LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

Module

02
Fundamentals of Switching & Short Circuit Calculations

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage1of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.1 INTRODUCTION Thefollowingphenomenacanbeobservedduringswitchingandthefaultclearingprocessinacircuitbreaker: 1. Asthefaultoccurs,thecurrentincreasestoahighvalueduringthefirsthalfcycleofthewaveandthereafter theamplitudeofthewavegoesonreducingasthewaveformpassesthroughthesubtransient,transientand steadystates.Thewaveformofthecurrentisasymmetricalaboutthenormalzeroaxis. 2. Thevoltageacrossthecircuitbreakerpoleafterthefinalarcextinction(calledthetransientrecoveryvoltage (TRV))hasarelativelyhighamplitudeandrateofrise.Thevoltagehasahighfrequencytransientcomponent superimposedonapowerfrequencycomponent. 3. Inthischaptertheabovementionedphenomenahavebeenstudiedwithreferencetothebehaviorofcircuitbreaker. Forthepurposeofanalysis,simpleRLCnetworkshavebeenconsidered.Thegeneratorhasbeenrepresentedbyan e.m.f.source.Theequationsofvoltageandcurrenthavebeensolvedbysimplerulesofdifferentialcalculus. 2.2 NETWORK PARAMETERS: R, L, C Anelectricalnetworkcomprisesthefollowingnetworkparameters Theresistancecanbeneglectedasafirstapproximation. i. Inductance Inductanceisdefined Inductance(L) Capacitance(C) Resistance(R) Overvoltagescanbegeneratedwhileclosingcircuitbreakeroncapacitorbanksorloadedtransmissionlines. Theseareminimizedbypreclosingresistorsandsurgesuppressors.

L=

d di
L I

henery

(1)

where

=inductanceofcircuit,Henry. =fluxlinkageduetocurrenti,Weberturns =currentinthecircuit,Amp.

Theelectromotiveforce(e.m.f.)inducedinaninductorisgivenby, Energyininductance(LHenry)attheinstantwhenthecurrentinitisi(A)isgivenby,

e=

d d di di = =L dt di dt dt

volts

(2)

1 Win = Li 2 2

Joules

(1Joule=1Wattsecond)

(3)

Inaninductivecircuitcurrentcannotchangeinstantaneously.Hencewhenthee.m.fisappliedatt=0,thecurrentis zero at the instant of closing the switch. Also we know that the current lags behind applied voltage by 90 in the inductance. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage2of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Consideringsinusoidalvoltageappliedtoaninductance,thecurrentlagsby90,therefore,thevoltageofthecircuit hasmaximuminstantaneousvalueatthecurrentzero. Whileinterruptingthecurrentflowingthroughaninductivecircuitsuchasatransformeronnoload,atransformer loaded by an inductor, etc. the circuitbreaker should interrupt the arc at natural current zero of the alternating currentwave.Ifthearcextinctiontakesplaceatthenaturalcurrentzero,theenergyintheinductance(1/2Li2)iszero. However,ifthearcissuddenlyinterruptedbeforethenaturalcurrentzero,attheinstantaneousvalueofcurrent,sayi amperes,theenergy1/2Li2issuddenlyinterruptedbythechoppingofcurrenttoanartificialzerovalue.Duetosucha phenomenontheinterruptingoflowmagnetizingcurrentsoftransformers,reactorsneedaparticularattention.The circuitbreakershouldbecapableofinterruptingsuchcurrentswithoutgettingdamagedorwithoutgivingrisetoover voltageabovethepermissiblelimits. ii. Capacitance ThewellknowndefinitionofthecapacitorisTwoormoreconductorsseparatedbydielectric(insulating)medium. ThecapacitanceCisgivenby

C=

dq dv
C q v

farads

(4)

where

=capacitance,Farads =charge,Coulombs =voltage,Volts.

From the above definition, it is understandable that transmission lines, bushing, circuitbreakers etc. have inherent capacitancebetweenphaseandbetweenphaseandground.Insomecasesthecapacitancemaybenegligible.Inh.v. circuit it becomes important and may not be negligible. In circuitbreaking phenomenon, capacitance plays an importantrole.Thevoltageacrosscapacitorisgivenby

dq volts C 1 1 v = dq = idt C C dv =

volts

Energyinacapacitorisintheformofelectricfieldandisgivenby

1 WC = Cv 2 2

Joules

(5)

where CisinFarads,visinVolts,qisthechargeinCoulombs. There exists a distributed capacitance between conductors and between conductor and ground in case of transmissionlines.Theflowofalternatingcurrentinthetransmissionlineisassociatedwithalternatechargingand dischargingofthiscapacitance.Thecurrentstakenbythecapacitanceforchargingarecalledchargingcurrents.The chargingcurrentflowintransmissionline,evenifthereceivingendisopencircuited.Thevoltageacrossacapacitor cannotchangeinstantaneously. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage3of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Whileclosingacircuitbreakeronapredominantlycapacitivecircuitlikeacapacitorbank,thecurrentflowinginthe capacitanceisgivenby

i = C

dv dt
i C dvldt

=instantaneousvalueofcurrent,Amperes =capacitance,Farads =rateofchangeofvoltage,Volts/sec.

where

The current inrush during the closing of capacitive circuit can occur during prearcing between the circuitbreaker contacts.Thefollowingdutiescanproduceseverestressesonthecircuitbreaker: 2.3 VOLTAGE EQUATION OF AN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ThevoltageequationofanRLCseriescircuitisgivenby Foranalternatinge.m.f,theinducedvoltageeisgivenby Parallelingoftwocapacitorbanks Closingandopeningcapacitorbanks Closingandopeningunloadedtransmissionlinesonnoload

e=L
e L

1 di + Ri + idt dt C
=impressedvoltage =voltageacrossinductor =voltageacrossresistor

volts

(6)

di dt

Ri

1 idt =voltagecrosscapacitor. C
e = E m sin (t + )

where,Em=2Ermsand=2f.Angle dependsonmagnitudeofeatt=0.Ifeiszeroati=0,then =0andife=Em ati=0then=/2. 2.4 SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF RL SERIES CIRCUIT Letussee,whathappens,whenswitchSinthecircuitshowninFig2.1issuddenlyclosed.

Figure2.1RLseriescircuitunderstudy Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage4of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Weshallsolvethisequationtoobtainanexpressionforcurrenti.Eq.(8)isanonhomogeneousdifferentialequation offirstorder.TheEmcompletesolutionisthesumofacomplementarysolution(ic)andaparticularsolution(ip)i.e. i=ic+ip (9) ComplementarySolution,(ic) TheauxiliaryequationisobtainedbyputtingtherighthandsideofEq.(8)equaltozero,i.e. Integrating, Rearrangingtheterms, Writinganequationforcurrentionthebasisdescribedinsection2.3,

di + Ri = e = Em sin (t + ) dt

(8)

di + Ri = 0 dt

di R + dt = 0 i L

ln i +

R t=K L R ln i = t + K L

whereKisaconstantofintegrationgivenbyK=lnA,whereAissomeotherconstant.Hence This is complementary solution of current i. It is an exponentially decaying component called D.C. Component. The magnitudeofconstantAdependsoninitialconditions.Amaybezero,positiveornegativedependinguponmagnitude ofeatt=0. ParticularSolution,(ip) SuchatrialsolutionistakenbecausetheR.H.S.ofEq.(8)isoftheform E m sin Takeatrialsolution

ln i = ln (e ( R L )t ) + ln A

i = A e ( R L )t

(10)

i = C cos(t + ) + D sin (t + )

(11)

(t + ) .Obtain di ofEq.(11)
dt

andsubstituteinEq.(8).Equatethecoecientsofliketermsfrombothsidestoget

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage5of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

C = Em D = Em

L R 2 + 2 L2

(12)

R R 2 + 2 L2

(13)

SubstitutingthesevaluesofCandDinEq.(11)weget

i=

L R Em cos(t + ) + 2 E m sin (t + ) 2 2 R + L R + 2 L2
2

(14)

Let betheangleofimpedancetriangle

= tan 1
sin =

L
R

L R 2 + 2 L2

; cos =

R R 2 + 2 L2

Substitutingsin andcos inEq.(14),

i=

Em Em sin cos(t + ) + cos sin (t + ) R 2 + 2 L2 R 2 + 2 L2 Em R 2 + 2 L2 sin (t + )

(15)

i=

(16)

Eq.(16)istheparticularsolutionofEq.(8).ItissinusoidcalledA.C.Component.

CompleteSolution,(i) Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage6of39 ThisisacompletesolutionofEq.(8).LetusputtheinitialconditiontoevaluateA.Att=0;i=0;becausethe AssumingRtobetoosmallascomparedwithL; currentininductivecircuitdoesnotchangeinstantaneously. FromEqs.(10)and(16),weget i=ip+ic

i = Ae( R L )t +

Em sin (t + ) R + 2 L2
2

(17)

R 2 + 2 L2 L and = tan 1

L
R

= 90o

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear CaseI.Switchclosedate=0. Alsoi=0att=0,andfromEq.(17) Hencee=0att=0,therefore, =0.

