Mechatronics

Thermal Systems
K. Craig
1
Thermal Systems
Introduction to Thermal Systems
Introduction to Heat Transfer
What and How?
Physical Mechanisms and Rate Equations
Conservation of Energy Requirement
Control Volume
Surface Energy Balance
Thermal Resistance
Thermal Capacitance
Thermal Sources: Temperature and Heat Flow
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Thermal Systems
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Introduction to Thermal Systems
Thermal systems transfer or store thermal energy by
virtue of temperature and heat flow rate. The
thermal effects are conduction, convection,
radiation, and heat storage capacity.
Thermal systems have a static and dynamic behavior
similar to mechanical, electrical, and fluid systems,
but in some ways they are quite different.
Thermal systems exhibit resistance and capacitance
effects, can be analyzed by circuit analysis, and have
dynamic responses that can be characterized by time
constants, etc.
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Thermal Systems
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However, they often require nonlinear, variable-coefficient,
or distributed-parameter models. Also there is no thermal
inductance.
The analysis of thermal systems often requires the
combination of three technologies:
Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics
Effort (Across) Variable: Temperature (C or K)
Flow (Through) Variable: Heat Flow Rate (W = J/sec)
Conduction, convection, and radiation all display an
algebraic relation between temperature and heat flow,
i.e., no dynamic effects; these effects represent
thermal resistance.
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Thermal Systems
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Introduction to Heat Transfer
Energy can be transferred by interactions of a
system with its surroundings:
Heat
Work
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium end states
of the process during which an interaction occurs. It
provides no information concerning the nature of the
interaction or the time rate at which it occurs.
Heat Transfer is inherently a non-equilibrium
process and we study the modes of heat transfer and
develop relations to calculate heat transfer rates.
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Thermal Systems
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What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer (or heat) is energy in transit due to a
temperature difference.
Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a
medium or between media, heat transfer must occur.
Different types of heat transfer processes are called
modes:
Conduction: When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary
medium (solid or fluid), heat transfer occurs across the
medium.
Convection: Heat transfer occurs between a surface and a
moving fluid when they are at different temperatures.
Radiation: All surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves. In the absence of an
intervening medium, there is heat transfer by radiation between
two surfaces at different temperatures.
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Thermal Systems
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Heat Transfer Modes: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
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Thermal Systems
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Physical Mechanisms and Rate Equations
Conduction
Processes at the atomic and molecular level sustain this mode
of heat transfer.
Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the
more energetic to the less energetic particles of a substance due
to interaction between the particles.
Consider a gas with no bulk motion in which there exists a
temperature gradient. We associate the temperature at any
point with the energy of the gas molecules in the vicinity of the
point: random translational motion as well as internal
rotational and vibrational motions of the molecules. Higher
temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies.
When particles collide, a transfer of energy from the more
energetic to the less energetic particles must occur. When a
temperature gradient is present, energy transfer by conduction
must occur in the direction of decreasing temperature.
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Thermal Systems
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Association of Conduction Heat Transfer with Diffusion of
Energy due to Molecular Activity
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The situation is much the same in liquids, although in liquids
molecules are more closely spaced and the molecular
interactions are stronger and more frequent.
In a solid, conduction may be attributed to atomic activity in
the form of lattice vibrations (exclusively for a non-conductor),
as well as translational motion of free electrons when the
material is a conductor.
Conduction Rate Equation
For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fouriers
Law.
For a one-dimensional plane wall having a temperature
distribution T(x), the rate equation is:
x
2
x x
dT
q k
dx
q heat flux (W/m ) q / A
k thermal conductivity (W/m K)

= =
=
Heat flux is the heat transfer rate in
the x direction per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of
transfer
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Thermal Systems
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Convection
Convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two
mechanisms:
Energy transfer due to random molecular motion
(diffusion)
Energy transferred by the bulk (macroscopic) motion of
the fluid. Large numbers of molecules moving collectively
in the presence of a temperature gradient gives rise to heat
transfer.
Total heat transfer is due to a superposition of energy transport
by the random motion of molecules and by the bulk motion of
the fluid. The term convection is used to refer to this
cumulative transport, while the term advection is used to refer
to transport due to bulk fluid motion.
We are especially interested in convection heat transfer
between a fluid in motion and a bounding surface when the
two are at different temperatures.
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Thermal Systems
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Boundary Layer Development in Convection Heat Transfer
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Hydrodynamic, or velocity, boundary layer: region in the fluid
through which the velocity varies from zero at the surface to a
finite value u

associated with the flow.

