Tutorial On Maxwell's Equations - Part 2

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 1 of 12

E XHCONSULTINGSERVI CES

RADAR SENSOR SYSTEMS
FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS
FREQUENCY CONVERSION

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM:
A SHORT TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
AND
RELATED TOPICS

Release Date: 2013

PREPARED BY:

KENNETH V. PUGLIA PRINCIPAL
146 WESTVIEW DRIVE
WESTFORD, MA 01886-3037 USA

STATEMENT OF DISCLOSURE
THE INFORMATION WITHIN THIS DOCUMENT IS DISCLOSED WITHOUT EXCEPTION TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC.
E X H CONSULTING SERVICES BELIEVES THE CONTENT TO BE ACCURATE; HOWEVER, E X H CONSULTING
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARAGRAPH PAGE
PART 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 4
2.0 CONTENT AND OVERVIEW 4
3.0 SOME VECTOR CALCULUS 6
PART 2
4.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS 10
5.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR DYNAMIC FIELDS 14
6.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION 16
PART 3
7.0 SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS 21
8.0 TIME VARYING POTENTIALS AND RADIATION 27

APPENDICES
APPENDIX Page
A RADIATION FIELDS FROM A HERTZIAN DIPOLE 34
B RADIATION FIELDS FROM A MAGNETIC DIPOLE 37
C RADIATION FIELDS FROM A HALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE 39



"WE HAVE STRONG REASON TO CONCLUDE THAT LIGHT ITSELF INCLUDING
RADI ANT HEAT AND OTHER RADIATION, IF ANY IS AN ELECTROMAGNETI C
DISTURBANCE IN THE FORM OF WAVES PROPAGATED THROUGH THE
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FI ELD ACCORDING TO ELECTRO-MAGNETIC LAWS."
James Clerk Maxwell, 1864, before the Royal Society of London in 'A Dynamic Theory of the Electro-Magnetic Field'

" THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY OWES ITS ORIGINS TO MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS OF
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD "
" SINCE MAXWELL'S TIME, PHYSICAL REALITY HAS BEEN THOUGHT OF AS REPRESENTED BY
CONTINUOUS FI ELDS, AND NOT CAPABLE OF ANY MECHANICAL INTERPRETATION. THIS
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTION OF REALITY IS THE MOST PROFOUND AND THE MOST FRUITFUL
THAT PHYSICS HAS EXPERIENCED SINCE THE TIME OF NEWTON "
ALBERT EINSTEIN

"MAXWELL'S IMPORTANCE IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT I S COMPARABLE TO
EINSTEIN'S (WHOM HE INSPIRED) AND TO NEWTON'S (WHOSE INFLUENCE HE CURTAILED)"
MAX PLANCK

" FROM A LONG VI EW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND - SEEN FROM, SAY TEN THOUSAND
YEARS FROM NOW THERE CAN BE LITTLE DOUBT THAT THE MOST SIGNIFICANT EVENT OF
THE 19
TH
CENTURY WILL BE J UDGED AS MAXWELL'S DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS OF
ELECTRODYNAMICS "
RICHARD P. FEYNMAN


1.0 INTRODUCTION
Given the accolades of such prestigious scientists, it is
prudent to periodically revisit the works of genius;
particularly when that work has made such a profound
scientific and humanitarian contribution. Over the years, I
have been intensely fascinated by the totality of
Maxwells Equations. Part of the attraction is the extent of
features and aspects of their physical interpretation. It is
still somewhat surprising to me that four ostensibly
innocuous equations could so completely encompass and
describe with the exception of relativistic effects all
electromagnetic phenomenon. Herein was the motivation
for this investigation: a more intuitive understanding of
Maxwells Equations and their physical significance.
One of the significant findings of the investigation is the
extraordinary application uniqueness of vector calculus to
the field of electromagnetics. In addition, I was reminded
that our modern approach to circuit theory is, in reality, a
special case or subset of electromagnetics, e.g., the
voltage and current laws of Kirchhoff and Ohm, as well
as the principles of the conservation of charge, which
were established prior to Maxwells extensive and
unifying theory and documentation in A Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. Although not
immediately recognized for its scientific significance,
Maxwells revelations and mathematical elegance was
subsequently recognized, and in retrospect, is appreciated
one might say revered to a greater extent today with
the benefit of historical perspective.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), a Scottish physicist
and mathematician, produced a mathematically and
scientifically definitive work which unified the subjects of
electricity and magnetism and established the foundation
for the study of electromagnetics. Maxwell used his
extraordinary insight and mathematic proficiency to
leverage the significant experimental work conducted by
several noted scientists, among them:
Charles A. de Coulomb (1736-1806): Measured
electric and magnetic forces.
Andr M. Ampere (1775-1836): Produced a
magnetic field using current solenoid.
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855): Discovered the
Divergence theorem Gauss theorem and the
basic laws of electrostatics.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827): Invented the
Voltaic cell.
Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851): Discovered that
electricity could produce magnetism.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867): Discovered that a
time changing magnetic field produced an electric
field, thus demonstrating that the fields were not
independent.
Completing the sequence of significant events in the
history of electromagnetic science:
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879): Founded
modern electromagnetic theory and predicted
electromagnetic wave propagation.
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894): Confirmed
Maxwells postulate of electromagnetic wave
propagation via experimental generation and
detection and is considered the founder of radio.
I hope you enjoy and benefit from this brief encounter
with Maxwells work and that you subsequently
acknowledge and appreciate the profound contribution of
Maxwell to the body of scientific knowledge.