0= A+
A=

Em R + L
2 2 2

sin ( 90o )

Em L

ThisismaximumvalueofA,hencethed.c.componentismaximumwhenswitchisclosedatvoltagezero.Thiscaseis calledDoublingEffectbecausepeakvalueisthen2Em/L,atthepeakofthefirstcurrentloop.Thereisaslightdropin the instantaneous value of the current from t = 0 to t = /2. Therefore, the peak value can be considered to be approximately1.8Em/Linsteadof2Em/L. CaseII.Switchclosedate=Em Hence A is zero, if switch is closed when e = Em, thereby the d.c. component is also zero. From cases I and II we observethatthemagnitudeofinitialvalueofd.c.component switch,orvoltageattheinstantofoccurrenceofshortcircuit. Letusnowinterprettheresultsofthesolution.WhenanRLseriescircuitisclosedwithanalternatingvoltagesource, the resulting current consists of two components,a d.c.component and an a.c. component. The a.c. componentis superimposedonthed.c.component.Themagnitudeofd.c.componentdependsuponthevoltageattheinstantof closingtheswitch.Whentheswitchisclosedatvoltagezero,thed.c.componentismaximum(Fig.2.2).Iftheswitchis closedatvoltagemaximum,d.c.componentiszeroandthewaveformissymmetricalaboutthenormalzeroaxisas showninFig.2.3. Example 1: A.C. Transient RL circuit.A50Hzsinusoidalvoltageofamplitude400Voltsisappliedtoaseriescircuitof resistance10Ohm and inductance of 0.1H. Find an expression for the value of the current at any instantafter the voltageisapplied. a) Find the value of d.c. component of current upon closing the switch if instantaneous value of voltage is 50 Voltsatthattime b) What value of instantaneous voltage will produce a maximum d.c. component of current upon closing the switch? Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage7of39 Hencee=Ematt=0,therefore =/2. Alsoi=0att=0,andweget

0= A+ A = 0

Em sin 2 2 R + L 2 2
2

A e ( R L )t dependsuponthemomentofclosureof

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear c) What is the instantaneous value of voltage which will result in the absence of any d.c. component upon closingtheswitch? d) Iftheswitchisclosedwheninstantaneousvoltageiszero,ndtheinstantaneouscurrent0.5,1.5,5.5cycles later

Figure2.2ChangeofcurrentwithtimeinRLseriescircuituponswitchingatvoltagezero

Figure2.3ChangeofcurrentwithtimeinRLseriescircuituponswitchingatmaximumvoltage Solution: Given:R=l0ohms,L=0.1henery,f=50Hz,and =2f=314

R 2 + 2 L2 = Angle = tan 1
E rms = 400 V

(10)

+ (314 2 0.12 ) = 33

31.4 = 72.33o = 1.26 radians 10

E m = 2 E rms = 2 400 = 565.7 V

e ( R L )t = e (10 0.1)t = e 100t

SubstitutinginEq.(17),

i = Ae 100t + = Ae
100 t

565.7 sin (314t + 1.26 ) A 33 + 17.14 sin (314t + 1.26 ) A

(i)

a) Switchclosedatt=0,whene=50V,therefore

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage8of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear b) The maximum d.c. component will be produced if instantaneous value of applied voltage is zero at the instantofclosingtheswitch. c) d) If the switch is closed at zero instantaneous voltage, the angle is zero and A willbe 16.32. Thecurrent equationwillthenbe 2.5 SUBTRANSIENT, TRANSIENT AND STEADY STATE The analysis of sudden shortcircuit, of an RL series circuit (section 2.4) will now be applied to threephase short circuitofanalternator.Theprincipleofoperationofasynchronousgeneratorisbasedonarotatingmagneticfield which generates a voltage in an armature winding having resistance and reactance. The current flowing when a generatorisshortcircuitedissimilartothatgiveninFigs2.2and2.3whichisflowingwhenanalternatingvoltageis suddenlyappliedtoaresistanceandaninductanceinseries.However,thecurrentflowinginasynchronousmachine immediatelyaftertheoccurrenceofafault,thatflowingafewcycleslater,andthesustained,orsteadystate,valueof the fault current differ considerably because of the effect of the armature current on the flux that generates the voltage in themachine. In the alternator, the waveform is modified byarmature reaction. An oscillogram of three phasecurrentsisshowninFig.2.4.Sincethevoltagesgeneratedinthephasesofathreephasemachinearedisplaced 120electricaldegreesfromeachother,theshortcircuitoccursatdierentpointsonthevoltagewaveofeachphase. Forthisreasontheunidirectionalordctransientcomponentofcurrentisdifferentineachphase. Thed.c.componentwillvanishife=Em,i.e.2400=565.7V(instantaneous)attheinstantofclosingthe switch. D.C.componentatt=0isgivenby Sincei=0att=0,thereforefromEq.(i)

e = 50 = 565.7 sin (0 + )

= sin 1

50 = 5.07 o = 0.0885 radian 565.7

0 = A + 17.14 sin (0.0885 1.26 )

A = 17.14 sin (0.0885 1.26) = 15.79

Ae 100(0 ) = 15.78e 0 = 15.79

i = 16.32e 100t + 17.14 sin (314t 1.26) A

cycles=0.50.02=0.01second cycles=0.03second cycles=0.11second SubstituteinEq.(ii),

(ii)

0.5 1.5 5.5

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage9of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

Phase B Time

Figure2.4Waveformsofshortcircuitcurrentsinthethreephasesofanalternator. Ifthedccomponentofcurrentiseliminatedfromthecurrentofeachphase,theresultingplotofeachphasecurrent versustimeisthatshowninFig.2.5.ComparisonofFigs.2.3and2.5showsthedierencebetweenapplyingavoltage totheordinaryRLcircuitandapplyingashortcircuittoasynchronousmachine.Thereisnodccomponentineitherof thesefigures.Inasynchronousmachinethefluxacrosstheairgapofthemachineismuchlargerattheinstantthe short circuit occurs than it is a few cycles later. The reduction of flux is caused by the mmf of the current in the armature. Such effect is called armature reaction. When a short circuit occurs at the terminals of a synchronous machine, time is required for the reduction in flux across the air gap. As the flux diminishes, the armature current decreases because the voltage generated by the airgap flux determines the current which will flow through the resistanceandleakagereactanceofthearmaturewinding.

Figure2.5Currentasafunctionoftimeforasynchronousgeneratorshortcircuitedwhilerunningatnoload.The unidirectionaltransientcomponentofcurrenthasbeeneliminatedinredrawingtheoscillogram. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage10of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.6 SHORTCIRCUIT CURRENTS AND THE REACTANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES CertaintermsthatarevaluableinthecalculationofshortcircuitcurrentinapowersystemcanbedefinedfromFig. 2.5.Thereactancesweshalldiscussaredirectaxisreactances.Thedirectaxisreactanceisthatusedforcomputing voltagedropscausedbythatcomponentofthearmaturecurrentwhichisinquadrature(90ooutofphase)withthe voltagegeneratedatnoload.Sincetheresistanceinafaultedcircuitissmallcomparedwiththeinductivereactance, currentduringafaultisalwayslaggingbyalargeangle,andthesocalleddirectaxisreactanceisrequired. Inthediscussiontofollow,itshouldberememberedthatthecurrentshownintheoscillogramofFig.2.5isthatwhich flowsinanalternatoroperatingatnoloadbeforethefaultoccurs. In Fig. 2.5 the distance oa is the maximum value of the sustained shortcircuit current. This value of current times 0.707isthermsvalue

ofthesustained,orsteadystate,shortcircuitcurrent.Thenoloadvoltageofthealternator

Eg

dividedbythesteadystatecurrent

iscalledthesynchronousreactanceofthegeneratororthedirectaxis

synchronousreactanceXdsincethepowerfactorislowduringtheshortcircuit.Thecomparativelysmallresistanceof thearmatureisneglected. If the envelope of the current wave is extended back to zero time and the first few cycles where the decrement appearstobeveryrapidareneglected,theinterceptisthedistanceob.Thermsvalueofthecurrentrepresentedby thisintercept,or0.707timesobinamperes,isknownasthetransientcurrent

I'

.Anewmachinereactancemay

nowbedefined.Itiscalledthetransientreactance,orinthisparticularcasethedirectaxistransientreactance andisequalto

X d'

Eg

I'

foranalternatoroperatingatnoloadbeforethefault.Iftherapiddecrementofthefirst

few cycles is neglected, the point of intersection that the current envelope makes with the zero axis can be determined more accurately by plotting on semilogarithmic paper the excess of the current envelope over the sustainedvaluerepresentedbyoa,asshowninFig.2.6.Thestraightlineportionofthiscurveisextendedtothezero time axis, and the intercept is added to the maximum instantaneous value of the sustained current to obtain the maximuminstantaneousvalueoftransientcurrentcorrespondingtoobinFig.2.5.

