2012

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
BUILDING FAILURES,TIMBER AND BRICK

D.THRISHALA-100 31AA0 39 G.MAHITHA-100 31AA0 43 TANUSHRI-100 31AA 045

Microsoft

12/18/2012

PREFACE
This book is an introduction to the building failures, damages and timber effects.It reports the causes of decay and damage in old buildings, issues of maintenance and repair. It also discusses the timber, its moisture content, factors reducing strength of timber. The book also reports about effect of ageing on buildings, strength reducing factors in brick work, weathering and temperature effects on buildings. We have also done case study on old buildings which expose their damages, failures and causes of decay. Old buildings show the effect of weathering and temperature and also the causes of decay.Hence, we felt the need to discuss all these factors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank our building construction professor joyce for giving us this opportunity to explore on building failures and damages that has given us immense knowledge. This project has also let us know the design methods to be followed while constructing a building. And also the quality of the material used in construction which if not chosen properly would lead to damage of the building.

CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING FAILURES 2.CAUSES OF BUILDING FAILURES 3.PREVENTION OF BUILDING FAILURES 4.BUILDING DECAY (a)CASE STUDY I- SURVEY COLONY OF INDIA,UPPAL (b)CASE STUDY- II-CITY COLLEGE,OLD CITY 5.TIMBER- MOISTURE CONTENT 6.MANAGING MOISTURE 7.MEASURING MOISTURE 8.TREATMENT PRIOR TO INSTALLATION 9. WOOD SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR DENSITY 10. SLOPE OF GRAIN 11. KNOTS OR HOLES 12.WET ROT 13. SIGNS OF WET ROT IN TIMBER FLOORS (a)HOW TO PREVENT WET ROT (b)CAUSES OF WET ROT 14.DRY ROT (a)TREATMENT OF DRY ROT TIMBER 15.APPROACH TO REPAIR 16.TYPICAL PROBLEMS AND REPAIRS (a)HONEST REPAIR 17.CONCLUSION (b)RESIN REPAIR

INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING FAILURES

Building components tend to fail depending on the following reasons :(1)materials (2)bad design

(3)method of construction (4)environmental conditions (5)the use to which the building is put. Poor materials and design errors are the major causes of building failures. Main causes for building collapses :(1)bad design (2)faulty construction (3)foundation failure

(4)extraordinary loads (5)natural disaster (earthquake,floods,cyclones).

First storey failure

Weak

Weak storey failure

Building
Building shifted off foundation

CAUSES OF BUILDING FAILURES

1.INTERNAL FACTORS OR HUMAN ERRORS The internal factors for bad design dont only mean errors of computation, but a failure to account for loads the structure will be expected to carry, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate data, ignorance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of materials or misunderstanding of their properties.The structural engineer is responsible for theses failures, which are created at the drawing board.Sometimes failures occur due to obvious negligence or gross human error. 2.THE EXTERNAL FACTORS These are often natural, such as extraordinary loads, heavy rain, earthquakes, hurricanes and a defective site, with very unusual ground conditions, like sinking holes or swampy land.A building that is intended to stand for some years should be able to meet all these challenges.This is incorporated into the design.Identification of characteristics of particular site conditions by the engineers/consultants, through suitable geo technical studies, can help with site selection and site progress that reduce the risk of failure. 3.INADEQUATE AWARENESS Many structural failures have been the consequence of poor technical research and knowledge.As technical awareness gets better, errors are becoming by far the major cause of known structural collapses, mainly in technologically advanced countries. COMMOM CONSTRUCTION FAULTS 4.INAPPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTION The contractors failure to build in accordance with drawings and specifications can also add to failure of structures.Use of inferior or sub-standard building materials is another reason for buildings to fail.Overloading during the life span of a building can critically weaken the structural reliability of it.Extra loads due to unauthorised change of use or additions and alterations to the structures can intensify an under-designed building and can contribute to its eventual failure.

5.PERFORMANCE FAILURE This can be described as an intolerable difference between anticipated and existing design and construction.Failure may occur due to consultants and contractors inadequate supervision and control of site operations and quality control.Such errors ultimately lead to a situation, which may involve such failures, which are related to excavation and equipment. 6.COMMON MATERIAL FAULTS Most structural failures are associated with materials and are the consequence of human eror involving a lack of knowledge about materials or the combination of contrary materials.There are structural failures that can be endorsed to irregularity in materials. PREVENTION OF BUILDING FAILURES Most of the structural failures (other than those caused by natural disasters) have occurs due to such faults, which are controllable. Good operational planning and detailed deliberations can save the failures of the valuable structures. The well designed structures coupled with hard effort of the experts and correct materials can ensure the structure a complete success.

