EE2001 Circuit Analysis

Professor Wang Youyi, PhD. Office: S2-B2b-47 Tel: 67904537 Email: eyywang@ntu.edu.sg
AY2009/10 Semester 2 S t

Prescribed Text and References

TEXTBOOKS
"Electric Circuits", by James W Nilsson & Susan A Riedel, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007

REFERENCES
"Engineering Circuit Analysis", by William H Hayt, Jack E Kemmerly & Steven M Durbin, McGraw Hill, 7th Rev. Edition, 2007. "Fundamentals of Electric Circuits" by Charles K Alexander & Matthew Sadiku, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2006.

Course Syllabus
Circuit theorems and analysis techniques (WYY)
6 lectures, 3 tutorials Chapters 1-5

Energy storage elements and transient responses (WYY)

4 lectures, 2 tutorials Chapters 6-8

Sinusoidal AC circuits (WYY) Si id l i i

4 lectures, 1 tutorials Chapters 9-10

Laplace transform techniques (LKG)

6 lectures, 3 tutorials

Network functions and two-port networks (WYY)

6 lectures, 2 tutorials

Course Assessments
Examination 80%
Closed book 2 hours 4 compulsory questions Conducted in exam hall at end of semester

Quiz Q i 20%
Closed book 30 minutes 5 to 6 multiple-choice questions t lti l h i ti Conducted in your registered tutorial group Week 8 - the week following semester break Make M k up quiz i
Only for those with valid reason/s and supporting document/s To be completed within 1 week (i.e. by end of Week 9)

Basic Concepts
Electrical engineering is the profession concerned with systems that produce, produce transmit and measure electric signals. Electrical engineering combines the physicist s models of natural phenomena with physicists the mathematicians tools for manipulating those models to produce the systems that meet practical needs. Electrical systems are part of our lives. Circuit Ci it analysis becomes paramount important since it will help in understanding l i b ti t t i ill h l i d t di the behavior of circuit model and its ideal circuit component. The Th most frustrating parts of circuit analysis are to know h t start th t f t ti t f i it l i t k how to t t the problem and obtain a complete set of equations and organizing them in such a way as to appear manageable.

Basic Strategy
Figure on right is designed as a guide to overcoming the common obstacles of starting a problem and managing the solution process Several of the steps may seem obvious, but it is the chronological order as well as the performance of each task that leads to success. The real key to success in circuit analysis is PRACTICE, PRACTICE especially in a relaxed, low-stress relaxed environment. Experience is the best teacher, and teacher learning from mistakes will always be a part of the process of becoming a competent electrical engineer. engineer

Read the problem statement slowly and carefully. Identify the goal of the problem. problem Collect the known information.

Devise a plan.

Construct an appropriate set of equations. equations

Determine if additional information is i required. i d No Attempt a solution.

Yes

No

Verify the solution. Is it reasonable or p expected? Yes End.

EE2001 LECTURE 1
Voltage and Current (1.4) Ideal Basic Circuit Element (1.5) Power and Energy (1.6) Passive Sign Convention (1.5, 1.6) Circuit Elements (2.1, 2.2)

Voltage and Current

Electric charge
Electric charge is the basis for describing all electrical phenomena Charge is bipolar (positive and negative charges) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract Charge exists in discrete quantities which are integral multiples of the electronic charge 1.6022 x 10-19 Coulombs. Electrical effects are attributed to both the separation of charge and charges in motion

In circuit theory, the separation of charge creates an electric force (voltage), and the motion of charge creates an electric fluid (current)
The concepts of voltage and current are useful because they can be expressed quantitatively. Energy is expended whenever positive and negative charges are separated. separated

Voltage is the energy per unit charge created by the separation of the positive and negative charges. It is expressed as follows:

dw v= dq

where

v voltage in volts w the energy in joules q the charge in coulombs

The electrical effects caused by charges in motion depend on the rate of charge flow and this is known as electric current. It can be expressed as follows: p

dq i= dt

where

i the current in amperes q the charge in coulombs t time in seconds

These two equations are definitions for the magnitude of voltage and current respectively. respectively The bipolar nature of electric charge requires that we assign polarity references to these variables.

Ideal basic circuit element

An ideal basic circuit element has three attributes:
it has only two terminals, which are points of connection to other circuit components; it is described mathematically in terms of current and/or voltage; and it cannot be subdivided into other elements.

v is voltage across terminals of the element

Polarity reference for voltage is indicated by plus and minus signs

i is current in the element

Reference direction for current is shown by arrow
Positive v voltage drop from terminals 1 to 2 or voltage rise from terminals 2 to 1 positive charge flowing from terminals 1 to 2 or negative charge flowing from terminals 2 to 1 Negative voltage rise from terminals 1 to 2 or voltage drop from terminals 2 to 1 positive charge flowing from terminals 2 to 1 or negative charge flowing from terminals 1 to 2

The flow of current is conventionally regarded as a flow of positive charges, although charge flow in metal conductors results from electrons with a negative charge. charge
Direction of current is opposite to the direction of electron flow

The assignment of the reference polarity of voltage and the reference direction for current are entirely arbitrary. t ti l bit i1 Example 1.1:
i1 is a current flowing from terminal a to b i1 = - i2, i.e., the variable i2 represents the same current i1.
a i2 3A -3A 3A b

Example 1.2:
Numeral values show the actual direction

Example 1.3:
For the element in the figure, v1 = 17V. Determine v2. (Ans: v2 = -v1 = - 17 V)
+ v1 v2 +

Power and energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy. energy

dw p= dt

where

p - the power in watts, w- the energy in joules, and t the time in seconds.

Substitute in voltage and current definitions, the power equation is obtained as follows:

dw dw dq p= = dt dq dt p = vi

where

p the power in watts, v the voltage in volts, and i the current in amperes.

Power is energy per unit of time and is equal to the product of terminal voltage and current

Power is a quantity associated with a pair of terminals, and thus we have to be terminals able to tell whether power is being delivered to the pair of terminals or extracted from it (i.e. to/from element/s connected at the terminals).

Passive sign convention

Passive sign convention: Whenever the reference direction for the current in an element is in the direction of the reference voltage drop across the element, use a positive sign in any expression that relates the voltage and the current. O Otherwise, use a negative sign. , g g

Following passive sign convention:

If the power is positive (p > 0), power is being absorbed by the circuit inside the box. If the power is negative ( < 0) power i being delivered f f h i i (p 0), is b i i from the circuit inside the h i i i id h box.

Example 1.4:
a) S ) Suppose that we h h have selected the polarity references as shown in (b). Given i = 4 A l d h l i f h i (b) Gi and v = -10 V, then the power associated with the terminal pair 1,2 is

p = - (-10)(4) = 40 W
Thus, the circuit inside the box is absorbing 40 W

b) Suppose that your colleagues have chosen the polarity references shown in (c). Given (c) i = -4 A and v = 10 V, then the power is

p = - (10)(-4) = 40 W
Thus, the circuit inside the box is still absorbing 40 W

Example 1.5:
A high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line between Celilo, Oregon and Sylmar, Sylmar California is operating at 800 kV and carrying 1800 A. Calculate the power at A Oregon end of the line and state the direction of power flow.