Figure2.6ExcessofthecurrentenvelopeofFig.2.5overthesustainedmaximumcurrent,plottedon semilogarithmicscales. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage11of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Thermsvalueofthecurrentdeterminedbytheinterceptofthecurrentenvelopewithzerotimeiscalledthesub transient current

I"

. In Fig. 2.5 the subtransient current is 0.707 times the ordinate oc. Subtransient current is

oftencalledtheinitialsymmetricalrmscurrent,whichismoredescriptivebecauseitconveystheideaofneglecting thedccomponentandtakingthermsvalueoftheaccomponentofcurrentimmediatelyaftertheoccurrenceofthe fault.Directaxissubtransientreactance phasefaultatitsterminalsis The current and reactances discussed above are defined by the following equations, which apply to an alternator operatingatnoloadbeforetheoccurrenceofathreephasefaultatitsterminals:
" X d foranalternatoroperatingatnoloadbeforetheoccurrenceofathree

Eg

I"

I =
I' =

oa E g = 2 Xd
ob Eg = 2 X'

(18)

(19)

I" =
where

oc Eg = 2 X"
d

(20)

=steadystatecurrent,rmsvalue =transientcurrent,rmsvalueexcludingdccomponent =subtransientcurrent,rmsvalueexcludingdccomponent =directaxissynchronousreactance =directaxistransientreactance =directaxissubtransientreactance =rmsvoltagefromoneterminaltoneutralatnoload =interceptshowninFig.2.5.

I' I"

Xd

X d' X d"
Eg

oa,ob,oc

Equations(18)to(20)indicatethemethodofdeterminingfaultcurrentinageneratorwhenitsreactancesareknown. Ifthegeneratorisunloadedwhenthefaultoccurs,themachineisrepresentedbythenoloadvoltagetoneutralin serieswiththeproperreactance. The resistance is taken into account if greater accuracy is desired. If there is impedance external to the generator betweenitsterminalsandtheshortcircuit,theexternalimpedancemustbeincludedinthecircuit.

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage12of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Althoughmachinereactancesarenottrueconstantsofthemachineanddependonthedegreeofsaturationofthe magneticcircuit,theirvaluesusuallyliewithincertainlimitsandcanbepredictedforvarioustypesofmachines.Table 2.1givestypicalvaluesofmachinereactancesthatareneededinmakingfaultcalculationsandinstabilitystudies.In general,subtransientreactancesofgeneratorsandmotorsareusedtodeterminetheinitialcurrentflowingonthe occurrenceofashortcircuit.Fordeterminingtheinterruptingcapacityofcircuitbreakers,exceptthosewhichopen instantaneously, subtransient reactance is used for generators and transient reactance is used for synchronous motors. In stability studies where the problem is to determine whether a fault will cause a machine to lose synchronism with the rest of the system if the fault is removed after a certain time interval, transient reactances apply. Table2.1Typicalreactancesofthreephasesynchronousmachines Turbinegenerators 2pole Conventional cooled Conductor cooled 1.95 1.722.17 1.93 1.712.14 0.33 0.2640.387 0.28 0.230.323 = X
" d " d

4pole Conventional cooled 1.38 1.211.55 1.35 1.171.52 0.26 0.250.27 0.19 0.1840.197 = X
" d

salientpolegenerators Conductor cooled 1.87 1.62.13 1.82 1.562.07 0.41 0.350.467 0.29 0.2690.32 = X
" d

With dampers 1 0.61.5 0.6 0.40.8 0.32 0.250.5 0.2 0.130.32 0.2 0.130.32

Without dampers 1 0.61.5 0.6 0.40.8 0.32 0.250.5 0.3 0.20.5 0.4 0.30.45

Xd

1.76 1.71.82 1.66 1.631.69

Xq

X X

' d " d

0.21 0.180.23 0.13 0.110.14 = X

" d

X2 X0

variesfrom0.1to0.7of X

Valuesareperunit.Foreachreactancearangeofvaluesislistedbelowthetypicalvalue Inconclusion,astheshortcircuitoccurs,theshortcircuitcurrentattainshighvalue.Thecircuitbreakercontactsstart separatingaftertheoperationoftheprotectiverelay.Thecontactsofthecircuitbreakerseparateduring'transient state.' The r.m.s. value of the current at the instant of the contact separation is called the breaking current of the circuitbreakerandisexpressedinkA. If a circuitbreaker closes on existing fault, the current would increaseto a high value duringthe first, half cycleas shownisFigs.2.2and2.3. The highestpeak valueof the current is reachedduring the peak of the firstcurrent loop. This peak value iscalled 'making current' of the circuitbreaker and is expressed in kA. Though the shortcircuit current varies continuously during the subtransient and transient states, the representative values can be calculated from equations 18 to 20. Thesubtransient,transientandsteadystatereactancescanbedeterminedexperimentallybyconductingshortcircuit test. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage13of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear ItisclearfromEqs.(18)to(20)thatwhilecalculatingsubtransient,transientandsteadystatecurrents;therespective reactancesshouldbeconsidered.ShortCircuitCalculationsandtheSelectionofCircuitBreakers 2.7 FAULT CALCULATIONS 2.7.1 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION Powersystemsoperateatvoltageswherekilovolt(kV)isthemostconvenientunitforexpressingvoltage.Also,these systems transmit large amount of power, so that kilovoltampere (kVA) and megavoltampere (MVA) are used to expressthetotal(generalorapparent)threephasepower.Thesequantities,togetherwithkilovars,amperes,ohms, flux,andsoon,areusuallyexpressedasaperunitorpercentofareferenceorbasevalue.Theperunitandpercent nomenclatures are widely used because they simplify specification and computations, especially where different voltagelevelsandequipmentsizesareinvolved. Thisdiscussionisforthreephaseelectricsystemswhichareassumedtobebalancedorsymmetricaluptoapointor area of unbalance. This means that the source voltages are equal in magnitude and are 120o displaced in phase relations,andthattheimpedancesofthethreephasecircuitsareofequalmagnitudeandphaseangle.Fromthisasa beginning, various shunt and series unbalances can be analyzed, principally by the method of symmetrical components.

2.7.2 Per Unit and Percent Values Percent is 100 times per unit, both are used as a matter of convenience or personal choice and it is important to designateeitherpercent(%)orperunit(pu). Theperunitvalueofanyquantityistheratioofthatquantitytoitsvalue,theratioexpressedasanondimensional decimalnumber.Thusactualquantities,suchasvoltage(V),current(I),power(P),reactivepower(Q),voltamperes (VA),resistance(R),reactance(X),andimpedance(Z),canbeexpressedinperunitorpercentasfollows:

Quantity in per unit =

actual quantity base value of quantity

(21)

Quantityinpercent=(quantityinperunit)x100

(22)

where actual quantity is the scalar or complex values of a quantity expressed in its proper units, such as volts, amperes,ohms,orwatts.basevalueofquantityreferstoanarbitraryorconvenientreferenceofthesamequantity chosenanddesignatedasthebase.Thusperunitandpercentaredimensionlessratioswhichmaybeeitherscalaror complexnumbers. Asanexampleforachosenbaseof115kV,voltagesof92,115and161kVbecome0.80,1.00,and1.40puor80%, 100%,and140%,respectively. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage14of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.7.2.1 Base Quantities The base quantities are scalar quantities, so that phasor notation is not required for the base equations. Thus equationsforthebasevaluescanbeexpressedwiththesubscriptBtoindicateabasequantityasfollows:

For base power : kVAB = 3 kVB I B

For base current : I B = KVAB 3 kVB

(23) (24)

andsince

2 KVB x 1000 For base impedance : Z B kVAB

(26)

(25)

MVA=1000kVA

thebaseimpedancecanalsobeexpressedas
2 kVB ZB = MVAB

(27)

Inthreephaseelectricpowersystemsthecommonpracticeistousethestandardornominalsystemvoltageasthe voltagebase,andaconvenientMVAorkVAquantityasthepowerbase.100MVAisawidelyusedpowerbase.The systemvoltagecommonlyspecifiedisthevoltagebetweenthethreephases(i.e.,thelinetolinevoltage).Thisisthe voltage used as a base in Eqs. (23) through (27). As a shortcut and for convenience, the linetoline subscript designation(ll)isomitted.Withthispracticeitisalwaysunderstoodthatthevoltageisthelinetolinevalueunless indicatedotherwise.Themajorexceptionisinthemethodofsymmetricalcomponents,wherelinetoneutralphase voltage is used. This should always be specified carefully, but there is sometimes a tendency to overlook this step. Similarly,currentisalwaysthephaseorlinetoneutralcurrentunlessotherwisespecified. Power is always understood to be threephase power unless otherwise indicated. General power, also known as complexorapparentpower,isdesignatedbyMVAorkVA,asindicatedabove.Threephasepowerisdesignatedby MVorkV.ThreephasereactivepowerisdesignedbyMVArorkVAr. 2.7.2.2 Per Unit and Percent Impedance Relationships Perunitimpedanceisspecifiedinohms(Z)fromEq.(21)bysubstitutingEq.(27):