2.0 CONTENT AND OVERVIEW
The exploration begins with a review of the elements of
vector calculus, which need not cause mass desertion at
this point of the exercise. The topic is presented in a more
geometric and physically interpretive manner. The
concepts of a volume bounded by a closed surface and an
open surface bounded by a closed contour are utilized to
physically interpret the vector operations of divergence
and curl. Gauss law and Stokes theorem are approached
from a mathematical and physical interpretation and used
to relate the differential and integral forms of Maxwells
equations. The myth of Maxwells fudge factor is
dispelled by the resolution of the contradiction of
Amperes Law and the principle of conservation of
charge. Various forms of Maxwells equations are
explored for differing regions and conditions related to
the time dependent vector fields. Maxwells observation
with respect to the significance of the E-field and H-field
symmetry and coupling are mathematically expanded to
demonstrate how Maxwell was able to postulate
electromagnetic wave propagation at a specific velocity
ONE OF THE MOST PROFOUND SCI ENTI FI C DI SCLOSURES
OF THE 19
TH
CENTURY. The investigation concludes with
the development of scalar and vector potentials and the
significance of these potential functions in the solution of
some common problems encountered in the study of
electromagnetic phenomenon.
The presentation will consider only simple media. Simple
media are homogeneous and isotropic. Homogeneous
media are specified such that c
r
and
r
do not vary with
position. Isotropic media are characterized such that c
r

and
r
do not vary with magnitude or direction of E or H.
Therefore: c
r
and
r
are constants. Vectors are
conventionally represented with arrows at the top of the
letter representing the vector quantity, e.g. A
.


The International System of Units, abbreviated SI, is
used. A summary of the various scalar and vector field
quantities and constants and their dimensional units are
presented in Table I. Recognition of the dimensional
character of the various quantities is quite useful in the
study of electromagnetics.
The study of electromagnetics begins with the concept of
static charged particles and continues with constant
motion charged particles, i.e., steady currents, and
discloses more significant consequential results with the
study of time variable currents. Faraday was the first to
observe the results of time varying currents when he
discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction.
Table I. Field Quantities, Constants and Units
PARAMETER SYMBOL DIMENSIONS NOTE
Electric Field Intensity
E