At Celilo, it is non-passive sign convention

p = vi = ( 800 )(1.8 ) = 1440 MW

Power is negative, and hence power is delivered from Celilo, Oregon Therefore, direction of power flow is from Celilo to Sylmar Note: At Sylmar, it is passive sign convention

p = vi = ( 800 )(1.8 ) = 1440 MW

Positive power indicates that power is absorbed by Sylmar

Try Chapter Problems 1.12 to 1.15

Circuit elements
All circuit elements are broadly classified as active or passive. passive
An active element is one that is capable of generating energy. Examples are batteries, voltage sources and current sources. A passive element is one that cannot generate energy. Examples are resistors, capacitors and inductors.

Independent and dependent Sources

An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. A dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depends on the value of a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.

Ideal independent voltage and current sources

A id l voltage source i a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across An ideal lt is i i l h i i ib d l its terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals. An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those terminals. terminals

Examples of ideal independent sources

a) b) c) d) e) A time varying independent voltage source A constant i d independent voltage source d l A time varying independent current source An independent voltage source An independent current source
v(t) V i(t)

(a) ( )

(b)

(c) ( )

Common practices but not always adhere to

Lower case for time varying (AC, square wave), e.g. v and i. Upper case for constant (DC), e.g. V. Subscripts used to differentiate one source from another
vs is

(d)

(e)

Ideal dependent (or controlled) voltage and current sources

Output is determined by a voltage or current at a specific location in a circuit. circuit A dependent source is unilateral, i.e. the output variables have no influence o on the input variables. e pu v b es. a) Voltage-controlled voltage source

is dimensionless

b)

Current-controlled voltage source

is in ohms ()

c)

Voltage-controlled current source

is in mhos (-1)

d)

Current-controlled current source

is dimensionless

Series and Parallel Connections

Most circuits comprise of elements in a mixture of series and parallel connections
Those connected in series share the same current Those connected in parallel share the same voltage

Example 1.6:

Resistors 50 and 10 are in series Resistors 20 and 30 are in parallel p

They are also in parallel to the series combination of 50 and 10 resistors

Resistors 40 and 70 are in series with the 60 V voltage source

They are also in series to the parallel combination of the remaining resistors

Note: A parallel connection of voltage sources or a series connection of current sources is forbidden unless the sources are pointing in the same direction and have exactly the same values. values

Valid

Valid

Invalid

Valid

Valid Invalid Invalid

Invalid

Try Ch t P bl T Chapter Problems 2.2 and 2.3 22 d23

Valid

v1 v1+v2 v2

v1

v2

v1=v2

v1 v1-v2 v2 v R v

Voltage sources in series g

i1 i1=i2 i2

Voltage sources in p g parallel

i1

i2

i1+i2

R i i

i1

i2

i1-i2

Current sources in series

Current sources in parallel

EE2001 LECTURE 2
Ohms Law (2.2) Kirchhoffs Laws (2.4, 2.5) Operational amplifier (5.1, 5.2, 5.3)

Ohms Law
Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current or, more or specifically, the flow of electric charge. The circuit element used to model this behavior is the resistor. Ohm s Ohms law is the algebraic relationship between voltage and current for a resistor and it is expressed as follows:

v = iR

where

v - the voltage in volts, i - the current in amperes amperes, R - the resistance in ohms.

Express voltage as function of current

For the purpose of circuit analysis, we must reference the current in the resistor to the terminal voltage.
We can do so in two ways, according to passive sign convention or otherwise

Ohms law equivalent - express current as function of voltage

v i = = Gv R

where

v - the voltage in volts, i - the current i amperes, h in G - the conductance in mhos.

Conductance is simply the inverse of resistance.

It is represented by the symbol G. The unit of conductance is Siemens (S). Sometimes it is also known as mho (-1).

1 S = 1 A/V = 1 -1

Power calc lation Po er calculation at the terminals of a resistor can be expressed in several ways: e pressed se eral a s: p = vi when v = iR and p = -vi when v = -iR or p = vi = (iR)i = i2R , and p = -vi = -(-iR)i = i2R or p = v2/R which is independent of the polarity reference p p y Note: regardless of voltage polarity and current direction, the power at the terminals of a resistor is always positive.
Therefore, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit.

Example 2.1: In each of the circuit, calculate the value of v or i and determine the power dissipated in each resistor.
a) P i sign convention ) Passive i ti va = 1 8 = 8 V p = 12 8 = 8 W b) Passive sign convention ib = 50 0.2 = 10 A p = 502 0.2 = 500 W c) Non passive sign convention vc = -1 20 = -20 V p = ( )2 / 20 = 20 W (-20) d) Non-passive sign convention id = -50 / 25 = -2 A 50 2 p = 502 / 25 = 100 W

Example 2.2:
a. What value of vg is required in order for the interconnection to be valid? ib = - 8 A vg = 0.25 (- 8) = - 2 V b. For this value of vg, find the power delivered/absorbed associated with the 8A source. p = vg i = -2 8 = -16 W (delivered)

Example 2.3:
a) What value of is required in order for the interconnection to be valid? vx = -25 V and vx = -15 A = 0.6 b) For the value of calculated in part (a), find the power delivered/absorbed associated with the 25 V source. p = vi = (vx)(vx) or 25 15 = 375 W (absorbed)

Try A T Assessment Problems 2.3 and 2.4, and Chapter Problems 2.6 and 2.8 P bl 2 3 d 2 4 d Ch P bl 26 d28

Kirchhoffs Laws
Ohm s Ohms law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. circuits
However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoffs two laws, we have sufficient, powerful set of tools for analysing a large variety of electric circuits.

These two laws are formally known as Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff s Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL). Constructing a circuit model:
Label voltage and current associated with each resistor Label current of voltage source Terminal dots are start and end points of an individual element A node is where two or more elements meet: e.g. a, b, c, and d

7 unknowns requires 7 independent equations

Ohms law gives 3 of the equations

v1 = i1 R1 vc = ic Rc vl = il Rl

The remaining 4 equations come from applying Kirchhoffs law

node a is i1 = 0 node b i1 + ic = 0 node c ic il = 0 node d il is = 0

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node in a circuit is zero. zero

i
n= n =1

=0

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or leaving the node). node)

By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

Example 2.4: Consider the node in the figure below.

Applying KCL gives
i1 i1 + (-i2) + i3 + i4 + (-i5) = 0 or ( (-i1) + i2 + (-i3) + (-i4) + i5 = 0 (i (i i4 or i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5 Sum of entering currents = Sum of leaving currents i2

i5 i3

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) in a circuit is zero

v
m=1

=0

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.

Example 2.5: Consider a single-loop circuit shown below.