Z pu =

or,inpercentnotation,

Z MVAB Z kVAB Z = or 2 2 ZB k VB 100 kVB

(28)

%Z =

100 MVAB Z
2 k VB

or

kVAB Z
2 10k VB

(29)

wheretheohmvaluesaredesiredfromunit,percentvalues,theequationsare

Z =

2 k VB Z pu

MVAB

or

2 1000k VB Z pu

kVAB

(30)

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage15of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear
2 2 k VB (% Z ) 10kVB (% Z ) or Z = kVAB 100MVAB

(31)

The impedance values may be either scalars or phasors. The equations are also applicable for resistance and for reactancecalculations. 2.7.2.3 Per Unit and Percent Impedances of Transformer Units A major advantage of the per unit (percent) system is its independence of voltage and phase shifts through transformer banks, where the base voltages on the different terminals of the transformer are proportional to the turnsinthecorrespondingwindings. This can be demonstrated by the following analysis. From basic fundamentals, the impedance on one side of a transformer is reflected through the transformer by the square of the turns ratio, or where the voltages are proportionaltotheturnsbythesquareofthevoltageratio.ThusforonephaseofatransformerasshowninFig.2.7, theimpedancezyonthenyturnswindingappearsaszxonthenxturnswindingside,as

N V Zx = x Z y = x Z y Ny Vy

(32)

Figure2.7impedancesthroughonephaseofathreephasetransformer Theimpedancebasesonthetwosidesofthetransformerare,fromEq.(27),

Z xB

kVx2 = MVAB

wherekVxisthexsidebase

(33)

Z yB =

kVy2 MVAB

wherekVyisthexsidebase

(34)

TakingtheratioofZxbandZybyields

Z xB kVx2 N x = = 2 Ny Z yB kVy

(35)

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage16of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear wheretheturnsareproportionaltothevoltages. Theperunitimpedancesare,fromEq.(21),(33),and(34),

Z ohms N x N y Z y ohms Z x pu = x = N N Z Z xB yB y x Z y ohms = = Z y pu Z yB

2

(36)

Thustheperunitimpedanceisthesameoneithersideofthebank. TransformerBankExample Consideratransformerbankrated50MVAwith34.5kVand161kVwindingsconnectedtoa34.5and161kVpower system.Thebankreactanceis10%.Nowwhenlookingatthebankfromthe34.5kVsystem,itsreactanceis Andwhenlookingatthebankfromthe161kVsystemitsreactanceis Thisequalimpedanceinpercentorperunitoneithersideofthebankisindependentofthebankconnections:wye delta,deltawye,wyewye,ordeltadelta. Thismeansthattheperunit(percent)impedancevaluesthroughoutanetworkcanbecombinedindependentlyofthe voltagelevelsaslongasalltheimpedancesareonacommonMVA(kVA)baseandthetransformerwindingsratings arecompatiblewiththesystemvoltages.Thisisagreatconvenience. The actual transformer impedances in ohms are quite different on the two sides of a transformer with different voltagelevels.Thiscanbeillustratedfortheexample.ApplyingEq.(33),wehave 10%ona50MVA161kVbase (38) 10%ona50MVA34.5kVbase (37)

34.52 10 jX = = 2.38 at 34.5 kV 100 50 = 1612 10 = 51.84 at 161 kV 100 50

(38)

(39)

ThiscanbecheckedbyEq.(35),wherefortheexamplexisthe34.5kVwindingside,andyisthe161kVwindingside. Then, Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage17of39

2.38 =

34.52 16 2

51.84 = 2.38

(40)

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.7.2.4 Changing Per Unit (Percent) Quantities to Dierent Bases Normally,theperunitorpercentimpedancesofequipmentisspecifiedontheequipmentbase,whichgenerallywill bedifferentfromthepowersystembase..sinceallimpedancesinthesystemmustbeexpressedonthesamebasefor perunitorpercentcalculations,itisnecessarytoconvertallvaluestothecommonbaseselected.Thisconversioncan bederivedbyexpressingthesameimpedanceinohmsontwodierentperunitbases.FromEq.(33)foraMVA1,kV1 baseandaMVA2,kV2base,

Z1 ppu =

MVA1Z kV12

(41)

Byrationingthesetwoequationsandsolvingforoneperunitvalue,thegeneralequationforchangingbasesis

Z 2 pu

Z1 pu

MVA2 kV22

kV12 MVA1

(42)

Z 2 pu = Z1 pu

MVA2 kV12 MVA1 kV22

(43)

Equation(43)isthegeneralequationforchangingfromonebasetoanotherbase.Inmostcasestheturnsratioofthe transformer is equivalent to the different system voltages, and the equipmentrated voltages are the same as the systemvoltages,sothatthevoltagesquaredratioisunity.ThenEq.(43)reducesto

Z 2 pu = Z1 pu

MVA2 MVA1

(44)

ItisveryimportanttoemphasizethatthevoltagesquarefactorofEq.(43)isusedonlyinthesamevoltageleveland where slightly different voltage bases exist. It is never used where the base voltages are proportional to the transformerbankturns,suchasgoingfromthehightothelowsideacrossabank.Inotherwords,Eq.(43)hasnothing todowithtransferringtheohmicimpedancevaluefromonesideofatransformertotheotherside. SeveralexampleswillillustratetheapplicationsofEq.(43)and(44)inchangingperunitandpercentimpedancesfrom onebasetoanother. 2.7.3 Symmetrical Components Any unbalanced current or voltage can be determined from the sequence components from the following fundamentalequations: Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage18of39

I a = I1 = I 2 + I o

Va = V1 + V2 + Vo

(45) (46) (47)

I b = a 2 I a1 + aI 2 + I o
I c = aI 1 + a 2 I 2 + I o

Vb

= a 2V1 + aV2 + aV2 + Vo

VC = aV1 + a 2V2 + Vo

whereIa,Ib,andIcorVa,VbandVcaregeneralunbalancedlinetoneutralphasors.

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Fromthese,equationsdefiningthesequencequantitiesfromathreephaseunbalancedsetcanbedetermined:

1 Io = ( Ia + Ib + Ic ) 3 1 I 1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c ) 3 1 I 2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c ) 3

1 V o = ( V a + Vb + V c ) 3 1 V1 = ( Va + aVb + a 2Vc ) 3 1 V2 = ( Va + a 2Vb + aVc ) 3

(48) (49) (50)

Theselastthreefundamentalequationsarethebasisfordeterminingifthesequencequantitiesexistinanygivenset ofunbalancedthreephasecurrentsorvoltages.Theyareusedforprotectiverelayingoperationfromthesequence quantities.Forexample,Fig.2.8showsthephysicalapplicationofcurrenttransformers(CTs)andvoltagetransformers (VTs)tomeasurezerosequenceasrequiredbyEq.(48),andusedingroundfaultrelaying. NetworksoperatingfromCTsorVTsareusedtoprovideanoutputproportionaltoI2orV2andarebasedonphysical solutionsof(Eq.50). 2.7.3.1 SEQUENCE INDEPENDENCE For all practical purposes electric power systems are balanced or symmetrical from the generators to the point of singlephaseloadingexceptinanareaofafaultorunbalancesuchasanopenconductor.Inthisessentiallybalanced area,thefollowingconditionsexist: 1. 2. 3. Positivesequence currents flowing in the symmetrical or balanced network produce only positivesequencevoltagedrops;nonegativeorzerosequencedrops. Negativesequencecurrentsflowinginthebalancednetworkproduceonlynegativesequence voltagedrop;nopositiveorzerosequencevoltagedrops. Zerosequencecurrentsflowinginthebalancednetworkproduceonlyzerosequencevoltage drops;nopositiveornegativesequencevoltagedrops.Thisisnottrueforanyunbalancedor nonsymmetricalpointorareasuchasanunsymmetricalfault,openphase,andsoon.Inthese: 4. 5. 6. This important fundamental permits setting up three independent networks, one for each of the three sequences, whichcaninterconnectedonlyatthepointorareaofunbalance. Beforecontinuingwiththesequencenetworks,areviewofthesourcesoffaultcurrentisuseful. Positivesequencecurrentflowinginanunbalancedsystemproducespositiveandnegative andpossiblyzerosequencevoltagedrops. Negativesequence currents flowing in an unbalanced system produces positive, negative, andpossiblyzerosequencevoltagedrops. Zerosequence current flowing in an unbalanced system produces all three: positive, negative,andzerosequencevoltagedrops.

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage19of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

Figure2.8Zerosequencecurrentandvoltagenetworksusedforgroundfaultprotection 2.7.3.2 Sequence Networks Theserepresentoneofthethreephasetoneutralorgroundcircuitsofthebalancedthreephasepowersystem,and documentshowthatsequencecurrentswillflowiftheycanexist.Thesenetworksarebestexplainedbyanexample, soconsiderthesectionofapowersystemofFig.2.9. Reactance values only have been shown for the generator and the transformers. Theoretically, impedance values shouldbeused,buttheresistancesoftheseunitsareverysmallandnegligibleforfaultstudies.