Volt/meter
Electric Flux Density
D

Coulomb/meter
2

E D

c =
Magnetic Field Intensity
H

Ampere/meter
Magnetic Flux Density
B

Tesla (Weber/meter
2
) H B

=
Conduction Current Density
c
J
Ampere/meter
2
E J
c

o =

Displacement Current Density
d
J
Ampere/meter
2
t
D
J
d
c
c
=

Magnetic Vector Potential
A

Volt-Second/meter
A B

V =

Conductivity o Siemens/meter
Ohm
Siemen
1
=

Voltage V Volt
Coulomb
Joule
Volt =

Current I Ampere
Second
Coulomb
Ampere =

Power W Watt Volt Amp
Second
Joule
Watt = =

Capacitance
F
Farad
Volt
Coulomb
Farad =

Inductance
L
Henry
Coulomb
Second Volt
Henry
2
=

Resistance

Ohm
Ampere
Volt
Ohm =

Permittivity (free space)
c
o

Farad/meter
t 36
10
10 85 . 8
9
12

~

Permeability (free space)
o

Henry/meter
7
10 4

t
Speed of Light c meter/second
8
10 0 . 3
1
~ =
o o
c
c

Free Space Impedance q
o
Ohm t
c
q 120 ~ =
o
o
o

Poynting Vector
P

Watt/meter
2

H E P

=

PART 2
4.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS
The exploration of Maxwells Equations begins with
the study of static electricity, i.e. the study of
electrically charged particles at rest. The simplest
example is that of a single charge of value +q at the
center of an imaginary sphere of radius r as shown in
Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Charged Particle at the Center of Sphere
The electric field intensity vector E
, at the surface of
an imaginary sphere of radius r may be written using
Coulombs law:
Volt/meter
4
2
r
r
q
E
o
tc
+
=
In this case, the electric field is in a radial direction
from the charge in accordance with the unit vector (
r
) and is directly proportional to the value of

charge and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the charge and the observation
point on the surface of the sphere. Although discrete
lines are depicted to indicate the electric field
intensity direction, one should recognize that the
electric field intensity is continuous over the surface
of the imaginary sphere. The electric flux density
vector is simply:
2
ter Coulomb/me
4
2
r
r
q
E D
o

t
c
+
= =
Using the Divergence theorem:
( )
}}} }}
V =
v s
dv D d D s

( )
( ) ( )
}}} }}} }}
}} }}
V = = + =
=
|
.
|
\
| +
=
v v s
s s
dv D dv q d D
r d d r d
r d d r r
r
q
d D
v
s
s
s

sin where
sin
4
2
2
2

| u u
| u u
t

v
D = V

This significant result is Maxwells first equation!
The equation states that the divergence of the electric
flux density over a closed surface that bounds a
volume is equal to the enclosed volume charge
density,
v
.
Noting that the electric field intensity vector has a
single radial direction, one may conclude that the
field has no rotational component and therefore:
E 0 = V

(for the static case)
The result is Maxwells third equation and applies to
the static case.

Now consider a small magnet enclosed within an
imaginary sphere of radius, r, as shown in Figure 4.2.
Also illustrated are the magnetic flux density lines
emanating from one pole of the magnet and
terminating at the opposite pole. Observing from an
additional perspective, the magnetic flux density lines
form closed loops around the poles of the magnet.

Figure 4.2: Magnet Enclosed within Imaginary Sphere
Because the net magnetic flux density over the
surface of the sphere is zero, using the divergence
theorem one may write:

( ) 0 = V =
}}} }}
v s
dv B d B s

0 = V B

The significant result in this case is the second of
Maxwells Equations and is valid in all cases. If one
considers the divergence of the electric flux density
vector, where the source of the electric flux density
vector was found to be the enclosed electric charge,
this is an intuitively satisfying result since magnetic
charges have not been found to exist. Once again,
although the discrete magnetic flux density lines are
illustrated, one should recognize that the magnetic
flux density is continuous over the surface of the
imaginary sphere.

AMPERES LAW
Amperes law states that the line integral of the
tangential component of the magnetic intensity vector
around a closed path is equal to the net current
enclosed by the path. Figure 4.3 illustrates the
geometry using a circular path; however, the law also
applies to an arbitrary path.

Figure 4.3: Illustration of Amperes Law
Mathematically, one may write Amperes Law:
enc
c
I l d H =
}

Applying Stokes theorem:
( )
enc
c
I d H l d H
s
s = V =
}} }

The enclosed current may be written as a density:
}
=
s
enc
S d J I

Now equating the integrands of the surface integrals:
J H

= V

This significant result is the fourth of Maxwells
Equations for the static case. The equation also
provides three observations of intuitive significance
with respect to the vector curl operation.
1. The plane of the circumferential magnetic
intensity vector is normal to the current
density vector. This is an expectation
derived directly from the curl operation.
2. The curl of the magnetic intensity vector is
the current density vector which is the
source of the magnetic intensity vector. In a
manner of speaking, the curl of the magnetic
intensity vector findsits source.
3. Because the magnetic field intensity is
circumferential, i.e. rotational, one may
conclude that it has a non-zero curl.

BI OT-SAVART LAW
The Biot-Savart law provides a mathematical
statement of the Oersted observation that compass
needles are deflected in the presence of current
carrying wires. The Biot-Savart law may be written
and interpreted with the aid of Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Geometry of Biot-Savart Law
The Biot-Savart law asserts that the incremental
magnetic intensity H d

, produced at a point, P, from
an incremental current element l Id
, is directly
proportional to the current and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the current element
to the observation point. In addition, the direction of
the magnetic intensity is that of the cross product of
the incremental length and the unit vector along the
line to the observation point. As one would expect,
the direction of the incremental field is normal to the
plane formed by the incremental current element and
the unit vector from the current element to the
observation point.