Applying KVL yields
+ v2 + v3 v4

-v1 + v2 + v3 v4 + v5 = 0 or v1 - v2 - v3 + v4 - v5 = 0 or v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4

v1

- v5 +

which may be interpreted as Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

Example 2.6:
Applying KCL, node a node b node c node d

i1 + i4 i2 i5 = 0, i2 + i3 i1 ib ia = 0, ib i3 i4 ic = 0, i5 + ia + ic = 0.

Example 2.7:
Applying KVL, path a path b path c path d -v1 + v2 + v4 vb v3 = 0, -va + v3 + v5 = 0, vb v4 vc v6 v5 = 0, -va v1 + v2 vc + v7 vd = 0.

Example 2.8: The currents i1 and i2 in the circuit shown are 20A and 15A respectively.
a) Fi d th power supplied by each ) Find the li d b h voltage source. b) Show that the total power supplied equals to the total power dissipated in the resistors.
2 i5 230V i1 8 4 i4 16 2 i2 i3 + V1 80 + V2 i0 + V0 -

(a) V2 V1 + V0 = 0 V0 = V1 + V2 260V V0 = 20(8) + 16(15) = 400V i0 = 400/80 = 5A i5 = 20 + 5 = 25A i3 = 15 + 5 = 20A i4 = 20 15 = 5A P230V = -230(25) = -5750W (delivering) 230(25) 5750W P260V = -260(20) = -5200W (delivering)

(b) Pabs = (25)2(2) + (20)2(8) + (5)2(4) + (15)2(16) + (20)2(2) + (5)2(80) = 10950W Pdel = 5750 + 5200 = 10950W Pdel = Pabs = 10950W

Try Chapter Problems 2.16 to 2.19 2 16 2 19

Circuit with dependent sources

Find voltage v0
3 unknowns of i , i0, and v0 Knowing any 2 of the unknowns would find the 3rd one

Solving for the currents

KVL loop a-b-c-a, abca KCL at node b,

500 = 5i + 20i0 L (1)

i0 = i + 5i = 6i L ( 2 )

Solving by substituting (2) into (1) for i0,

i = 4A i0 = 24A

v0 = 20i0 = 480V

Example 2.9: Find the total power developed in the circuit shown if Vo = 100V.
Applying A l i KVL around Loop A yields d i ld -60 + V1 = 100 V1 = 160V Likewise around Loop B -V2 + 80 + 100 = 0 V2 = 180V and we know that i= 4A. Applying KCL at Node 1 yields -ig + i + 2i = 0 ig = 3i = 12A
Node 1

ig

+ V1 Loop A

80V

i
Loop B

2i

+ V0 -

60V

4A

+ V2 -

Pdel = 180(4) + 100(8) + 60(12) = 2240 W

CHECK:

Pabs = 160(12) + 80(4) = 2240W

Try Chapter Problems 2.28 to 2.30

Operational amplifier (op-amp)

An op-amp is an example of voltage-controlled dependent voltage source
Output voltage is a function of the difference between the input voltages

If a positive voltage is supplied to the non-inverting input, op-amp yields a positive output . If a positive voltage is supplied to the inverting input, op amp yields a negative output. input op-amp output This op-amp circuit is known as inverting op-amp. Output voltage is constrained to a value between the negative and positive power supply voltage.

Our interest is on terminal behavior of the op-amp

Black-box approach to its operation as affected by external circuit connections Ignore the internal structure and voltage/current except that it imposes constraints on g g p p the terminals

Op-amp terminals
VCC A ( v p vn ) < VCC v0 = A ( v p vn ) VCC A ( v p vn ) +VCC A ( v p vn ) > +VCC +VCC

Actual op-amp
Input resistance between positive and negative input terminals is very large (105 to 1012 ) Amplification factor (gain) is very high, ranges from 105 to 107 Output resistance is very low, ranges from 1 to 50

Ideal op-amp p p
Input resistance is infinite Amplification factor is infinite Output resistance is zero p

Analyzing ideal op-amp

Two important equations for ideal op-amp
Since input resistance is infinite,

i p = in = 0

If the output is to remain bounded within the power supply voltage then as the gain voltage, approaches infinity, the voltage across the input terminals must simultaneously become infinitesimally small,

v p vn 0 or v p vn

If the gain is infinite, it is impossible to control the output

In actual application, voltage control is accomplished through feedback via a resistor which feeds the output signal back to the inverting input p g g p

Example 2.10: Given va = 1 V and vb = 0 V, find vo

Both input terminals have same voltage, hi i l h l

vn = v p = vb = 0 V L (1)

Input currents are zero, Taking note that,

i25 + i100 = in = 0 A L ( 2 )

i25 i100

( va vn ) = =

1 mA 25k 25 ( vo vn ) = vo mA = 100k 100

Substituting into (2),

v 1 + o = 0 vo = 4 V 25 100
Try Chapter Problems 5.3, 5.5 and 5.6

EE2001 LECTURE 3
Resistors in Series and Parallel (3.1, 3.2) Voltage Division and Current Division (3.4) Delta to Wye Delta-to-Wye Transformations (3.7)

Resistors in Series
Series-connected circuit elements carry the same current Applying KVL around the whole loop

vs + is R1 + is R2 + is R3 + is R4 + is R5 + is R6 + is R7 = 0 or vs = is ( R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6 + R7 ) = is Req with Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6 + R7

For k resistors connected in series, the equivalent single resistor has a resistance equal to the sum of the k resistances

Req = Ri = R1 + R2 + L + Rk
i =1

Resistors in Parallel
Parallel-connected circuit elements have the same voltage across their terminals Applying KCL at node a,

is = i1 + i2 + i3 + i4 =

1 vs vs vs vs 1 1 1 v + + + = vs + + + = s R1 R2 R3 R4 R1 R2 R3 R4 Req

For k resistors connected in parallel,

k 1 1 1 1 1 = = + +L + Req i =1 Ri R1 R2 Rk

It is more convenient to use conductance for parallel-connected resistors

Geq = Gi = G1 + G2 + L + Gk
i =1

For two resistors in parallel, 1 1 1 R1 + R2 = + = Req R1 R2 R1 R2

Req =

R1 R2 R1 + R2

Example 3.1: Find the equivalent resistance Rab

7 a 15 b 7 a Req1 b Req2 b a Req1 Req2+7 30 24 30 20

Req1 = q

(15)(30) = 10 15 + 30 1 1 1 1 1 = + + = Req 2 24 30 20 8 (10)(7 + 8) = 6 10 + (7 + 8)

Req 2 = 8 Rab =

Example 3.2: Find the equivalent resistance between terminals a-b.

