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Summary:
Air passes down the trachea and thorugh a branching system of airways in the lungs to reach the alveoli. The airways are lined by a ciliated epithelium with mucus-secreting goblet cells. The epithelium protects the alveoli by moving a carpet of mucus towards the throat where it can be swallowed. The alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange. A spirometer measures the tidal volume and vital capacity of the lungs. Tidal volume is the volume of air breathed in and then out. At rest it is about 0.5dm 3. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be breathed out after fully inflating the lungs. The pulse rate is identical to heart rate. Resting pulse rate is used as a measure of fitness since a low rate is associated with a large volume of blood expelled by the heart with each beat. Blood in the arteries is under pressure which can be measured using a sphygmomanometer. When the heart contracts, this pressure rises. The maximum pressure which corresponds to the emptying of the left ventricle is the systolic pressure. The maximum pressure in the arteries occurs when the left ventricle is relaxed and filling with blood. This is the diastolic pressure. The gaseous exchange system links the circulatory system with the atmosphere. It is adapted to: Clean and warm the air during breathing Maximise the surface area for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and atmosphere Minimise the distance for this diffusion Maintain adequate gradients for this diffusion
Lungs
The lungs are the site of gaseous exchange between air and blood and they present a huge surface area to the air that flows in and out. They are in the thoracic (chest) cavity surrounded by an airtight space between the pleural membranes. Lungs are ventilated by the movement of the diaphragm and ribs.
Airway
Trachea
Cartilage
yes
Cilia
yes
Bronchus
Terminal bronchiole Respiratory bronchiole
yes
no no
yes
no no
yes
yes no
yes
yes yes
no
no no
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
In the trachea and bronchi, the mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium. The upper part of each
goblet is swollen with mucin droplets which have been secreted
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In the trachea and bronchi, the mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium. The upper part of each
goblet is swollen with mucin droplets which have been secreted by the cell. Mucus is a slimy solution of mucin, composed of glycoproteins with many carbohydrate chains that make them sticky and able to trap inhaled particles. Mucus is also made by glands beneath the epithelium. Between the goblet cells are the ciliated cells. The continual beating of their cilia carries the carpet of mucus upwards towards the larynx.
Phagocytic white blood cells known as microphages patrol the surfaces of the airways patrol the surface of the airways scavenging small particles such as bacteria and fine dust particles.
Alveoli
Alveoli are at the end of the pathway between the atmosphere and the bloodstream. They have a very thin epithelial lining and are surrounded by many blood capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by diffusion. Alveolar walls have elastic fibres which stretch during breathing and recoil during expiration to help force out t he air.
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Measuring lung volumes Ventilation brings about changes in lung volume which can be measured by a spirometer. A person breathes from a tube connected to oxygen-containing chamber floating on a tank of water. The movements of a chamber are recorded on a kymograph.
Two measurements can be obtained from the trace: tidal volume (normal 0.5 dm3) and vital capacity (normal for average men 4.6 dm3, women 3.1 dm3).
Pulse rate
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out from each ventricle during each contraction. Cardiac output is the total volume pumped out per minute. Pulse is the rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each beat of the heart. The pulse rate is identical to heart rate. The resting pulse rate is an indication of fitness.
At rest, the cardiac out put is about 5 dm3 of blood every minute. This can be achieved by having either large stroke volume with low pulse rate or a small stroke volume with a high pulse rate. The normal range of resting pulse rates is 60 to 100 bea ts per minute. The average in fit young adults is about 70, and falls with age. The pulse rate is higher during and after exerci se, and also after eating or smoking. It is at its lowest when people are asleep.
Blood pressure
During systole in the cardiac cycle both ventricles contract. Contraction of the left ventricle forces oxygenated blood out o f the heart to supply the body. The maximum arterial pressure during this active stroke is the systolic pressure and this is the pressure at which blood leaves the heart through the aorta. Elastic recoil of the aorta and the main arteries provides a head of pressure to maintain a steady flow of blood in the arteries towards the capillaries.
The minimum pressure in the arteries is the diastolic pressure. Its value represents the resistance of small arteries and capillaries to blood flow and therefore the load against which the heart must work. If the resistance is high, so is the diastolic pressu re (e.g. arteries not stretching very well).
Blood pressures are determined by a sphygmomanometer (values given in mm Hg). Typical blood pressures are: Systolic: 120 mm Hg Diastolic: 80 mm Hg Both pressures rise and fall during the day and change in the longer term with age.
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Both pressures rise and fall during the day and change in the longer term with age.
Measuring blood pressure The rubber cuff of mercury sphygmomanometer is inflated to 200 mm Hg (to stop the flow of blood to the brachial artery). A stethoscope is placed over the artery and cuff deflated gradually. The systolic pressure is the pressure when the heart beat is first heard as a soft tapping sound. The diastolic pressure is the pressure when sounds can no longer be heard.
Hypertension
Blood pressure is a measure of how hard the heart is working to pump the blood around the body. If systolic and diastolic blood pressures are high at rest, this indicates that the heart is working too hard at pumping blood. This condition is known as hypertension. The risks of cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and coronary heart disease increase considerably with blood pressures in excess of 140/90 (hypertension). The causes of high blood pressure are generally unknown. It occurs because of contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of small arteries and arterioles. Increase in the concentration of hormone noradrenaline may cause this because it stimulates arterioles to contract increasing the resistance of the blood vessels. Long-term hypertension causes a strain on the cardiovascular system. This can lead to heart failure which occurs when heart muscles weaken and are unable to pump properly. The condition is known to be closely linked to: Excessive alcohol intake Smoking Obesity Too much salt in diet Genetic factors
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