2
4 t

a l d
I
H d

=
This is the magnetic equivalent of Coulombs law
and may be utilized to gain additional insight with
respect to the vector curl operation in the following
manner. Postulate a circular loop of radius , with
current I and located at the origin of the coordinate
system in the Z=0 plane. The problem is to calculate
the magnetic field intensity vector at the center of the
loop. With respect to Figure 4.5, the solution requires
closed contour integration of the l Id
product around
the circumference of the loop.

The following equation may be written:
( )
loop the of origin at the
and

2

4 4

2
0
2
0
2
z
z z
z
a
I
H
d
I
a
d I
a H
a a a a a d a l d
|
t
|
t
|
t t
| |
=
=
=
= =
} }

In summary, Maxwells Equations for the static case
are summarized in Table II.

Table II: Maxwells Equations for Static Electromagnetic Fields
Equation
Number
Differential
Form
Integral Form Comment
1.
v
D = V

. enc
v s
Q dv d D
v
s = =
}}} }}

Gausss Law; divergence finds the
source of the electric field vector, Q
enc
2.
0 = V B

0 =
}}
s
s d B

Gausss law for magnetic flux density

3.
0 = V E

0 =
}
l d E
c

No rotation of the static electric field
intensity
4.
c
J H

= V
. enc c
c
I d J l d H
s
s = =
}} }

Amperes law; curl finds the source of
the magnetic intensity vector, I
enc
5. ( )
}} }}}
= V
s v
s d A dv A

Divergence theorem relates a volume
integral to a surface integral
6. ( ) l d A d A
c s
s

= V
} }}

Stokes theorem relates a surface
integral to a line integral

Figure 4.5: Magnetic Field Intensity at the Origin of a
Current Loop in the Plane, Z=0

A short commentary describes a significant
attribute pertinent to each equation.
1. The divergence of the electric flux density
vector over a surface is equal to the volume
charge density as the surface tends to zero; the
integral of the electric flux density vector over
a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed by the surface.
2. The divergence of the magnetic flux density
vector is zero; field lines form closed loops;
magnetic charges do not exist.
3. A static electric field has no rotation.
4. The flux of the curl of the magnetic intensity
vector over an open surface is equal to the
current density vector through the surface that
is bounded by the closed contour; the line
integral of the magnetic intensity vector
around closed path that bounds an open
surface is equal to the current through the
surface.
5. The divergence of a vector field from a closed
volume is equal to the integral of the vector
field over the closed surface that bounds the
volume; relates a volume integral to a surface
integral; relationship between the differential
and integral forms of Maxwells divergence
equations.
6. The integral of the curl of a vector field over
an open surface is equal to the line integral of
the vector field along the closed path that
bounds the open surface; relates a surface
integral to a line integral; relationship
between the differential and integral forms of
Maxwells curl equations.
What has been demonstrated to this point in the
investigation is that static charges produce
electrostatic fields and that constant velocity charges
or steady currents produce magneto-static fields. In
the next section, what will be demonstrated is that
time varying currents produce electromagnetic fields
and waves.

5.0 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR DYNAMIC
FIELDS
Dynamic electromagnetic fields are those fields that
vary with time. As will be demonstrated, the electric
and magnetic field intensity vectors must exist
simultaneously under dynamic conditions. Maxwell
was the first to discover this phenomenon and
mathematically pursued the electric and magnetic
field coupling to the electromagnetic wave
propagation conclusion. Maxwell was an
accomplished mathematician and used his talent to
integrate the experimental results of Ampere and
Faraday into a concise mathematical formulation.
Some passages from Maxwell [9.] chastise Ampere
and Faraday for their lack of mathematical diligence
beyond the experiments.
MAXWELL WRI TES ON FARADAY:
The method which Faraday employed in his
researches consisted in a constant appeal to
experiment as a means of testing the truth of his ideas
and a constant cultivation of ideas under the direct
influence of experiment. In his published researches
we find these ideas expressed in a language which is
all the better fitted for a nascent science because it is
somewhat alien from the style of physicists who have
been accustomed to establish mathematical forms of
thought.
MAXWELL WRI TES ON AMPERE:
The method of Ampere, however, though cast into an
inductive form, does not allow us to trace the
formation of the ideas which guided it. We can
scarcely believe that Ampere really discovered the law
of action by means of the experiments which he
describes. We are led to suspect, what, indeed, he tells
us himself, that he discovered the law by some process
which he has not shewn us, and that when he had
afterwards built up a perfect demonstration he
removed all traces of scaffolding by which he had
raised it.
MAXWELL WRI TES ON HI S WORK:
It is mainly with the hope of making these ideas the
basis of a mathematical method that I have
undertaken this treatise.