Inadequate connection to uprights

Soft first storey failure

BUILDING DECAY
The issue of inappropriate repairs frequently crops up when dealing with historic buildings. One of the most common is the use of modern cement mortar to repoint old walls. Whilst walls do need to be repointed from time to time to protect them from the weather, using a cement mortar is likely to increase the rate of decay and cause a great deal of damage. Such work is usually carried out with the best of intentions but is ultimately harmful to the building fabric. In such a case, it would have been better to seek professional advice about the specification for the repointing works and appoint a contractor familiar with traditional lime mortars. Other examples are the use of chemically injected damp proof courses or the application of proprietary water repellent solutions or modern emulsion paints to old walls. Such products will often prevent the proper evaporation of moisture from the wall and can exacerbate any inherent problems of dampness. In most cases neglect is the main cause of premature building decay. The signs of neglect include broken rainwater goods, blocked air grilles and plants growing in gutters. All of these problems will encourage moisture to penetrate the fabric and prevent its evaporation. If the fabric becomes excessively damp this might lead to blistering paint and plaster, increased rates of decay in masonry and the possibility of timber decay and insect attack. High levels of moisture and excessive fluctuations in temperature can also encourage the movement of soluble salts in masonry structures. The weather also plays an important role in the decay of structures. Prolonged exposure to acid rain can start to dissolve some limestones and will also corrode metal ties and fastenings. Driving rain can penetrate deep into solid walls where the pointing is missing or decayed and condensation in a poorly ventilated building can lead to mould growth or encourage decay in timberwork. Frost can also contribute to the break down of building materials. If there is too much moisture in porous walling materials, this can freeze in winter. As the moisture freezes it expands and can shatter the surfaces of old bricks and tiles. This process can have a

dramatic effect if the cycle is repeated a number of times over the winter season. Storm damage and high winds may also play a part as they dislodge slates, tiles and leadwork.

Column failure

Bending of the structure

Building failures and Damages

CASE STUDY I SURVEY COLONY OF INDIA ,UPPAL

SURVEY COLONY OF INDIA 1.LOCATION- NEAR UPPAL RING ROAD (FOREST AREA) 2. SMALL TOWNSHIP/QUARTERS 3.CONSTRUCTION PERIOD -1980-1990 (22 YEARS) 4.NO. OF QUARTERS = 342 5.RENOVATION NOT DONE. 6.SURROUNDINGS - FOREST AREA, HENCE MORE OF MOISTURE CONTENT WHICH WOULD LEAD TO DAMPNESS AND DECAY. 7.MATERIALS USED ARE BRICK WALL AND RCC. 8.DUE TO UNAWARENESS OF THE PROBLEM DIFFERENT MATERIALS WERE USED WHICH WOULD LEAD TO FAILURE OF THE BUILDING. 9.DAMPNESS ON WALLS CAUSING INSECT ATTACK-TERMITES. 10.DUE TO LOAD VARIATIONS MAXIMUM CRACKS ARE SEEN ON THE WALLS. 11.DAMGES AND FAILURES CAUSED DUE TO AGEING EFFECT,WEATHERING,MORE OF MOISTURE CONTENT,HENCE DAMPNESS. 12.NO MAINTANANCE WHICH CAUSED DECAY OF BUILDINGS. 13.DUE TO MOISTURE CONTENT DAMPNESS CREATED ON WALLS. 14.DRY AREAS ON WALLS ARE ATTACKED BY INSECT TERMITES.
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Decay on compound wall

Wall dampness

Insect-Termite

Wall dampness and crack

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CASE STUDY II CITY COLLEGE,OLD CITY