10 a 15 b 48 6 b a 15 Req 18

(48)(10 + 6) = 12 48 + (10 + 6) (15)(12 + 18) Rab = = 10 15 + (12 + 18) Req =

18

Example 3.3: For the circuit shown, find 3 3: shown

a) the voltage v, b) the power delivered to the circuit by the current source, source c) the power dissipated in the 10 resistor (a) Work out the equivalent resistance, (64)(6 + 10) (30)(7.2 + 12.8) Req1 = = 12.8 Req = = 12 ( ) (7.2 ) ( 64 ) + (6 + 10) ( 30 ) + ( + 12.8)

a) With Req, v = 5 12 = 60 V b) For the 5A source, the 5A current and voltage v is of non-passive sign convention, p5A = -5 v = -5 60 = -300 W (delivered) 5 5 300 c) The power dissipated can be found by finding the current through the 10 resistor,

i7.2 = 5 i10 p10

30 = 3A 30 + 20 64 = 3 = 2.4A 64 + 16 = 2.42 10 = 57.6W

Try Chapter Problems 3.5 and 3.6

Voltage Division
The principle of voltage division the voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances
the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop across it.
R1 + v1 v R2 + v2 -

R1 R2 v1 = v ; v2 = v R1 + R2 R1 + R2

In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2, , RN) in series g g ( with the source voltage v, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of
N Rn Rn vn = v= v ; Req = Ri R1 + R2 + L + RN Req i =1

Condition to apply voltage division - the resistors must have the same current

Example 3.4: Find v1, v2, and v3 in the circuit shown below.
First combine the 10 and 15 i parallel i bi h d in ll l
14 + v1 40V 15 5 10 + v3 + v2 -

10(15) Req = = 6 10 + 15 +15

Then apply the voltage division,

14 v1 = (40) = 28V 28V 14 + 6 6 v2 = v3 = (40) = 12V 14 + 6

Common mistake

Example 3.5:
a) Find no-load voltage v0 b) Find v0 when RL i 150 k i d h is c) How much power is dissipated in the 25 k resistor if the load terminals are accidently shorted. shorted

75 a) v0 = (200) = 150 V 25 + 75 ( 75)(150 ) = 50 k b) Req = ( 75 + 150 ) 50 (200) = 133.3 V 25 + 50 2002 p25k = = 1.6 W 25k v0 =

c)

Current Division
The principle of current division the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances
the lower the resistance, the higher the current through it
R2 i v i1 R1 i2

i1 =

R2 R1 i ; i2 = i R1 + R2 R1 + R2

In general, if a current divider has N resistors (R1, R2, , RN) in parallel with the source current i the nth resistor (Rn) will have a current of i,

Req v = in = i ; Rn Rn

N 1 1 = Req i =1 Ri

Condition to apply current division - the resistors must have the same voltage or using conductance, N Gn Gn in = i= i ; Geq = Gi G1 + G2 + L + GN Geq i =1

Example 3.6:
Find i1 through i4 in the circuit shown below.
10 i4 40 i2 20

We first combine resistors in parallel,

i3 i1 30

Req1 = Req 2

20A

10(40) = 8 10 + 40 20(30) = = 12 20 + 30

Using the current division rule:

8 20 ( ) (20) = 8 A i1 = (8) = 3.2 A ( ) 8 + 12 50 30 i2 = (8) = 4.8 A 50 12 10 (20) = 12 A i3 = (12) = 2.4 A i3 + i4 = 8 + 12 50 40 i4 = (12) = 9 6 A 9.6 50 i1 + i2 =

Practice problems
(a) Find the equivalent resistance Rab. (Ans: Rab = 10 )
45

6 1.5 1 5 40 15 a b 1

3 12

5.2

(b) For the circuit shown, use current division to find i0, and use voltage division to find vo. (Ans: (A io = 2A vo = 18V) 2A;

Try Chapter Problems 3.21, 3.22 and 3.23

Delta-to-Wye Equivalent Circuits

In the analysis of electric networks, engineers often encounter the Y (star) and networks (delta) networks.
Delta interconnections
R1 , R2 , and Rm R3 , Rs , and Rm

Wye interconnections
R1 , R3 , and Rm R2, Rs , and Rm

Delta is also called pi ( ) p ()

can be shaped into without disturbing electrical equivalence

Star is also called tee (T)

Y can be shaped into T without disturbing electrical equivalence g q

Delta-Wye Transformation
For the two networks to be equivalent at each corresponding pair of terminals the terminals, resistance at each respective pair of terminals must be equal while the third terminal is open-circuited.

Rc ( Ra + Rb ) = R1 + R2 Rab = Ra + Rb + Rc Rbc =

Rb ( Rc + Ra ) = R3 + R1 Rca = Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra ( Rb + Rc ) = R2 + R3 Ra + Rb + Rc

Straightforward algebraic manipulation of previous equations gives values for Yconnected resistors in term of -connected resistors and vice versa.

R1 = R2 = R3 =

Rb Rc Ra + Rb + Rc Rc Ra Ra + Rb + Rc Ra Rb Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra = Rb = Rc =

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R1 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R2 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R3

Generally, the equations used for star-delta transformation can be expressed in the following f f ll i forms:

Product of the two nearest branches Sum of resistances Sum of cyclic products of two Y branches R = Resistance of furthest Y branch RY =

For the balanced case,

R1 = R2 = R3 = RY 1 RY = R 3

and and

Ra = Rb = Rc = R R = 3RY

Example 3.7: Consider the circuit shown , find the input resistance seen by the source.
Four transformations are possible for the abcd network:
abc, bcd, Y at b, and Y at c. v 1 b 2 d 1 a 2 1 c 2

(a) abc transformation to Y

a 0.8 n 0.4 v b 1 2 d (a) a 0.8 n v 2.4 1.4 v 0.884 n a 0.8 1 c 0.4

(b) Summing up resistances in paths nbd and ncd (c) Combining resistances between nodes n and d

2 2 Ran = = 0.8 2 + 2 +1 2 1 Rbn = = 0.4 2 + 2 +1 2 1 Rcn = = 0.4 2 + 2 +1

2.4 ||1.4 ( 2 4 ||1 4 ) =

2.4 1.4 2.4 + 1.4 = 0.884

The input resistance,

Rinput = 0.8 + 0.884 + 1

= 2.684 Try Chapter Problems 3.52 and 3.54 3 52 3 54

1 (b)

1 (c)

EE2001 LECTURE 4
Node Voltage Method or Nodal Analysis (4.2, 4.3, 4.4)

Planar Circuits
Planar circuits are those that can be drawn on a plane with no crossing branches

Planar circuit

Non-planar circuit

Descriptions of a circuit
Name node (n) Definition A point where 2 or more elements join Examples a, b, c, d, e, f, g

essential A node where 3 or more b, c, e, g node elements join (ne) path A set of elements may be traversed in order without passing the ih i h same node twice A path that connects 2 nodes many