Figure2.9Singlelinediagramofasectionofapowersystem. Itisveryimportantthatallvaluesbespecifiedwithabase[voltageifohmsareused,orMVA(kVA)andkVifperunit orpercentimpedancesareused].Beforeapplyingthesetothesequencenetworks,allvaluesmustbechangedtoone common base. In most cases per unit (percent) values are used and a common base in practice is 100 MVA at the particularsystemkV. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage20of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Positivesequencenetwork Thisistheusuallinetoneutralsystemdiagramforoneofthethreesymmetricalphasesmodifiedforfaultconditions. The positive sequence network for the system of Fig. 2.9 is shown in Fig. 2.10. VG and VS are the system lineto neutralvoltages.VGisthevoltagebehindthegeneratorsubtransientdirectaxisreactanceXd'',andVSisthevoltage behindthesystemequivalentimpedanceZ1S.

(a) Figure2.10PositivesequencenetworkforthesysteminFig.2.9 XTG is the transformer leakage impedance for the bank bus G, and XHM is the leakage impedance for the bank at H between the H and M windings. The delta winding L of this threewinding bank is not involved in the positive sequence network unless a generator or synchronous motor is connected to this delta or unless a fault is to be consideredinthedeltasystem. ForthelinebetweenbusesGandH,Z1GHisthelinetoneutralimpedanceofthisthreephasecircuit.Foropenwire transmission line, an approximate estimating value is 0.8 m/ml for bundled conductors. Typical values for shut capacitanceoftheselinesare0.2m/milforsingleconductorand0.14 /milforbundledconductors.Normally,this capacitance is neglected, as it is very high in relation to all other impedances involved in fault calculations. These values should be used for estimating or in the absence of specific line constants. The impedances of cables vary considerably,sospecificdataarenecessaryforthese. Theimpedanceangleoflinescanvaryquitewidelydependingonthevoltageandwhethercableoropenwireisused in computer fault programs the angles are considered and included, but for hand calculation it is practical in most cases to simplify calculations by as summing that all the equipment involved in the fault calculation are at 90o or reactancevaluesonly.Sometimesitmaybepreferredtousethelineimpedancevaluesandtreatthemasreactances. Unlessthenetworkconsistsofalargeproportionoflowanglecircuits,theerrorofusingallvaluesas90owillnotbe toosignificant. LoadisshownconnectedatbusesGandH.NormallythiswouldbespecifiedaskVAorMVAandcanbeconvertedinto impedance: (b)

load

1000MVA load and V = 1000kV LN 3kV 3

at kV
(51)

Z load

VLN kV 2 = = = I load MVAload

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage21of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Equation(51)is a linetoneutral value and would beused for ZLG and ZLH representing the loads at G and H inFig. 2.10a.Ifloadisrepresented,thevoltagesVGandVSwillbedifferentinmagnitudeandangle,varyingasthesystem loadvaries. Thevalueofloadimpedanceusuallyisquitelargecomparedtothesystemimpedances,sothatloadhasanegligible effect on the faulted phase current. Thus it become practical and simplifies calculations to neglect load for shunt faults. With no load, ZLG and ZLH are infinite, VG and VS are equal and in phase and so are replaced by a common voltageVasinFig.2.10b.Normally,Visconsideredas1pu,thesystemratedlinetoneutralvoltages. ConventionalcurrentflowisassumedtobefromtheneutralbusN1totheareaorpointofunbalance.Withthisthe voltagedropV1xatanypointinthenetworkisalways, whereVisthesourcevoltage(VgorVsinFig.2.10a)and I1Z1 isthesumofthedropsalonganypathfromtheN1 neutralbustothepointofmeasurement. NegativeSequence Network Thisnetworkdefinestheflowofnegativesequencecurrentswhentheyexist.Thesystemgeneratorsdonotgenerate negative sequence, but negativesequence current can flow through their windings. Thus these generators and sourcesarerepresentedbyanimpedancewithoutvoltage,asshowninFig.2.11.Inthetransformers,lines,andsoon, thephasesequencesofthecurrentdoesnotchangetheimpedanceencountered,sothesamevaluesareusedasin thepositivesequencenetwork.

V1x = V I1Z1

(52)

(a) neglectingloads. (b)

Figure 2.11 Negative sequence networks for the system in Fig. 2.9: (a) network including loads; (b) network Arotatingmachinecanbevisualizedasatransformerwithonestationaryandonerotatingwinding.Thusdcinthe field produces positive sequence in the stator. Similarly, the dc offset in the stator ac current produces an ac componentinthefield.Inthisrelativemotionmodelwiththeonewindingrotatingatsynchronousspeed,negative sequence in the stator results in a doublefrequency component in the field. Thus the negativesequence flux component in the air gap is alternately between and under the poles at this double frequency. One common expressionforthenegativesequenceimpedanceofasynchronousmachineis

X2 =

1 " " (Xd + Xq) 2

(53)

ontheaverageofthedirectandquadratureaxessubtransientreactances. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage22of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear For a roundrotor machine, Xd'' = Xq'', so that X2 = Xd''. For salientpole machines, X2 will be different, but this is frequentlyneglectedunlesscalculatingafaultverynearthemachineterminals,wherenormallyX2=Xd'',thenegative sequencenetworkisequivalenttothepositivesequencenetworkexceptfortheomissionofvoltages. LoadscanbeshownasinFig.2.11andwillbethesameimpedanceasforpositivesequenceiftheyarestaticloads. Rotating loads such as those of induction motors have quite different positiveand negativesequence impedances whenrunning. Again with load normally neglected, the network is as shown in Fig. 2.11 and is the same as the positivesequence network(Fig.2.10b),exceptthatthereisnovoltage. ConventionalcurrentflowisassumedtobefromtheneutralbusN2totheareaorpointofunbalance.Withthisthe voltagedropV2xatanypointinthenetworkisalways, where I 2 Z 2 isthesumofthedropsalonganypathfromtheN2neutralbustothepointofmeasurement. ZeroSequenceNetwork The zerosequence network is always different. It must satisfy the flow of equal andinphase currents in the three phases.Iftheconnectionsforthisnetworkarenotapparent,ortherearequestionsordoubts,thesecanberesolved bydrawingthethreephasesystemtoseehowtheequalinphasezerosequencecurrentscanflow.Fortheexample ofFig.2.9,athreephasediagramisshowninFig.2.12.Theconventionisthatcurrentalwaysowstotheunbalance, soassuminganunbalancebetweenbusesGandH,thetopleftdiagramshowsIogflowingfromthetransformeratbus G.Zerosequencecanflowinthegroundedwyeandtothefaultsincethereisapathforittoflowinthedelta.ThusXtg isconnectedbetweenthezeropotentialbusandbusgasshowninFig.2.13.

V2 x = 0 I 2 Z 2

(54)

Figure2.12Diagramsillustratingtheowofzerosequencecurrentasaidindrawingthezerosequencenetwork.

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage23of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Zerosequenceimpedancefortransformerbanksisequaltothepositiveandnegativesequenceandisthetransformer leakageimpedance.Theexceptiontothisisforthreephasecoretypetransformers,wheretheconstructiondoesnot provideanironfluxpathforzerosequence.Forthesethezerosequencefluxmustpassfromthecoretothetankand return.HenceforthesetypesX0usuallyis0.85to0.9X1,andwhenknownthespecificvalueshouldbeused. ThelowerrighthanddiagramofFig.2.12isforthesystemconnectedtobusH(Fig.2.9).Currentsoutofthethree windingtransformerwillflowasshowninthelandmwindings.Thethreecurrentscanflowinthemgroundedwye sincetheequivalentsourceisshowngroundedwithZ0sgiven.Thusthethreewindingequivalentcircuitisconnected inthezerosequencenetwork(Fig.2.13)asshown. NotethatintherighthandpartofFig.2.12,ifanyofthewyeconnectionswerenotgrounded,theconnectionswould bedifferent.