If the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a
region of the fluid through which the temperature varies from
T
s
at the surface to T

in the outer flow. This region is called

the thermal boundary layer and it may be smaller, larger, or
the same size as that through which the velocity varies.
The contribution to heat transfer due to random molecular
motion (diffusion) generally dominates near the surface where
the fluid velocity is low.
The contribution to heat transfer due to bulk fluid motion
originates from the fact that boundary layers grow as the flow
progresses in the x direction.
Nature of the Flow:
Forced Convection: flow is caused by some external
means, e.g., fan, pump, wind.
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Thermal Systems
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Free (or natural) Convection: flow is induced by buoyancy
forces in the fluid, which arise from density variations
caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
Convection heat transfer is then energy transfer occurring
within a fluid due to the combined effects of conduction and
bulk fluid motion. In general, the energy that is being
transferred is the (sensible) internal thermal energy of the fluid.
However, there are convection processes for which there is, in
addition, latent heat exchange. This latent heat exchange is
generally associated with a phase change between the liquid
and vapor states of the fluid, e.g., boiling and condensation.
Convection Rate Equation
Regardless of the particular nature of the convection heat
transfer mode, the rate equation is of the form:
( )
s
2
x
2
q h T T
q convective heat flux (W/m )
h convection heat transfer, or film, coefficient (W/m K)

=
=
Newtons Law of Cooling
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The film coefficient, h, encompasses all the effects that influence
the convection mode, e.g., boundary layer conditions, surface
geometry, nature of fluid motion, fluid thermodynamic and
transport properties.
Range of Values for h (W/m
2
K):
Free Convection: 5 25
Forced Convection: 25 250 (Gases), 50 20,000 (Liquids)
Convection with Phase Change (boiling or condensation):
2500 100,000
Radiation
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter (solid, fluid, or gas)
that is at a finite temperature, attributable to changes in the
electron configurations of the constituent atoms or molecules.
The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic
waves and does not require the presence of a material medium, in
fact, it occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
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Thermal Systems
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Radiation Rate Equation
The maximum flux (W/m
2
) at which radiation may be emitted
from a surface is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
Such a surface is called an ideal radiator. The heat flux
emitted by a real surface is less than that of the ideal radiator
and is given by:
Determination of the net rate at which radiation is exchanged
between surfaces is quite complicated.
4
s
s
2 4
q T
T absolute surface temperature (K)
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67E-8 (W/m K )

=
=
=
4
s
q T
emissivity (radiative property of the surface)

=
=
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Thermal Systems
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Special Case: net exchange between a small surface and a much
larger surface that completely surrounds the smaller one. The
surface and surroundings are separated by a gas that has no effect
on the radiation transfer. The net rate of radiation heat exchange
between the surface and its surroundings is:
Note that the area and emissivity of the surroundings do not
influence the net heat exchange rate in this case.
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
4 4 2 2
s surr s surr s surr s surr r s surr
q
q T T T T T T T T h T T
A

= = = + + =
Radiation Exchange between a Surface and its Surroundings
total conv rad
q q q = +
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Conservation of Energy Requirement
In the application of the conservation laws, we first
need to identify the control volume, a fixed region of
space bounded by a control surface through which
energy and matter pass.
Energy Conservation Law:
The rate at which thermal and mechanical energy enters a
control volume through the control surface minus the rate at
which this energy leaves the control volume through the
control surface (surface phenomena) plus the rate at which
energy is generated in the control volume due to conversion
from other energy forms, e.g., chemical, electrical,
electromagnetic, or nuclear, (volumetric phenomena) must
equal the rate at which this energy is stored in the control
volume (volumetric phenomena).
in g out st
E E E E + =