To solve be unknowns
( e-1) KCL equations (n 1) ti Needs be - (ne-1) KVL equations i1 + i2 + i6 I = 0 i1 i3 i5 = 0 i3 + i4 i2 = 0 v1 = i1 R1 + i2 R5 + i3 ( R2 + R3 ) 0 = i2 R5 + i6 R7 i4 R6

branch ( ) (b)

v1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, I v1-R1, R2-R3, v2-R4, R5, R6, R7, I many v1-R1-R5-R3-R2, R R R R v2-R2-R3-R6-R4, R5-R7-R6, R7-I

essential A path that connects 2 branch essential nodes without (be) passing through an essential node loop mesh A closed path A loop that does not enclose any other loops

v2 = i3 ( R2 + R3 ) + i4 R6 + i5 R4

Examples of circuit analysis solutions

3 essential nodes (ne = 3)
denoted by a, b, c
a i1 i3 c i2 i4 b

5 essential branches (be = 5)

(10V 1) 2 5 10 and 2A (10V-1), 2, 5, d

(ne-1) or 2 KCL equations at nodes a and b,

i1 i2 i3 = 0

i2 + 2 i4 = 0
Since 1 branch current is already given (i.e. 2A), we need to have ((be-1)-(ne-1)) or 2 KVL equations,

10 i1 5i3 = 0

5i3 2i2 10i4 = 0

4 unknowns can be solved using the above set of 4 independent equations
Solution gives currents through all of the branches
i1 = 0.91A, i2 = -0.91A, i3 = 1.82A, i4 = 1.09A

Voltage across all branches can subsequently be computed

vac = 9.09V, vbc = 10.91V, vab = -1.82V

Cramers method of solving set of equations

Value of unknown variable in set of equations expressed as ratio of 2 determinants i1 i2 i3 = 0 After substituting for i4 as i4 = i2+2, 3 equations are left for i1, i2 and i3 i + 5i = 10
1 3

To find i1

1 5 5

12i2 + 5i3 = 20
= 0 0 (50) + (100) + 120 0 70 0.91 = = 0 91 0 (60) (5) + 0 + 12 0 77
1 1 1 0 0 10

i1 =

N1 =

10 0 20 12

1 1 1 1 0 5 0 12 5 1 0 1 1 10 5 0 20 5 1 1 1 1 0 5 0 12 5

and i2, i3

i2 =

N2 =

50 100 20 77

= 0.91 ; i3 =

N3 =

0 12 20 1 1 1 1 0 5 0 12 5

= 120+ 20 = 1.82 77

Determinant:

a1 b1 c1

a2 b2 c2

a3 b3 = a1b2 c3 a1b3c2 a2b1c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 a3b2 c1 c3 Read Appendix A.2, A.3 and A.4

Nodal Analysis or Node-Voltage Method

The circuit layout must be neat (no crossover) and mark clearly the essential nodes on the circuit diagram. Select one node to be a reference node (e.g node connected to the greatest number of branches or ground node). node) Define a voltage between each remaining node and the reference node ((N-1) voltages defined in an N-node circuit). Apply Appl KCL at each of the nodes, resulting in a set of (N-1) node eq ations nodes res lting (N 1) equations. Following the same method, formulate a set of independent equations. Solve the equations simultaneously.
v1 v2 2 + v13 3 + v23

With node 3 as the reference, voltages at nodes 1 and 2 are:

v1 = v13 v2 = v23

Example 4.1: For the circuit shown, compute the voltages across each of the current sources. sources

Node 1

v1

R2=8 i2 R1=8 R3=16

v2

Node 2 ig2 -2A

3 essential nodes ig1 Setting one as the reference node 1A and left with 2 nodes Apply KCL at 2 remaining nodes, giving two equations involving v1 and v2. KCL @node 1:

i1

i3

Node 3 (reference node)

ig1 i1 i2 = 0 ig1
KCL @node 2:

v1 v1 v2 = 0 2v1 + v2 = 8 L (1) R1 R2

i2 i3 ig 2 = 0

v1 v2 v2 ig 2 = 0 2v1 3v2 = 32 L ( 2 ) R2 R3 2v2 = 40 v2 = 20V

Solve for v1 and v2 by first adding (1) and (2), Substitute for v2 in (1),

2v1 + 20 = 8 2v1 = 28 v1 = 14V

Example 4.2: Use node voltage method on similar circuit in previous chapter
Ch Choose b tt bottom node as reference d f KCL @node 1: KCL @node 2:

v1 10 v1 v1 v2 + + =0 1 5 2 17v1 5v2 = 100 L (1)

From (2), v2 = Sub into (1), Sub. (1)

5v1 + 20 6

v2 v1 v2 + 2=0 2 10 5v1 + 6v2 = 20 L ( 2 )

77 700 700 5v1 + 20 17v1 5 v1 = v1 = = 9.09V = 100 6 6 77 6 5 ( 9 09 ) + 20 9.09 v2 = = 10.91V 6 Node voltage method is a simpler solution with 2 instead of 3 equations T Chapter Problems 4.9, 4.10 Try Ch P bl 4 9 4 10

Node voltage method with dependent sources

For circuit with dependent sources, the node-voltage equations must be sources supplemented with constraint equations
Constraint equations are imposed by the dependent sources

Example 4.3: Find power dissipated by the 5 resistor in the circuit below.

KCL equations:

v1 20 v1 v1 v2 + + = 0 0.75v1 0.2v2 = 10 L (1) 2 20 5 v2 v1 v2 v2 8i + + = 0 0.2v1 + 0.8v2 = 4i L ( 2 ) 5 10 2

 The constraint equation, i = v1 v2

S b i i t (2) and solve for v1 and v2, Sub. into d l f d Subsequently, i =

v1 = 16V ; v2 = 10V
p5 = i2 5 = 7.2W

16 10 =1.2A 5

Homework: Make constraint equation as the 3rd equation and use Cramers method to solve for i Try Chapter Problems 4.19 and 4.20

Node voltage method with voltage sources

For branches having voltage sources nodal analysis is difficult since currents sources, through voltage sources are not known.
Need to introduce a new variable i to denote the current through the g unknown voltage source Note that v1=50V and thus left with 2 KCL equations at nodes 2 and 3:

v v2 50 v2 i = 0 ; i + 3 4 = 0 + + 5 50 100
Constraint equations due to the 10i voltage source and it being dependent:

v3 = v2 + 10i

and i =

v2 50 5

4 equations to solve for the 4 unknowns

Introduction of a new variable requires an additional equation to solve Instead of introducing a new variable, we can apply Supernode concept g , pp y p p

Supernode concept
To eliminate the need to know the current through voltage sources while applying KCL, enclose the voltage sources and consider each enclosed surface as a generalized node or supernode. KCL holds good for ordinary node as well as for a supernode Use KCL Ohm s supernode. KCL, Ohms law and supernode to solve circuit analysis problem. Principle of supernode - a supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected in between two reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it. A supernode may be regarded as a closed surface enclosing the voltage source and its two nodes. nodes

5 50 100 Constraint equation due to supernode, v3 = v2 + 10i L ( 2 )

Constraint equation from dependent source control variable, i = Simplify to a set of 3 equations and solve for v2, v3 and i

KCL @ supernode, v2 50 + v2 + v3 4 = 0 L (1)

v2 50 L ( 3) 5

22v2 + v3 = 1400 v2 v3 + 10i = 0 v2 5i = 50

1400

0 10 5 7000 + 500 = = 60V 0 110 + 5 + 10 10 5

1 0 50 0 v2 = 22 1 1 1 1 0

60 50 i = = 2A ; v3 = 60 + 10 ( 2 ) = 80V 5 Note: 1 fewer equation to solve when using S pernode concept fe er eq ation sol e hen sing Supernode

Example 4.4: Analyze the circuit with a supernode as shown.