Figure2.13ZerosequencenetworkforthesystemofFig.2.9 Iftheequivalentsystemorthemwindingwereungrounded,thenetworkwouldbeopenbetweenZmandZos,aszero sequencecurrentscouldnotflowasshown.Load,ifdesired,wouldbeshowninthezerosequencenetworkonlyif theywerewyegrounded.Deltaloadswouldnotpasszerosequence. Zerosequenceisalwaysdifferent,asitisaloopimpedance;theimpedanceofthelineplusareturnpatheitherinthe earth, or in a parallel combination of the earth and ground wire, cable sheath, and so on. The positivesequence impedanceisaonewayimpedance:fromoneendtootherend.Asaresult,zerosequencevariesfrom2to6timesX1 forlines.Forestimatingopenwritelines,avalueofX0=3or3.5X1iscommonlyused. Thezerosequenceimpedanceofgeneratorsislowandvariable,dependingonthewindingdesign.Exceptforverylow voltageunits,generatorsareneversolidlygrounded.InFig.2.9,thegeneratorGisshowngroundedthrougharesistor R. Faults on bus G and in the system to the right do not involve the generator as far as zero sequence since the transformerdeltablockstheflowofzerosequencecurrentasshown. ConventionalcurrentflowisassumedtobefromthezeropotentialbusN0totheareaorpointofunbalance.Thusthe voltagedropVoxatanypointinthenetworkisalways wherei0z0isthesumofthedropsalonganypathfromtheN0bustothepointofmeasurement. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage24of39 Vox=0i0z0

(55)

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.7.4 SYMMETRICAL & UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATIONS Theprincipaltypesoffaultsare:threephase,phasetophase,twophasetoground,andonephasetoground. Example: Fault calculations on a typical system shown in Fig. 2.14 ThesystemofFig.2.14issimilartothatshowninFig.2.9butwithtypicalconstantsforthevariousparts.These

are on the bases indicated, so the first step is to transfer them to a common base. The positive and negative sequencenetwork(negativethesameaspositiveexceptfortheomissionofthevoltage)isshowninFig.2.15.The conversiontoacommonbaseof100MVAisshownasnecessary.

Figure2.14Powersystemexampleforfaultcalculations ForafaultatbusG,therighthandimpedances(j0.18147+j0.03667+j0.03=j0.2481)areparalleledwiththeleft handimpedances(j0.20+j0.1375=j0.3375).Reactancevaluesratherthanimpedancevaluesareused,asistypical wheretheresistanceisquitesmallrelatively.

(0.5763) (0.4237 )
0.3375 0.2481 = j 0.1430 pu 0.5856
(56)

X1 = X 2 =

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage25of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

Figure2.15PositiveandnegativesequencenetworksandtheirreductiontoasingleimpedanceforafaultatbusG inthepowersystemofFig.2.14. The division of 0.3375/0.5856=0.5763 and 0.2481/0.5856 = 0.4237 as shown provides a partial check, as 0.5763 + 0.4237mustequal1.0andarethedistributionfactorsindicatingtheperunitcurrentowoneithersideofthefault. Thesevaluesareaddedtothenetworkdiagram.Thusforfaultsatbusg,X1=X2=j0.1430puon100MVAbase. ThezerosequencenetworkforFig.2.14isshowninFig.2.16.Againthereactancevaluesareconvertedtoacommon 100MVAbase. Theconversionstoacommon100MVAbaseareshownexceptforthethreewindingtransformer.Forthisbank,

100 = 0.03667 pu 150 100 X HL = 0.360 = 0.2400 pu 150 100 X ML = 0.280 = 0.18667 pu 150 X HM = 0.055

and,

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage26of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

1 (0.03667 + 0.2400 0.18667 ) = 0.0450 pu 2 1 X M = (0.03667 + 0.18667 0.240) = 0.00833 pu 2 1 XL = (0.2400 + 0.18667 0.03667 ) = 0.1950 pu 2 XH =

(57)

TheseareshowninFig.2.16.

Figure2.16ZerosequencenetworkanditsreductiontoasingleimpedanceforafaultatbusGinthepowersystem ofFig.2.14. ThisnetworkisreducedforafaultatbusGbyfirstparallelingX0S+ZHwithZLandthenaddingZMandX0GH;

(0.6964)

(0.3036)
= j 0.0592 j 0.0083 j 0.620 = j 0.6709

0.1950 0.0850 0.280

(Z M ) ( X OGH )

Thisistherighthandbranch,parallelingwiththelefthandbranch,

(0.7704)
X0 =

(0.2296)
= j 0.15407 puat100MVA
(58)

0.6709 0.2000 0.8709

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage27of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Thevalues(0.7704)and(0.2296)shownaddto1.0asacheckandprovidethecurrentdistributiononeithersideof thebusGfault,asshownonthezerosequencenetwork.Thedistributionfactor0.2296fortherightsideisfurther divided up by 0.6964 0.2296 = 0.1599 pu in the 230 kV system neutral, and 0.3036 0.2296 = 0.0697 pu in the threewindingtransformerHwindingneutral.Theseareshownonthezerosequencenetwork. ThreePhase Fault at Bus G I1=IAF=(j1.0)/(j0.143)=6.993pu =6.993[(100.000)/3115)] =3510.8Aat115kV Thedivisionsofcurrentfromtheleft(IAG)andright(IAH)are: IAG=0.42376.993=2.963pu IAH=0.57636.993=4.030 SinglePhaseToGround Fault at Bus G IAF=32.272=6.817pu =6.817[(100.000)/(3115)] =3422.5Aat115kV Normally,the3Iocurrentsaredocumentedinthesystem,astheseareusedtooperatethegroundrelays.Equations (45)through(47)providethethreephasecurrents.SinceX1=X2,sothatI1=I2,thesereducetoIb=Ic=I1+I0forthe phasebandccurrents,sincea+a2=1.ThecurrentsshownaredeterminedbyaddingI1+I2+I0forIa,I1+I0forIb andIc,and3I0fortheneutralcurrents. Inthe115kVsystemthesumofthetwoneutralcurrentsisequalandoppositetothecurrentinthefault.Inthe230 kVsystemthecurrentuptheneutralequalsthecurrentdowntheotherneutral. Thecalculationsassumednoload,soprefault,allcurrentsinthesystemwerezero.Withthefaultinvolvingphasea only,itwillbeobservedthatcurrentflowsinthebandcphases.Thisisbecausethedistributionfactorsinthezero sequence network are different from the positive and negativesequence distribution factors. On a radial system where positive, negative, and zerosequence currents flow only from one source and in the same direction, the distributionfactorsinallthreenetworkswillbe1.0,althoughthezerosequenceimpedancesaredifferentfromthe positivesequence impedances. Then Ib=Ic=I1 + I0 above becomes zero, and fault current only flows in the faulted phase.InthistypeIa=3I0throughoutthesystemforasinglephasetogroundfault. I1=I2=I0=[j1.0/j(0.143+0.143+0.1541)]=2.272pu (62) Forthisfault, (61) (60) (59) Forthisfault,

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage28of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 2.8 SHORTCIRCUIT LEVEL QuiteoftenshortcircuitMVAdataaresuppliedforthreephaseandsinglephasetogroundfaultsatvariousbusesor interconnection points in a power system. The derivation of this and conversation into system impedances is a follows: ThreePhaseFaults this, SinglePhaseToGroundFaults MVAGSC=GfaultshortcircuitMVA=(3IGkV)/1000 (67) Z1=Z2forallpracticalcases.Z1canbeassumedtobeX1unlessX/Rdataareprovidetodetermineanangle. SubstitutingEq.Zpu=(MVAbaseZ)/(kV2),thepositivesequenceimpedancetothefaultlocationis Z1=[(MVAbase)/(MVAsc)]pu (66) Z=(VlN)/I3=(1000kV)/(3I3) =(kV2)/(MVASC) (65) I3=(1000MVASC)/(3kV) (64) MVASC=3faultshortcircuitMVA=(3I3kV)/1000 (63) whereI3 isthetotalthreephasefaultcurrentinamperesandkVisthesystemlinetolinevoltageinkilovolts.From

where IG is the total singlelinetoground fault current in amperes and kV is the system linetoline voltage in kilovolts. However, Example Ashortcircuitstudyindicatesthatatbusxinthe68kVsystem, MVAsc=594MVA MVAGSC=631MVA ona100MVAbase. Thusthetotalreactancetothefaultis X1=X2=100/594=0.1684pu XG=300/631=0.4754pu ThenZ0=ZGZ1Z2,orinmostpracticalcases,X0=XGX1X2,sincetheresistanceisusuallyverysmallin relationtothereactance. IG=I1+I2+I0=(3VlN)/(Z1+Z2+Z0)=(3VlN)/ZG) in (71) (69) (70) ZG=[(3kV2)/(MVAGSC)] IG=(1000MVAGSC)/(3kV) (68)