CITY COLLEGE,OLD CITY

CITY
1.LOCATION- LANDSCAPED SURROUNDINGS, TO THE SIDE OF A BUSY MAIN ROAD JUNCTION. 2.INSTITUTIONAL COLLEGE CONSTRUCTED IN NIZAM INDO-ISLAMIC STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. 3.CONSTRUCTION PERIOD 1865 (CONVERTED TO CLLEGE IN 1921), AROUND 100 YEARS OF CONSTRUCTION. 4.CAMPUS AREA 16 ACRES. 5. RENOVATION NOT DONE. 6. EX-STUDENTS OF THE COLLEGE SAY ITS USE FOR MOVIE SHOOTS HAS RUINED THE EXTERIOR AS THE BUILDING HAS BEEN PAINTED OVER WITHOUT ANY REGARDS TO ITS HISTORICAL ARCHITECTURE. THE PRESENT COLOR WITH A RED HUE IS NOT ITS ORIGINAL COLOR. ALSO, PORTIONS OF THE WALLS HAVE CHIPPED OFF AT MANY PLACES, PROMINENTLY ON THE REAR OF THE BUILDING, REVEALING THE STONE-MORTAR.
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7. CONSERVATION ARCHITECTS SAY IN 2005 A CITY BASED HERITAGE CONSERVATION FIRM

WAS ASKED TO PREPARE A PROPOSAL WORTH RS 25 LAKH FOR REPAIRS BY ERSTWHILE HUDA. THE PROPOSAL WAS SUBMITTED TO GOVERNMENT OF INDIA FOR ASSISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE BUT IT DID NOT MATERIALIZE. 8.THE BUILDING HAS RECEIVED NO ATTENTION IN ITS 90-YEAR LIFETIME 9.MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE RED SANDSTONE AND LIME MORTAR. 10.DUE TO AGEING OF THE BULDING THE WALLS HAVE BEEN CHIPPING OFF. 11.HARDLY DAMPNESS IS SEEN ON WALLS AS THE MOISTURE CONTENT IN THE SURROUNDINGS IS LESS. 12.NO MUCH OF DECAY IN INTERIORS.(NEWLY PAINTED INTERIORS WHICH MAY CAUSE DECAY IN FUTURE). 13.DECAY OBSERVED ON THE EXTERIOR WALLS.

Damage on window sill

Damage in classroom wall

Decay on corridor column

Damage to column 13

Damage below sill level Roof damage

Renovated roof

Brick wall damage

Dampness on roof

Damage to door post wall

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Chipping of classroom wall

Decay of arch pier base

Decay on exterior walls

Painted interior walls and renovated roof

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TIMBER
MOISTURE CONTENT Timber is one of the most ubiquitous products used in construction, but in order to perform adequately it needs to be carefully prepared, stored and maintained. To ensure satisfactory preservative treatment, accurate machining and efficient fabrication, and to avoid problems due to dimensional change and distortion in use, its moisture content must be controlled. The moisture content of wood is normally expressed as a percentage, and is calculated as: the difference between the weight of a sample of 'wet' (green) wood and the weight of the same sample after oven drying (to remove all moisture), divided by the oven-dry weight, all multiplied by 100. Thus, a piece of timber weighing 500 g, and containing 250 g of water will have a moisture content of 100 per cent or [(500-250) / 250] x 100. MANAGING MOISTURE Moisture management is used to minimize shrinkage and movement in the timber. For instance, when wood comes from a newly felled tree it is virtually saturated with water. As moisture leaves the wood it influences strength, dimensional stability, stiffness, hardness, abrasion resistance, machineability, insulation value, resistance to decay and nail holding ability. MEASURING MOISTURE In managing moisture there is a need to be able to measure it. Moisture content is described in terms of the weight of water contained in the wood expressed as a percentage of oven-dried wood weight. Key levels of moisture content are linked to simplified terms such as 'seasoned' and 'unseasoned' timber. Seasoned timber relates to low levels of moisture content, less than or equal to 15 percent. This approximates the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of most timber. EMC is the moisture level that the timber wants to stay at once it has dried out and acclimatised to its environment. Timber with a moisture content higher than 15% is regarded as unseasoned or green.