KCL @ supernode, d

4 i1 v1 10V 2 i2 8 6 i4 v2 5V

supernode p

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 v3 + = + L (1) 2 4 8 6
Constraint equation,

v3 i3

v2 = v3 + 5 L ( 2 )

Noting that v1 = 10V, (1) becomes

5v2 5v3 15 + = L ( 3) 8 12 2
Using (2) and (3),

5 ( v3 + 5 ) 5v3 15 + = v3 = 4 2V 4.2V 8 12 2 v2 = 4.2 + 5 = 9.2V

Properties of a Supernode
The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to solve for the node voltage. A supernode has no voltage of its own. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL. d i th li ti f b th d KVL
KCL to relate to external circuit elements KVL to relate the voltages of the two combined nodes

Practice problem:
Find v and i in the circuit shown.
7V

4 + v -

3V i 2 6

(Ans: v = -0.2V, i = 1.4A)

Try Chapter Problems 4.26 and 4.27

Summary Node Voltage Method or Nodal Analysis 1. Select one node to be a reference node 2. Define node voltages 3. 3 Apply KCL at each of the nodes Resulting in a set of (N-1) node equations. The equation variables are node voltages Three cases: 1. Normal circuits (without neither dependant sources nor supernode) 2. The circuit with dependant sources Constraint equations (KVL) for control variables 3. Supernode Constraint equations (KVL)

EE2001 LECTURE 5
Mesh Current Method or Mesh Analysis (4.5, 4.6, 4.7) Source Transformation (4.9) Thevenin and Norton equivalents (4.10)

Mesh Current Method or Mesh Analysis

Consider the closed path of elements in the circuit passing through no node or element more than once as a mesh (or a loop). Assume mesh current that flows around a mesh in a chosen direction (clockwise). A circuit element may be present in t o meshes i it l t b t i two meshes.
The total current through the element is the algebraic sum of the mesh currents (taking direction into account).

Apply KVL and Ohms law and obtain set of mesh equations. equations Solve the equations simultaneously to determine the unknowns. Examples of meshes in a planar circuit
Each circuit element can be in two meshes at the maximum Branch currents iR = i1 1 are defined in iR6 = i1 i2 term of mesh currents, e.g. currents e g i = i i
R8 2 3

To determine branch currents through all resistors.

be = 3, ne = 2 1 KCL and 2 KVL equations

i1 = i2 + i3 v1 = i1 R1 + i3 R3 v2 = i2 R2 i3 R3
Need to solve for a set of 3 equations

Applying A l i mesh-current method h h d

Identify the (be-(ne-1)) meshes and define mesh currents (with direction) KVL f mesh ia for h

v1 = ia R1 + ( ia ib ) R3
KVL for mesh ib

v2 = ( ib ia ) R3 + ib R2

i1 = ia i2 = ib i3 = ia ib

Only need to solve a set of 2 equations for the mesh currents ia and ib
Th b The branch currents can be expressed in terms of the mesh currents, h t b di t f th h t

Example 5.1: Use mesh-current method to find power delivered/absorbed by the 80 V source, and power dissipated by the resistors resistors.
ic

ia

ib

Mesh-current equations:
Mesh ia, h

80 = 5 ( ia ic ) + 26 ( ia ib ) 26 ( ib ia ) + 90 ( ib ic ) + 8ib = 0 5 ( ic ia ) + 30ic + 90 ( ic ib ) = 0 31ia 26ib 5ic = 80 L (1)

Mesh ib,

26ia + 124ib 90ic = 0 L ( 2 ) 5ia 90ib + 125ic = 0 L ( 3)

Mesh ic,

 Using Cramers rule,

80 26 5 0 124 90

ia =

0 31

90 125 26 5

26 124 90 5 90 125 31 80 5 26 0 90

592000 = 5A 118400

p80V = 80 ia = 400W (delivered) p5 = ( ia ic ) 5 = 45W

2

ib =

5 31

0 26

125 5

26 124 90 5 90 125 31 26 80 0 0 26 124 5 90

296000 = = 2.5A 118400

p30 = ic2 30 = 120W p26 = ( ia ib ) 26 = 162.5W

2

p90 = ( ib ic ) 90 = 22.5W
2

ic =

31 26 5 26 124 90 5 90 125

236800 = 2A 118400

p8 = ib2 8 = 50W

Try Chapter Problems 4.31 and 4.32

Mesh-current method with dependent sources

Is the strategy of mesh analysis still effective if the circuit contains current sources and/or dependent sources?
If the circuit contains dependent sources, the mesh current equations must be supplemented with the constraint equations imposed by the presence of the pp q p y p dependent sources.

Example 5.2: Use the mesh analysis to determine the power dissipated in the 4 resistor in the circuit shown below.
Mesh-current equations,

50 = 5 ( i1 i2 ) + 20 ( i1 i3 ) 0 = 5 ( i2 i1 ) + 1( i2 ) + 4 ( i2 i3 ) 0 = 20 ( i3 i1 ) + 4 ( i3 i2 ) + 15i
Constraint equation imposed by presence of 15i source,

i = i1 i3

Substitute i into the mesh-current equations,

5i1 + 10i2 4i3 = 0 L ( 2 ) 5i1 4i2 + 9i3 = 0 L ( 3)

25 50 20 5 0 4

25i1 5i2 20i3 = 50 L (1)

To find power dissipated by 4 resistor, we compute mesh currents i2 and i3.

i2 =

9 4 9

25 5 20 5 10 5 4

3250 = 26A 125

p4 = ( i3 i2 ) 4 = 16W
2

25 5 50 5 10 0 0 4 9

i3 =

5 4 5 10 5 4

25 5 20

3500 = 28A 125

Try Chapter Problems 4.37 and 4.38 4 37 4 38

Mesh-current method with current sources

When a branch includes a current source, the mesh analysis method requires source some additional manipulations. Example 5.3: Find the mesh currents ia, ib, and ic.
When we attempt to sum voltages around either mesh ia or ic, we must introduce into the equations the unknown voltage across the 5 A current source. Thus, Mesh ia: 100 = 3 ( ia ib ) + v + 6ia L (1) Mesh ic: v = 2 ( ic ib ) + 50 + 4ic

L( 2 )
L ( 3)

Combine (1) and (2) to eliminate v, 50 = 9ia 5ib + 6ic

KVL around mesh b 0 = 3 ( ib ia ) + 10ib + 2 ( ib ic ) L ( 4 ) b, Taking note that: ia + ic = 5 L ( 5 ) Solve (3), (4) and (5) ia = 1.75 A, ib = 1.25 A, ic = 6.75A