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Thermal Systems
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The inflow and outflow rate terms are surface phenomena in
that they are associated exclusively with processes occurring at
the control surface, and the rate at which they occur is
proportional to surface area. Usually they involve energy flow
due to heat transfer by the conduction, convection, and/or
radiation modes; they may also include work interactions. In a
situation involving fluid flow across the control surface, these
terms also include energy transported by the fluid into and out
of the control volume in the form of potential, kinetic, and
thermal energy.
Example Problem
A long conducting rod of diameter D and electrical resistance
per unit length R

e
is initially in thermal equilibrium with the
ambient air and its surroundings. This equilibrium is disturbed
when an electrical current I is passed through the rod. Develop
an equation that could be used to compute the variation of the
rod temperature with time during passage of the current.
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Thermal Systems
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Surface Energy Balance
We frequently apply the conservation of energy requirement at
the surface of a medium. In this case, the control surface
includes no mass or volume. The generation and storage terms
of the conservation expression are no longer relevant. The
conservation requirement, holding for both steady-state and
transient conditions, then becomes:
Energy Balance for Conservation of Energy at the Surface of a Medium
in out
E E 0 =

cond conv rad
q q q 0

=
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Thermal Systems
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Example Problem
A closed container filled with hot coffee is in a room whose air
and walls are at a fixed temperature. Identify all heat transfer
processes that contribute to cooling of the coffee. Comment
on features that would contribute to a superior container
design.
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Thermal Systems
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Thermal Resistance
Whenever two objects (or portions of the same object)
have different temperatures, there is a tendency for heat to
be transferred from the hot region to the cold region, in an
attempt to equalize the temperatures.
For a given temperature difference, the rate of heat transfer
varies, depending on the thermal resistance of the path
between the hot and cold regions.
The nature and magnitude of the thermal resistance depend
on the mode of heat transfer involved:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
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( ) ( )
1 2
kA
q T t T t
L
( =

Through and Across Variables
Through Variable: heat flow rate q (J/s or W)
Across Variable: Temperature T (K)
Pure and Ideal Resistance Element
Instantaneous relation
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
T(t)
q
R

=
( ) ( )
1 2
q hA T t T t ( =

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 4
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
q C T t T t
C T t T t T t T t T t T t
(
=

(
( ( = + +


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Thermal Systems
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Thermal Conductivity k
Material property found by experiments. Ideally it is a
constant, but in reality it may vary with temperature,
position in the body, and direction of heat flow.
Printed circuit boards are a good example of anisotropic
(direction-sensitive) behavior of thermal conductivity.
Here the material is in the form of a sandwich with
layers of high-conductivity copper and low-
conductivity epoxy-fiberglass. Thermal conductivity of
the composite sandwich in a direction perpendicular to
the plane of the board may be only 0.05 times that for
the parallel direction.
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Thermal Systems
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Contact Resistance
When heat flow occurs through the interface where two
solid bodies share a common surface, the phenomenon
of contact resistance is observed.
If the contact were perfectly smooth, the contact
resistance would be zero and the temperature of the two
bodies would be identical at the contact surface.
Real objects always have some surface roughness,
which causes essentially a step change in temperature
across the interface. This effect can be modeled with a
thermal contact resistance, which depends on the
roughness of the surfaces and the contact pressure for
any two given materials. Contact resistances are
difficult to measure and predict.
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Thermal Systems
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For example, aluminum-to-aluminum joints may have
resistance values ranging from 8.3E-5 to 45.0E-5 C/W
for an area of 1 m
2
. The two aluminum pieces
themselves, taking 5 mm as a typical thickness, would
have a total resistance of about 5.0E-5 C/W for the
same 1.0 m
2
area, showing clearly the large error
caused by ignoring contact resistance.
Convection Film Coefficient h
The convection film coefficient depends on the
geometry of the solid bodies, the nature of the fluid
flow, the fluid properties, and temperature. It must be
found by experiment, but for many configurations the
experimental results have been generalized so that h
may be predicted with fair accuracy from calculations.
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Thermal Systems
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Combined Heat Transfer Coefficient
Often conduction and convection are combined and we
can define an overall heat transfer coefficient and
thereby an overall thermal resistance.
Consider the automobile radiator (convector is a better
name!)
water air
t
water air
T T T
q
1 L 1
R
h A kA h A

