Y = button. Check for accuracyusing zoom. Once you havefound your equation,can you 'prove'it geometrically by remaking your shape? \\hy'does your equationwork
Ig7
Actir-it-v I This \l'as a mammoth task in iself-. as I n'as asking pupils to investigate ),= ttLt* c, )'= ax2+ bx + c and;'= (r-rl+ bf + c.r +din about three fifty-minute lessons,so I used a teaching method that is very successfulwhen you wish pupils to discover things through investigationin a short timescale.t delegatedeacfrtable of 3J pupils a function to investigate and rvithin the group eachpupil rvould changeone 'ariable at a time' This also mcant that I could differentiare,u'irh more abte pupils investigating the most challengingequation.Each pupil set up a master spreadsheet that allorved them to put in a sequence numbersand watch ih. diff"r.n.., pun of across.I gave the pupils trvo options for generatingtheir sequence. Having chosenan equation, they took x valuesfrom I to 7 and either typed the equationintothe spreadsheet generate to the sequence usedthe TI-82s to define L2 as a function or of L l. Each group collated their results and presentedtheir findings ro the rest of the class' I then co-ordinatedthe rvholeclass collection of results into a table for future reference. Activity 2 The next part of the task'rvas generatea sequencefrom a practical to activity and I decided that an extensionof the 'growing patterns'work in year 8 was in order. Pupils had previously investigated linear growing patrerns, graphedtheir resultsand come up u'ith some rules.We discussedthesernodels and horv u,e could 'put them ,
I
j
I
198
together'to make something more interesting. We talked about counting the nurnber of cubes cumulatively and looking for patterns. The pupils expected there to be a 'rule' for any pattern that was building up in an orderly way and I did nor put restrictions on the type of pattern they chose.The group discussion seemedto throw out any dodgy models ! The class was already familiar with putting sequencesinto STAT memory and I then showed them how to do a STAT Plot, plotting the data as a scattergrarn. We discussedthe idea of modelling the curve by choosing a function in the Y = graphirg mode and trying to make it go through the points. Very quickly it becameobvious that there were an infinite number of equations to try, so pupils looked at the differences in their sequences get some clues as to the type of function they were looking for. to This is where the table of results in Activity I became invaluable. Having found their function, pupils used the zoom function to check for accuracy. Some interesting points came out . . . If each layer of the model rvasconstmcted from a linear growing pattern they were looking for a quadratic function. (These I calted the skeleton models as they built up in two dimensions.) If each layer of their model was built up from a quadratic growing pattern (i.e. a spacefilling one) the function was a cubic one. This gave my most able pupils sornething to bite on as they were thinking how they could generate a quartic function. Other ideasthat we discussedwere: ' taking a step back to the original Year 8 grow.ing patrern graphs and investigatingthe areasbeneaththe lines (or cun,es) and looking for connections; investigatingthe gradientsof the modelled cun'es at different r-values; some of the pupils were looking for an equation for the sum of the square numbers so the-v\r'eredirected to .A' ler-eltext for research.
' '
The final part of the project was to prove the shapegeometricalll' by rebuilding the model from the equation and there rvas immense satisfaction from the pupils if they were successful. Extension lt would be an ideal opportunity to introduce some calculus. Initially, pupils rvould need to explore the linear function of their grorving pattern by looking at each layer separately.They could e.tplore the area under the line between zero and different values of -r.These could be relatedback to the,r-valuesof the linear function. Evaluation This is definitcly'art aetii'it;' thatis tlnril1 on our !'ear l0 schelre .rf u'ork. It enabled pupils to make great progressin their understandingof the nature of functions both graphically and algebraicalll'.The multilink skeletontorversgave a practical context that rvaseasyfor pupils to explain andjustify their algebraicmodels. It has also been used as a short task for GCSE coursework with linear models for foundation level pupils. This has produced some courservorkof a high standard.
:
I
Polygons and stars 3c POLYGONSAND STARS
199
The following worksheet a summary the task givento year l0 pupils is of studying for the interrnediate highertiersof GCSEand
POLYGONS-STARS
Figure I was created using parametric (par), degree (Degree) and connected(connected) mode and the following functions:
X,.=5cos T Yrr=5sin T with WINDOW Tmin=0 Tmax=360 Tstep=SQ Xmin=-9 Xmax=9 Xscl=I Yrnin=-6 Ymax=6 Yscl=I
*$
Fig I
Experimenr *.irh the valuesin \\'tNDow. N{akea nore of 1,our observations try ro e.xplain and them.what effectdoeschanging the number in X,, andY,, haveon theappearance thepolygon? 5 of Try X.r=5cosG+30), Y,.=Ssin(t+30) Sketchthe result. Explorevalues otherthan30. CHALLE NGE - FIV E-POI NTEDSTAR
Fig 2
Fig 3
Figures 2 and 3 were produced by changing values in the wINDow and small alterationsto X,, and y,.. Try to find out what thesewere. Createyour own pointed stars.How many different pointed starscan you make?
I ,|
I
t I I
I
200
Tbaching Maths with ICT
Background This activity has been used with a wide range of pupils at both Key Stages3 & 4 for different purposes. [n one particular class it was used as a means of revising trigonometry and extending the trigonometric functions beyond the normal range of 0" to 90". {A4a} It was also used to motivate pupils and help them see how mathematics can be used to model images and pictures.More able pupils extendedtheir use of trigonometry to model and explore variations of the T-Cup ride (see part b ). The lesson(s) [ first showed the whole classoctagonal and pentagonalATM mats and asked them what other designs or logos they were familiar with. Some mentioned the logos used by car manufacturers and those of the different TV channels.I said we could use the graphic calculator to create pictures such as these using trig. functions. I drew a 30", 60" right-angled triangle, with hypotenuse 5, on the blackboard and asked them how they could calculate the lengthsof the other sides-The pupils had done some work on bearings and rectangular grid reference5 and I then showed them how these calculations could also be used to calculate the co-ordinatesof a point.
5c.i Errg 912f,45.79'_1
Hc,t-i= G-T
I showed them the picture of the heragon using the viewscreenand OHP{A4a} and horv I had created it using the Degree, Par mode. Also, the trig functions I had used and the WINDOW settings.
.-l'.ir E5CO=.,.T; r '-Fit r = Ylr = .Xlr = t'ir = 'Xtr=l
f'l.it1
f-l.iti
f'l.it-::
I ll[r_rL,l Tnax=j6r_1 Tst-.er=.1.1 l'{n irr= -9 Htrg:<='.f li=.c I = I -l.q,rrr -f. i rr=
f f.rifr=r:tl
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InformationandCommunication Integrating Technology in Education

SeriesEditor: Michelle Selinger

Teaching Mathematics with ICT

Teaching Mathernatics ICT with

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