ZG=[(3MVAbase)/(MVAGSC)]pu

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage29of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Effect of Induction Machines on Short Circuit Level level. 2.9 RUPTURE CAPACITY OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS Asmostfaultprotectivedevices,suchascircuitbreakersandfuses,operatewellbeforesteadystateconditionsare reached,generatorsynchronousreactanceisalmostneverusedincalculatingfaultcurrentsforapplicationofthese devices.Asdiscussedbefore,inordertodeterminetheinitialsymmetricalrmscurrent,thesubtransientreactances of the synchronous generators and motors are used. However, the interrupting capacity of circuit breakers is determined using the subtransient reactance for generators and transient reactance for the synchronous motors. Theeffectsofinductionmotorsareignored.Itisappropriatetousesubtransientreactanceforsynchronousmotorsif fastactingcircuitbreakersareused.Forexample,modernairblastcircuitbreakersusuallyoperatein2.5cyclesof60 Hz.Oldercircuitbreakersandthoseusedonlowervoltagesmaytake8cyclesormoretooperate.Notethatsofarthe dcoset(orunidirectiona1currentcomponent)hasbeenexcludedintheabovediscussions.Withfastactingcircuit breakerstheactualcurrenttobeinterruptedisincreasedbythedccomponentofthefaultcurrent,andtheinitial symmetrical rms current value is increased by a specific factor depending on the speed of the circuit breaker. For example,ifthecircuitbreakeropeningtimeis8,3,or2cycles,thenthecorrespondingmultiplyingfactoris1.0,1.2,or 1.4,respectively.Therefore,theinterruptingcapacity(orrating)ofacircuitbreakerisexpressedas where Vprefault =prefaultvoltageatpointoffaultinvolts ThemultiplyingfactorsandthereactancetypesaregiveninTable2.2.Asdiscussedbefore,theasymmetrical currentwavedecaysgraduallytoasymmetricalcurrent;therateofdecayofthedccomponentbeingdeterminedby thel/rofthesystemsupplyingthecurrent.Thetimeconstantfordccomponentdecaycanbefoundfrom or I'' =initialsymmetricalrmscurrentinamperes =multiplyingfactor Duringfaultcondition,inductionmotorwillbeinductiongeneratorwithsubtransientortransientreactance dependingonthespeedofthecircuitbreaker.Therefore,inductionmachinesasloadswillincreasetheshortcircuit X0=0.47540.16840.1684=0.1386pu,

allvaluesona100MVA69kVbase.

S int errupting = 3 V prefault ( I " ) 10 6

MVA

(72)

Tdc = circuit L / R
Tdc =

s
(53)

circuit L / R cycles 2

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage30of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Table2.2multiplyingfactorsandthereactancetypesofcircuitbreakers ReactanceQuantityforUseinXs Multiplyin gFactor Synchronous Generators and Condensers A. CircuitBreakerInterruptingDuty 1. GeneralCase Eightcycle or slower circuit 1.0 breakers Fivecyclecircuitbreaker Threecyclecircuitbreaker Twocyclecircuitbreaker 2. Specialcaseforcircuitbreakers at generator voltage only. For shortcircuit calculations of morethan500,000kVA(before the application of any fed from multiplying predominantly factor) direct 1.1 1.2 1.4 Subtransient Transient Neglect Subtransient Transient Neglect Synchronous Motors Induction Machines

generators, or through current limitingreactorsonly: Eightcycle or slower circuit 1.1 breakers Fivecyclecircuitbreaker Threecyclecircuitbreaker Twocyclecircuitbreaker 3. andless B. Mechanical Breakers 1. 2. GeneralCase currentisfedpredominantlyby directly synchronous throughreactors connected machines or 1.6 Subtransient Subtransient Subtransient Subtransient Subtransient Subtransient At 500 V and below, unless 1.5 Stress and Momentary Duty of Circuit 1.2 1.3 1.5 Subtransient Subtransient Subtransient

Aircircuitbreakersrated600V 1.25

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage31of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear The momentary duty (or rating) of a circuit breaker is expressed as and it is used for oil circuit breakers of 115 kV and above. The circuit breaker must be able to withstand this rms currentduringthefirsthalfcycleafterthefaultoccurs.NotethatiftheI''ismeasuredinpeakamperes,thenthepeak momentarycurrentisexpressedas In the united states, the ratings of circuit breakers are given in the ANSI Standards based on symmetrical currentintermsofnominalvoltage,ratedmaximumvoltage,ratedvoltagerangefactork,ratedcontinuouscurrent, andratedshortcircuitcurrent.Therequiredsymmetricalcurrentinterruptingcapabilityisdefinedas The standard dictates that for operating voltages below 1/k times rated maximum voltage, the required symmetrical currentinterrupting capability of the circuit breaker is equal to k times the rated shortcircuit current. Table2.3givesoutdoorcircuitbreakerratingsbasedonsymmetricalcurrent.Notethattheratedvoltagefactorkis defined as the ratio of rated maximum voltage to the lower limit of the range of operating voltage in which the requiredsymmetricalandasymmetricalinterruptingcapabilitiesvaryininverseproportiontotheoperatingvoltage. Therefore, general expressions (which take into account the rated voltage range factor k) for the rms and peak momentarycurrents,respectively,are and NoticethatinTable2.3thefactorkis1forthenominalvoltagesof115kVandabove.Therefore,equations(77)and (78) become the same as equations (75) and (76), respectively. As anexample, assume that acircuit breakerhas a ratedmaximumrmsvoltageof38kVandisbeingoperatedat34.5kV.FromTable2.3,theratedvoltagerangefactor kis1.65,theratedcontinuousrmscurrentis1200A,andtheratedshortcircuitrmssymmetricalcurrentattherated maximum rms voltage of 37 kV is 22,000 A. However, since the circuit breaker is used at 34.5 kV, its symmetrical currentinterruptingcapabilityis Therefore,thermsmomentarycurrentcanbeexpressedas

S momentary = 3 (V prefault )( I " )(1.6) 10 6

MVA

(74)

I momentary = 1.6 I "

(75)

I momentary = 2.7 I "

(76)

rated maximum voltage Rated short - circuit current operating voltage

I momentary = 1.6kI " I momentary = 2.7 kI "

(77)

(78)

38 kV ( 22,000 A) = 24,232 A 34.5 kV

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage32of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Thehighestsymmetricalcurrentinterruptingcapabilityis

( 22,000 A) k = 22,000 1.65 36,000 A

38kV 38 = 23kV k 1.65

whichispossiblewhentheoperatingvoltageis

Table 2.3 Nominal rms Voltage Class(kV) Rated rms Voltage (kV) Rated Range Factor,K Rated rms Current (kA) Rated Short rms Current (at Rated Maximum kV)(kA) 14.4 14.4 23 34.5 46 69 115 115 115 138 138 138 138 163 163 163 230 230 230 345 15.5 25.5 25.8 38 48.3 72.5 121 121 121 145 145 145 145 169 169 169 242 242 242 362 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 63 40 3 3 1 1 1 2 1.6 2 50 31.5 31.5 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 1.2 1.6 80 16 31.5 3 3 3 2.67 1.29 2.15 1.65 1.21 1.21 1 1 3 1.2 1.6 2 63 20 40 40 3 3 3 3 0.6 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.6 8.9 18 11 22 17 19 20 40 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 5.8 12 12 23 40 60 121 121 121 145 145 145 145 169 169 169 242 242 242 362 24 23 24 36 21 23 20 40 63 20 40 40 80 16 31.5 50 31.5 31.5 63 40 Rated Time (cycles) Rated rms Voltage Divided byK(kV) Continuous Circuit Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting Capability* (kA) Interrupting Maximum rms Outdoor circuit breaker ratings based on symmetrical current

Maximum Voltage

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage33of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear 345 500 500 700 700

*

262 550 550 765 765

1 1 1 1 1

3 2 3 2 3

40 40 40 40 40

3 2 2 2 2

362 550 550 765 765

40 40 40 40 40

ItisequaltoKtimestheratedshortcircuitrmscurrent

Note that at lower operating voltages the highest symmetrical currentinterrupting capability of 36,000 A cannotbeexceeded.Theassociatedrmsandpeakmomentarycurrentratings,respectively,are and A simplified procedure for determining the symmetrical fault current is known as the E/X method and is describedinsection5.3.1ofANSIC37.010.Thismethodgivesresultsapproximatingthoseobtainedbymorerigorous methods. In using this method, it is necessary first to make an E/X calculation. The method then corrects this calculationtotakeintoaccountboththedcandacdecayofcurrent,dependingoncircuitparametersX/R. Example ConsiderthesystemshowninFigure2.17andassumethatthegeneratorisunloadedandrunningattherated
" X d = X 1 = X 2 = 0.14 puandX0 =0.08pubasedonitsratings.ThetransformerimpedancesareZ1=Z2 =Z0 =

I momentary = 1.6 kI " =1.6(36,000A)=57,600Arms I momentary = 2.7 kI " =2.7(36.000A)=97.200Apeak

voltage with the circuit breaker open at bus 3. Assume that the reactance values of the generator are given as

0.05pubasedonitsratings.ThetransmissionlineTL23 hasZ1=Z2 =0.04puandZ0 =0.10pu.Assumethatthefault point is located on bus 1, and determine the subtransient fault current for a threephase fault in per units and amperes.Select25MVAasthemegavoltamperebaseand8.5and138kVasthelowvoltageandhighvoltagevoltage bases.