= =
+ +
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Thermal Systems
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Comments on Radiation
Radiation often contributes a relatively small portion of
the total heat transfer unless the temperatures are quite
high. However, if other modes are inhibited, then
radiation can be important even at low temperatures,
e.g., heat transfer at the outer surface of an orbiting
satellite must be entirely due to radiation since it is
exposed only to the vacuum of space, defeating any
conduction or convection.
Note that emissivity values are usually more uncertain
than conductivities or convection coefficients, so highly
accurate calculations should not be expected.
For radiation calculations, you must use absolute
temperatures!
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Thermal Systems
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Rate of radiation heat transfer depends on the
emissivity of each body (surface property), geometrical
factors involving the portion of emitted radiation from
one body that actually strikes the other, the surface
areas involved, and the absolute temperatures of the
two bodies.
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Thermal Systems
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Thermal Resistance Element
Electrical-Thermal Analogy
Voltage Temperature Difference
Current Heat Flux
However, when energy behavior is considered, the analogy
breaks down as heat flux is already power and current is not.
Also, all the heat flux entering the thermal resistance at one
end leaves at the other end, and none is lost or dissipated;
whereas the electrical energy supplied to a resistor is all
converted into heat, and is thus lost to the electrical system.
In thermal system analysis and design, the overall
thermal resistance of hardware components, obtained
from lab testing, is widely used, particularly in
electronic and electromechanical applications.
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Thermal Systems
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Thermal Capacitance
When heat flows into a body of solid, liquid, or gas, this
thermal energy may show up in various forms such as
mechanical work or changes in kinetic energy of a flowing
fluid.
If we restrict ourselves to bodies of material for which the
addition of thermal energy does not cause significant
mechanical work or kinetic energy changes, the added
energy show up as stored internal energy and manifests
itself as a rise in the temperature of the body.
For a pure and ideal thermal capacitance, the rise in
temperature is directly proportional to the total quantity of
heat energy transferred into the body:
t
0
0
t
1
T T qdt
C
=

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We assume that, at any instant, the temperature of the body
is uniform throughout its volume. For fluid bodies, this
ideal situation is closely approached if the fluid is
thoroughly and continuously mixed. For solid bodies,
uniform temperature requires a material with infinite
thermal conductivity, which no real material has. Thus
there is always some nonuniformity of temperature in a
body during transient temperature changes.
A useful criterion for judging the validity of the uniform-
temperature assumption for a solid body immersed in a
fluid is found in the Biot Number N
B
:
B
Volume
h
hL
Surface Area
N
k k
| |
|
\ .
=
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When the Biot number is less than 0.1, the assumption of
uniform temperature is acceptable, except for the early
times of a step change in fluid temperature.
Early vs. later times? The division is not precise but can be
estimated from another dimensionless group, the Fourier
number N
F
:
is the thermal diffusivity and this governs the diffusion
of heat through a solid body. A large value of means
rapid diffusion of heat.
A conservative requirement on the Fourier number is that
it be greater than 10 for the uniform temperature
assumption to be accurate.
F
2 2
k
t
c t
N
L L
| |
|

\ .
=
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If the spatial variation of temperature, rather than an
average temperature, in the solid body must be predicted,
we should use several lumps of thermal capacitance, rather
than just one, in our model. Sometimes we must begin our
modeling with several lumps and let these results tell us if
we can simplify the model to fewer, or just one, lump of
thermal capacitance.
Thermal Capacitance C
t
The specific heat of real materials varies somewhat with
temperature, however, in many cases it is sufficiently
accurate to use a constant value (average value for the
range of temperature covered).
C
t
heat added
mass specific heat Mc
temperature rise
= =
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Thermal Systems
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For fluids (particularly gases) the specific heat is often
measured for two different situations: constant volume and
constant pressure. Since these values are quite different,
be careful to use the value which corresponds most closely
to the actual application.
When heat is added to or taken away from a material
which is changing phase (melting or freezing, vaporizing
or condensing) the thermal capacitance is essentially
infinite, since one can add heat without causing any
temperature rise.
NOTE: Thermal Inductance is not necessary for the
description of thermal system behavior and is not defined
or used! Thermal systems require only two elements, and
only one of these stores energy.
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Thermal Systems
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Thermal Sources:
Temperature and Heat Flow
The ideal temperature source maintains a prescribed
temperature (either constant or time-varying) irrespective
of how much heat flow it must provide. Constant-
temperature sources may often be quite well approximated
by utilizing materials undergoing phase change.
An ideal heat-flow source produces a prescribed (constant
or time-varying) heat flow irrespective of the temperature
required. Perhaps the most convenient heat flow source
for many applications is electrical resistance heating. A
constant or time-varying voltage applied to a resistance
heating coil produces an electrical heat generation rate
e
2
(t)/R if inductance is negligible.