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TREATMENT PRIOR TO INSTALLATION o Before installing, the worktop must be treated on both surfaces. Particular attention must be paid to end grain edges, cut-outs for sinks and all surfaces which are hidden after installation. If this is not done, the worktops may bow and split as a result. o Oiling should be done at least three times, allowing the oil to dry and giving the worktop a light sanding in between coats, following closely the instructions from the oil manufacturer. After installation the worktop must be oiled thoroughly. Always work the oil into the worktop in the direction of the wood grain for best results. Five basic factors influence the strength of wood: 1.wood specific gravity 2.slope of grain 3.presence of knots or holes 4.moisture content 5.time WOOD SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR DENSITY As a general rule the greater the specific gravity or density of a wood, the greater the strength. Note that strength values rise significantly with a doubling of wood specific gravity. SLOPE OF GRAIN When the grain direction in a wood member is parallel to the two edges of the piece the wood is said to have straight grain. However, if the grain direction in a piece is not precisely parallel to the board edges, strength will be lower than if edges and fiber direction are parallel. This 2 10 split along the grain direction revealing a slope of grain of about 1 in 20. An indication of the degree to which slope of grain affects strength is provided by the table to the right. Even a slope of grain of 1 in 20 results in a 7 percent loss of strength. A slope of grain of 1 in 1 (a 45 angle) results in a 91 percent loss of strength as compared to straight grain!

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KNOTS OR HOLES Knots affect strength in two ways: First the slope of grain around a knot causes a marked reduction in strength in the vicinity of the knot Second, if a knot is encased, or loose, it contributes nothing to strength, particularily if the wood is stressed in tension. For these two reasons, edge knots are assumed to reduce the useful cross section of a beam in which they occur by an amount equal to the knot diameter. In effect, the presence of knots impacts strength as much as do actual holes in the wood. The effect of knots or holes upon strength is dependent upon location of these defects. A knot located near the neutral axis of a member affects strength only slightly; however, a similar knot located at the tension face of a member is likely to significantly affect strength. The following table shows how strength is affected by various knot sizes: WET ROT The most common type of wet rot is caused principally by Coniophora puteana. Poria vaillantii is another important wet rot fungus and a number of less common fungi also occur. Coniphoria can be found in some form in most properties. Within timber the higher the moisture content the higher the chance of wet rot decays. While each fungus has its own unique features, the general appearance of wet rot is similar as is the treatment. Wet rot is typically confined to the area of dampness because the mycelium does not spread into walls. Wet rot is not as destructive as dry rot, however can and does cause structural damage. SIGNS OF WET ROT IN TIMBER FLOORS Wet Rot decay is usually first identified when floor timbers start to bounce or have movement. Skirting boards affected show signs of cracking even through paint. The unpainted unprotected rear of a skirting board will be more vulnerable to wet rot decay.

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HOW TO PREVENT WET ROT..?? To prevent wet rot it is advisable to ensure all timber including window and door frames are well painted/protected from rain water. Ensure that all gutters, downpipes are free from defects or leaks. Ensure that sub floor ventilation is adequate and unblocked as poor ventilation will contribute greatly to any timber decay problems. Ensure any new timbers introduced to a building are isolated from masonry by the use of a physical membrane. CAUSES OF WET ROT : Unprotected timber in direct contact with moisture Insufficient ventilation below suspended floors. Possible leaks from pipes and domestic appliances.

Wet rot can affect any unprotected timber and joinery so regular maintenance is very importance. DRY ROT Dry rot refers to wood decay caused by certain species of fungi, also known as True Dry Rot, that digests parts of the wood which give the wood strength and stiffness. It was previously used to describe any decay of cured wood in ships and buildings by a fungus which resulted in a darkly colored deteriorated and cracked condition. TREATMENT OF DRY ROT TIMBER There are epoxy treatments available that kill rot by filling in the channels of the damaged wood, killing the rot and restoring structural integrity. Commercial antifreeze (ethylene glycol) is also very effective at preventing dry rot formation as well as killing the fungus. Certain copper compounds, such as copper naphthenate, are available as a brushable solution and are frequently used when dry-rot damage is repaired by splicing in new wood; after removal of bulk rotten wood the remaining original surface is saturated with such a compound (typically green in color) before application of the new wood.

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APPROACH TO REPAIR The choice of repair type needs to take into account the character and the age of the original timber to be repaired, and it should be sympathetic to the actual building itself as well as to the repairs that may have previously been carried out during an earlier repair programme. All contribute to the historic interest of the building's fabric. Effective timber repair needs careful investigation, specification and execution. TYPICAL PROBLEMS Timber failure may be attributed to insect infestation, fungal attack, or shakes and splits caused during the drying out of unseasoned timber. The three most common repair types would usually deal with: beam end repairs, due to timber being embedded or in contact with damp masonry losses of cross sectional area due to fungal or insect attack longitudinal cracks appearing due to changes in moisture content of the timber.