Figure2.17Transmissionsystemforexampleabove

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage34of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Solution Thecurrentbaseforthelowvoltagesideis Therefore, Example Usetheresultsofexampleaboveanddeterminethefollowing: (a) Maximumvaluepossibleofdccurrentcomponent. (b) Totalmaximuminstantaneouscurrent. (c) Momentarycurrent. (d) Interruptingcapacityofthreecyclecircuitbreakeriflocatedatbus1. Solution (a) (b) (c) (d)

I "f

1 .0 0 o = " = = j 7.143 pu j0.14 Xd

Eg

I B ( LV ) =

SB 25.000 kVA = = 1698.1 A 3VB ( LV ) 3 (8.5 kV)

I "f = 1698.1 7.143 = 12.129.52 A

I dc, max = 2 I "f = 2 (7.143) = 10.1 pu

" I max = 2 I dc, max = 2 2 I "f = 20.2 pu

I momentary = 1.6 I "f = 1.6(7.143) = 11.43 pu S int errupting = 3 Vf I "f 10 6

(e)

= 3 (8500)(12,129.52)(1.2) 10 6 = 214.3 MVA

= 3 (8500)(12,129.52)(1.6) 10 6 = 285.7 MVA

S momentary = 3 Vf I "f (1.6) 10 6

2.10 SELECTION OF CIRCUITBREAKER Thesubtransientcurrentistheinitialsymmetricalcurrentanddoesnotincludethedccomponent.Aswehaveseen, inclusionofthedccomponentresultsinarmsvalueofcurrentimmediatelyafterthefault,whichishigherthanthe subtransientcurrent.Foroilcircuitbreakersabove5kVthesubtransientcurrentmultipliedby1.6isconsideredto bethermsvalueofthecurrentwhosedisruptiveforcesthebreakermustwithstandduringthefirsthalfcycleafterthe faultoccurs.Thiscurrentiscalledthemomentarycurrent,andformanyyearscircuitbreakerswereratedintermsof theirmomentarycurrentaswellasothercriteria.

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage35of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear The interrupting rating of a circuit breaker was specified in kilovoltamperes or megavoltamperes. The interrupting kilovoltamperesequal3timesthekilovoltsofthebustowhichthebreakerisconnectedtimesthecurrentwhichthe breakermustbecapableofinterruptingwhenitscontactspart.Thiscurrentisofcourselowerthanthemomentary currentanddependsonthespeedofthebreaker,suchas8,5,3,or1cycles,whichisameasureofthetimefrom theoccurrenceofthefaulttotheextinctionofthearc. The current which a breaker must interrupt is usually asymmetrical since it still contains some of the decaying dc component. A schedule of preferred ratings for ac highvoltage circuit breakers specifies the interrupting current ratingsofbreakersintermsofthecomponentoftheasymmetricalcurrentwhichissymmetricalaboutthezeroaxis. Thiscurrentisproperlycalledtherequiredsymmetricalinterruptingcapabilityorsimplytheratedsymmetricalshort circuitcurrent.Oftentheadjectivesymmetricalisomitted.Selectionofcircuitbreakersmayalsobemadeonthebasis oftotalcurrent(dccomponentincluded).Weshalllimitourdiscussiontoabrieftreatmentofthesymmetricalbasisof breakerselection. Breakers are identified by nominalvoltage class, such as 69 kV. Along other factors specied are rated continuous current,ratedmaximumvoltage,voltagerangefactorK,andratedshortcircuitcurrentatratedmaximumkilovolts.K determinestherangeofvoltageoverwhichratedshortcircuitcurrenttimesoperatingvoltageisconstant.Fora69kV breakerhavingamaximumratedvoltageof72.5kV,avoltagerangefactorKof1.21,andacontinuouscurrentrating of1200A,theratedshortcircuitcurrentatthemaximumvoltage(symmetricalcurrentwhichcanbeinterruptedat 72.5 kV) is19,000 A. This means that theproduct72.5 19,000 is theconstant value of rated shortcircuitcurrent timesoperatingvoltageintherange72.5to60kVsince72.5/1.21equals60.Theratedshortcircuitcurrentcannotbe exceeded.At69kVtheratedshortcircuitcurrentis Breakersofthe115kVclassandhigherhaveakof1.0. A simplified procedure for calculating the symmetrical shortcircuit current, called the E/X method, disregards all resistance,allstaticloads,andallprefaultcurrent.SubtransientreactanceisusedforgeneratorsintheE/Xmethod, andforsynchronousmotorstherecommendedreactanceisthe factorsareappliedtothe TheimpedancebywhichthevoltageVfatthefaultisdividedtofindshortcircuitcurrentmustbeexaminedwhenthe E/X method is used. In specifying a breaker for bus k this impedance is Zkk of the bus impedance matrix with the propermachinereactances.IftheratioofX/Rofthisimpedanceis15orless,abreakerofthecorrectvoltageand kilovoltamperesmaybeusedifitsinterruptingcurrentratingisequaltoorexceedsthecalculatedcurrent.IftheX/R ratio is unknown, the calculated current should be no more than 80% of the allowed value for the breaker at the existingbusvoltage.TheANSIapplicationguidespecifiesacorrectedmethodtoaccountforacanddctimeconstants for the decay of the current amplitude if the X/R ratio exceeds 15. The corrected method also considers breaker speed. Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage36of39 ofthemotortimes1.5,whichistheapproximate value of the transient reactance of the motor. Inductionmotor below50hp are neglected, and various multiplying oflargerinductionmotordependingontheirsize.Ifnomotorsarepresent,symmetrical shortcircuitcurrentequalssubtransientcurrent.

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear Thisdiscussionoftheselectionofcircuitbreakersispresentednotasastudyofbreakerapplicationsbuttoindicate theimportanceofunderstandingfaultcalculations.Thefollowingexampleshouldclarifytheprinciple. Example:A25,000kVA13.8kVgeneratorwith =15%isconnectedthroughatransformertoabuswhichsupplies ofeachmotoris20%onabaseof fouridenticalmotors,asshowninFig.2.18.Thesubtransientreactance

5000 kVA, 6.9 kV. The threephase rating of the transformer is 25,000 kVA, 13.8/6.9 kV, with a leakage reactanceof10%.Thebusvoltageatthemotorsis6.9kVwhenathreephasefaultoccursatthepointP.For thefaultspecified,determine(a)thesubtransientcurrentinthefault,(b)thesubtransientcurrentinbreaker A,and(c)thesymmetricalshortcircuitinterruptingcurrent(asdefinedforcircuitbreakerapplications)inthe faultandinbreakerA.

Figure2.18OnelinediagramforExample Solution: (a) Forabaseof25,000kVA,13.8kVinthegeneratorcircuit,thebaseforthemotorsis25,000kVA,6.9kV.The subtransientreactanceofeachmotoris

X d" = 0.2

25,000 = 1.0 5000

per unit

Figure2.19isthediagramwithsubtransientvaluesofreactancemarked.ForafaultatP,

V f = 1.0

per unit
per unit

Z th = j 0.125

I "f =

1.0 = j8.0 j 0.125

per unit

Thebasecurrentinthe6.9kVcircuitis

25,000 = 2090 A 3 6.9 I "f = 8 2090 = 16,720

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage37of39

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear

Figure2.19ReactancediagramforExample (b) ThroughbreakerAcomesthecontributionfromthegeneratorandthreeofthefourmotors. Thegeneratorcontributesacurrentof

j8.0

0.25 = j 4.0 0.50

per unit

Eachmotorcontributes25%oftheremainingfaultcurrent,orj1.0perunitA.ThroughbreakerA, I"=j4.0+3(j1.0)=j7.0perunit=72090=14,630A (c) TocomputethecurrentthroughbreakerAtobeinterrupted,replacethesubtransientreactanceofj1.0by thetransientreactanceofj1.5inthemotorcircuitsofFig.2.19.Then

Z th = j

0.375 0.25 = j 0.15 0.375 + 0.25

per unit

Thegeneratorcontributesacurrentof

1.0 0.375 = j 4.0 j 0.15 0.625

per unit

Eachmotorcontributesacurrentof

1 1.0 0.25 = j 0.67 4 j 0.15 0.625

per unit

Thesymmetricalshortcircuitcurrenttobeinterruptedis: Theusualprocedureistorateallthebreakersconnectedtoabusonthebasisofthecurrentintoafaultonthebus.In thatcasetheshortcircuitcurrentinterruptingratingofthebreakersconnectedtothe6.9kVbusmustbeatleast or Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage38of39 4+40.67=6.67perunit (4.0+30.67)2090=12,560A

LV,MV&HVSwitchgear A14.4kVcircuitbreakerhasaratedmaximumvoltageof15.5kVandakof2.67.At15.5kVitsratedshortcircuit interruptingcurrentis8900A.Thisbreakerisratedforasymmetricalshortcircuitinterruptingcurrentof2.678900 =23,760A,atavoltageof15.5/2.67=5.8kV.Thiscurrentisthemaximumthatcanbeinterruptedeventhoughthe breakermaybeinacircuitoflowervoltage.Theshortcircuitinterruptingcurrentratingat6.9kVis 6.672090=13,940A

15.5 8900 = 20,000 6.9

Therequiredcapabilityof13,940Aiswellbelow80%of20,000A,andthebreakerissuitablewithrespecttoshort circuitcurrent.

Module(02)FundamentalsofSwitchingPage39of39