Supermesh concept
We can create a kind of supermesh from two meshes where a current source is a common element; the current source is in the interior of the supermesh. Apply KVL and Ohms law in meshes without the current source. Then solve the equations obtained to find the unknowns. unknowns In Example 5.3, we can derive equation (3) without introd cing the unknown voltage itho t introducing nkno n oltage variable v by using supermesh concept.
Remo e the current source from eq ation by Remove c rrent so rce equation b simply avoiding it when writing the meshcurrent equations KVL around the supermesh, 100 = 3 ( ia ib ) + 2 ( ic ib ) + 50 + 4ic + 6ia This equation simplifies to equation (3), which is solved with (4) and (5)

Try Chapter Problems 4.41 and 4.47 4 41 4 47

Taking time to look carefully at a circuit to identify shortcuts such as the above supermesh provides a big payoff in simplifying the analysis. In I general, we use nodal or mesh analysis method, whichever is simpler (and l d l h l i h d hi h i i l ( d appropriate what the question asks for: voltages or currents?) Practice problems
(a) Use the nodal analysis method to find the power delivered/absorbed by th b the 50 V voltage source. lt Ans: P50V = - 150 W (delivered) (b) Use the mesh analysis method to find the mesh current ia. Ans: 15 A

Summary Mesh Current Method 1. Select meshes 2. Define mesh currents 3. 3 Apply KVL at each of the meshes Resulting in a set of (be-(ne-1)) equations. The equation variables are mesh currents Three cases: 1. Normal circuits (without neither dependant sources nor supermesh) 2. The circuit with dependant sources Constraint equations (KCL) for control variables 3. Supermesh Constraint equations

Useful circuit analysis techniques

There are many techniques available to simplify circuits before applying nodevoltage and mesh-current methods
3 5

For F example, if you are given the l i th following circuit, are there any other alternative(s) to determine the voltage across 2 resistor?

+ vo -

8A

20V

Some of the common techniques for circuit simplification

Series-parallel reductions S i ll l d i -to-Y transformations Source transformations Thevenin and N Th i d Norton equivalents i l Superposition

Source transformations
A voltage source in series with a resistor is equivalent to a current source in parallel with the same resistor provided vs = is R

Example 5.4: For the circuit shown, find the power associated with the 6 V source.

There are several approaches to calculate the power associated with the 6V source. However, all the approaches will focus on finding just one branch current in the 6V source. As a result, we first simplify the circuit by using source transformations.

Note we must reduce the circuit in a way that preserves the identity of the branch containing the 6V source. There is no need to preserve the identity of the branch containing the 40V source or any of the resistors. resistors
Starting with this branch, we can transform the 40V source in series with 5 resistor to 8A source in parallel with 5 resistor, and so on.

i6V

19.2 6 = = 0.825A 4 + 12

p6V = 6 0.825 = 4.95W (absorbed)

Example 5.5: Determine the equivalent circuit between the two terminals in figure below via source transformation.
2 2 4V 3 6V 1 3V 2A 2

1A

1A

3A

2A

3A 3

1A

0.75

1 3V 0.75 0.75V 1.75 3.75V OR 2 1/7A 1.75

Try Assessment Problem 4.15 and Chapter Problem 4.59

Ignoring independent sources

In circuit analysis we often need to ignore contribution from certain independent analysis, sources. We can do that by turning them off (killing them).
Turning off independent voltage source, Vs = 0 Turning off independent current source, Is = 0 source replacing it with a short-circuit replacing it with a open-circuit
1.6 20 1.6 20 120V 60V 5 Complete circuit C l t i it 20 120V 60V 5 36A 5 8 Turning ff ll lt T i off all voltage sources 1.6 36A

Turning off all current sources

Thevenin and Norton equivalents

At times in circuit analysis, we want to concentrate on what happens at a specific analysis pair of terminals. For F example: When we plug an appliance into an electricity outlet, we are l Wh l li i t l t i it tl t interested primarily in the voltage and current at the terminals of the appliance. We have no interest in the effect that connecting the appliance has on voltages and currents elsewhere in the circuit supplying the outlet. In other words, we want to outlet words focus on the behavior of the circuit supplying the outlet, but only at the outlet terminals. Thevenin and Norton Equivalents are circuit simplification techniques that focus on terminal behavior and thus are extremely valuable aids in circuit analysis. analysis

Thevenins theorem
Any linear network can be replaced by an independent voltage source in series with a resistor such that the current-voltage relationship at the terminals is unchanged. I a In other words a linear two-terminal words, circuit (a) can be replaced by an + Linear V equivalent circuit (b) consisting of a two-terminal Load circuit voltage source VTh in series with a g resistor RTh,
b (a)

VTh is the open-circuit voltage at p g the terminals RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the internal independent sources are turned off. i d d d ff

RTh

a + V b Load L d

VTh

(b)

Nortons theorem
Norton s Nortons theorem is identical to Thevenins statement except that the equivalent Thevenin s circuit is an independent current source in parallel with a resistor. I It states that a linear two-terminal circuit a can be replaced by an equivalent circuit + Linear of a current source IN in parallel with a V two-terminal Load resistor RN, circuit

IN is the short circuit current through the terminals RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the internal independent sources are turned off.
IN RN

b (a) I a + V b (b) Load

Note: Thevenins and Nortons equivalent circuits are related by source transformation.

RN = RTh

; IN =

VTh RTh

EE2001 LECTURE 6
Deriving equivalent circuits (4.10, 4.11) Maximum power transfer (4.12) Superposition (4.13)

Method A for determining equivalent circuit

If only independent sources are present, calculate: present
(a) Thevenin's equivalent resistance RTh with independent sources killed (i.e. short-circuit all voltage sources and open-circuit all current sources). (b) Either the open circuit terminal voltage (voc = iscRTh) open-circuit or the short-circuit current (isc = voc/RTh).

Example 6.1: Using Thevenins theorem find the equivalent circuit to the left of 6 1: Thevenin s theorem, the terminals a-b in the circuit shown below.
6 12V 6 a i 2A 4 b 1

Ignoring the 1 resistor, determine an equivalent circuit to represent the circuit to its left (i.e. simplifying the circuit while retaining the 1 resistor).