The repair regime will usually be decided on through consultation with experienced practitioners and professionals. Repair can take the following forms: like-for-like repairs using timber from an appropriate source 'honest' repair, where steel strapping or plates are used resins, which although controversial in certain circumstances, can have a place.

LIKE-FOR-LIKE REPAIRS The choice of repair will depend largely upon discussions over the exact philosophy and approach taken to each individual project and whether a decision has been made to repair, restore or conserve. There are many ways of repairing timber structures and sometimes a mix of repair types may be appropriate.

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When carrying out a repair using timber it is important to select material of the same species, preferably from a reputable source and, most importantly, with a moisture content which matches to within one per cent that of the timber being repaired. If this condition is not met, the different drying rates of the timber may cause problems with the repair joint. To adopt the philosophy of 'conserve as found' is always the best starting point, and where like-forlike repairs are to be used, scarfed repairs allow the maximum amount of original timber to be retained. However, there are occasions where a timber beam has deteriorated to such an extent that the only possible solution is to replace the complete member. When deciding on whether to replace a complete structural member or not, it is important to take into account the perceived life span of the particular timber. HONEST REPAIR Reinforcing timber with metalwork has historical precedents dating back to the Middle Ages, and in many instances can be seen as having the advantage of being reversible. The removal of large chunks of historic fabric during some timber repair strategies is viewed as destructive and invasive, and consideration must be given to the use of metalwork in some instances. Although perceived as altering the way in which various members of a timber frame interact with one another, metal plates can provide an engineered and cost- effective way to repair timber. One of the most common uses of this approach involves inserting a flitch plate to reinstate the end bearing of a beam Whether this technique or a like-for-like repair is chosen, it must be remembered why the end of the beam has rotted in the first instance. Timber in contact with damp masonry sets up the conditions for fungal decay: timber with moisture content of less than 20 per cent does not seem to suffer, and ideally, the moisture content of all timber should be closer to 15 per cent. When reinstating the beam end it is good practice to allow air circulation around the end of the beam and to provide a membrane between the timber and any masonry that will provide support. The use of lead sheet or a lead-based damp-proof membrane is preferable. Modern impervious membranes are best avoided, as airborne moisture will be retained in the void behind the beam, setting up conditions for re-contamination.

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RESIN REPAIRS One of the most controversial repair methods in conservation today must be the use of resin for structural timber repairs. Prejudices often stem from the lack of knowledge and understanding of this technology. However, there are risks attached: timber treated with resins can become stiff and impermeable and may not be subject to the usual moisture and thermal related movement of the adjacent timber. It is possible that this could eventually impair the structural performance of the timber, but as resins are a relatively recent innovation, their long term affects remain uncertain. In order to proceed with a resin repair certain justifications may be necessary in order to convince interested parties of the suitability of this type of repair in a particular situation. Perhaps the most common example of its use is for replacing decayed beam ends. Simple beam ends can be partially or entirely replaced by cutting away the infected timber, inserting reinforcing rods into the timber ends and pouring resin into a pre-formed mould box, thus re-forming the original profile. Cracks and fissures in timber beams which threaten their performance may also benefit from the use of resins, as they are rarely deep enough to warrant more drastic measures. Longitudinal cracks caused by drying (see illustration, right) may be simply repaired by drilling vertical holes at right angles and through the fissures at appropriate centres; rods can be fixed into these pre-prepared holes with injected resin. Reinstatement of the shear transfer of the upper and lower section of the beam is thereby restored. A simple timber plug on the underside makes this repair inconspicuous. Another common problem which can benefit from the use of resins is the loss of a significant cross sectional area of a timber beam due to fungal or insect attack. In many instances the decay is confined to a relatively short section of the beam and does not warrant wholesale replacement.

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CONCLUSION

Design is a human endeavour and thus it is subject to error.Due to this,some designs are destined to fail. In case of a building failure there must be a transparent investigation with professional engineers and forensic experts experienced in identifying the root cause of failure.And having found the possible causes of the failure,it is vital to know how to avoid it in the future. The primary step in preventing building failures is to develop a programme for educating all parties on lessons learnt from the past failures.It is not advisable that a mistake once committed and affected is repeated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Google Case study information Class notes.

**The end **

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