Solving for RTh (kill all the independent sources),

6 6

RTh

RTh

(12 )( 4 ) = 3 = 12 || 4 =
12 + 4

Solving for VTh,

6 +

6 + 4A 6 4 VTh 3 + a 6V b

2A

2A

4 VTh 6 6

24V

VTh -

4 VTh = ( 24 ) = 6V 4+6+6

Example 6.2: Consider the circuit below, find Io using Nortons theorem.
6k 6V 3k

2k Io

2mA 3k

Note: the 2k resistor is considered as a load, which is ignored when deriving the equivalent circuit. q

Solving for RN
6k 3k

RN = 6k || ( 3k + 3k )
3k

RN

( 6k )( 6k ) = 3k =
6k + 6k

Solving for IN
6k 6V 3k

IN

2mA 3k

6V 3k IN = + ( 2mA ) 6k 3k + 3k = 2mA

Connect back the 2k resistor to the Nortons equivalent circuit and solve for Io
The Norton equivalent circuit is drawn to the left of the 2 k resistor. Using current division, the current Io in the 2 k resistor is

2mA

3k

2k Io

3k Io = ( 2mA ) = 1.2mA 3k + 2k

Method B for determining equivalent circuits

If dependent and independent sources are both present determine the Thevenin present, equivalent by calculating:
(a) Terminal open-circuit voltage voc and short-circuit current isc. (b) RTh = voc/isc.

Example 6.3: Find Vo for the circuit shown below.

2Vx Vx +

24V 2

3A

+ Vo -

The 2 resistor is the load and not included in equivalent circuit.

Find the open-circuit terminal voltage after the 2 load is removed.

2Vx Vx + + Voc -

24V

3A

VX = 3 4 = 12V Voc + 24 + 2VX + VX = 0 Voc = 12V

Find the short-circuit current.

2Vx Vx + Isc

24 + 2VX + VX = 0 VX = 8V
4 I 3A

24V

I= I SC

VX = 2A 4 = I + 3 = 1A

Find RTh and form the Thevenins equivalent circuit

RTh =

Voc 12 = = 12 ; VTh = Voc = 12V I sc 1

(Note: This is not equal to 4 since the presence of the dependent source has altered the ff ti th effective resistance of the given network.) it f th i t k)

Connect the Thevenin equivalent circuit to the 2 load resistor and solve for Vo

RTh = 12 Voc = 12V 2 + Vo -

2 12 Vo = (12 ) = V 2 + 12 7

Method C for determining equivalent circuit

If only dependent sources are present
(a) Apply a 1 A current source at the terminals and calculate the terminal voltage. Since vo = 1 RTh = RTh, take RTh = vo ; or (b) Apply a 1 V voltage source at the terminals and calculate the terminal current i. Take RTH = 1/i.

Example 6.4: Find the Thevenins equivalent of the circuit shown.

Since the rightmost terminals are already open-circuited, i = 0. Consequently, the dependent source is dead, so voc = 0. p
3 1.5i 1 5i 2 i

 We apply a 1 A source externally, then using the nodal analysis,

3 1.5i 2 i + v 1A

v 1.5i v + 1 = 0 and i = 1 d 3 2 v v + = 0.5 v = 0.6V 3 2 RTh = 0.6

We can also apply a current source of iin externally, then using the nodal analysis,
3 1.5i 2 i + v -

iin

Summary:
Method to use depends on which is convenient and simpler Method B can be generally applied to all circuits Method C is only useful for determining the equivalent resistance, Methods A or C are necessary t determine the Th to d t i th Thevenins voltage or Nortons current i lt N t t Only independent sources can be killed when determining equivalent resistance

Read E R d Examples 4.10 and 4.11 l 4 10 d 4 11 Try Chapter Problems 4.63, 4.67 and 4.71

Maximum power transfer

Given a DC circuit as shown, maximum power shown transfer takes place when the load resistance RL = RTh.

VTh 2 Proof: PL = i RL = RL RTh + RL

PL is maximum when

( RTh + RL )2 RL 2 ( RTh + RL ) dPL 2 = VTh =0 4 dRL ( RTh + RL )

2

This results in the following,

( RTh + RL )

= 2 RL ( RTh + RL )
2 VTh VTh = RL = 4 RL 2 RL 2

RL = RTh
The maximum power is: PL ,max

Example 7: For the circuit shown, find the value of RL that results in maximum power being transferred to RL and the value of this maximum power.
Find Thevenins equivalent circuit,

RTh = 30 / /150 = VTh =

( 30 )(150 ) = 25
30 + 150

150 ( 360 ) = 300V 150 + 30

Power transfer is maximum when

RL = RTh = 25
The maximum power:

PL ,max

300 = 25 = 900W 50

 What percentage does this maximum power correspond to the total power delivered by the 360V source?

vab =

VTh 360 150 = 150V i360V = = 7A 2 30 PL ,max 900 =35.71% = P360V 360 7

Try Assessment Problem 4.21 and Chapter Problem 4.79

Superposition
Linearity - A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input. A linear circuit is defined as any circuit that has only independent sources, linear dependent sources and linear elements sources, elements.
Homogeneity (scaling) property: v = i R kv=kiR Additive property: v1 = i1 R ; v2 = i2 R v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2

Principle of Superposition - In any linear circuit, the current or voltage at any circuit node may be calculated as the sum of the contributions of each independent source acting alone.
Superposition cannot be applied to power because power (p) is a nonlinear function (p = i v).

Basic rules of applying superposition theorem

Superposition applies only to a linear circuit An ideal voltage source is killed or removed by replacing it with a short circuit. An ideal current source is killed or removed by replacing it with an open circuit. Dependent sources should remain in the circuit circuit.

Steps to apply superposition principle

1. 1 Turn off all independent sources except one source Find the output (voltage or source. current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short circuit) independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open circuit)

2. 3.

Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources sources. Note: Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables. i bl Superposition reduces a complicated problem to several easier problems, each containing an independent source.
There is no advantage in using superposition to solve a network with dependent sources because the dependent source is never killed.

Example 6.6: Using superposition principle, find the currents through the resistors i1, i2, i3 and i4.

First, find the currents resulting from the 120V voltage source
Kill 12A current source by replacing it with an open-circuit cu e t sou ce ep ac g t w t a ope c cu t Apply nodal analysis to solve for the currents,

v1 120 v1 v + + 1 =0 6 3 2+4 v1 = 30V

120 30 = 15A 6 30 ' i2 = = 10A 3 30 ' i3' = i4 = = 5A 2+4 i1' =

Secondly, find currents resulting from 12A current source

Kill 120V voltage source by replacing it with a short-circuit A l nodal analysis to solve for the currents, Apply d l l i l f h

v3 v3 v3 v4 + + = 0 L (1) 6 3 2 v4 v3 v4 + + 12 = 0 L ( 2 ) 2 4
Solving equations (1) and (2),

v3

v4

v3 = 12V ; v4 = 24V

v3 v3 12 12 " i = = = 2A ; i2 = = = 4A 6 6 3 3 12 ( 24 ) v v v 24 " " i3 = 3 4 = = 6A ; i4 = 4 = = 6A 2 2 4 4

" 1

Lastly, the branch currents in the original circuit are algebraic sums of the individual currents contributed by each of the independent sources.
' " i1 = i1' + i1" = 15 + 2 = 17A ; i2 = i2 + i2 = 10 4 = 6A ' " ' " i3 = i3 + i3 = 5 + 6 = 11A ; i4 = i4 + i4 = 5 6 = 1A

Try Chapter Problems 4.91 and 4.93 4 91 4 93