FARADAYS LAW OF INDUCTI ON
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that a time
varying magnetic field produces an electromotive
force (emf) in a closed path that is coupled or
otherwise linked to the time varying magnetic field.
Stated mathematically:
volts
dt
d
emf
u
=
A time varying magnetic field may result from the
following factors:
1. Time changing field linking a stationary
closed path
2. Relative motion between a steady field and a
closed path
3. A combination of the above
The emf may also be defined in terms of the
integration along a closed path:

volts
}
= l d E emf

Replacing the time varying flux density with the
magnetic flux density vector, one may write:
}} }
= =
s
s d B
dt
d
l d E emf

Recall Stokes theorem:
( )
}} }
V =
s
s d E l d E
c

Equating the integrands of the surface integrals:
t
B
E
c
c
= V

This is Maxwells first curl equation in differential
form for the time varying condition. It should be
noted that the sourceof electric field intensity vector
is the time changing magnetic flux density
1
vector
and that the curl of the electric field intensity vector
is the same direction as the changing magnetic flux
density vector.

PRI NCI PLE OF THE CONSERVATI ON OF CHARGE
The principle of charge conservation states that the
time rate of decrease of charge within a volume must
be equal to the net rate of current flow through the
closed surface that bounds the volume;
mathematically:
I d J
dt
dQ
s
s
c
= =
}}

Applying the divergence theorem to the above
equation yields:
( )
}}} }}
V =
v s
dv J d J s
c

Writing the equation for the charge leaving a volume:
}}}
=
v
dv
dt
d
dt
dQ
v

By simple substitution, one may write:
( )
}}} }}}
= V
v v
dv
dt
d
dv J
dt
d
v

1
Recall that the curl of a vector field findsits source.
t
J
v
c
c
= V

This is the equation of continuity of current which
basically asserts that there can be no accumulation of
current at a point and is the basis of Kirchhoffs
current law. In the physical sense, the divergence of
the current density is equal to the time rate of
decrease in volume charge density. Recall that for the
static case, Maxwells equation for the curl of the
magnetic intensity vector Amperes law found
the source to be the conduction current density
vector:
J H

= V
Executing the divergence of the above equation:
( ) 0 = V = V V J H

This is a clear contradiction because it was just
demonstrated that the divergence of the current
density was equal to the time rate of change of
volume charge density.
Maxwell recognized the contradiction under time
varying conditions and mathematically reconciled the
inconsistency in the following manner:
( )
( ) D
t t
J J
J J H
v
d
d

V
c
c
=
c
c
= V = V
= V + V = V V
0

t
D
J
d
c
c
=

The displacement current term is the result of a time
varying electric field a typical example of which is
the current within a capacitor when an alternating
voltage is impressed across the plates.
Maxwells second curl equation may now be written:
t
D
J H
c
c
+ = V

The current within a capacitor provides a unique
example of the displacement current concept and also
serves to equate the conduction and displacement
currents in a typical circuit. Figure 5.1 illustrates an
impressed AC voltage across the plates of a
capacitor.


Figure 5.1-1:

Figure 5.1-2: Displacement Current Example
Two surfaces are utilized with a common closed loop
integration path. Because the path of integration is
common, the current must be equal regardless of the
surface.
Table III summarizes the general form of Maxwells
equations for time varying electromagnetic fields.
Notice that the general form of the equations is also
applicable to the static case upon removal of the time
dependence. The integral forms of Maxwells
equations illustrate well the underlying physical
significance while the differential, or point form, are
utilized more frequently in problem solving. I have
included a fifth equation the continuity equation
that is not normally represented as one of Maxwells
equations, however, the basic principle, significance
and relevance to the final form cannot be
overemphasized.

Table III: Maxwells Equations for Dynamic Electromagnetic Fields
Equation
Number
Differential
Form
Integral
Form
Comment
1.
v
D = V

. enc
v s
Q dv d D
v
s = =
}}} }}

Gausss Law; divergence finds the
source of the electric field vector
2.
0 = V B

0 =
}}
s
s d B

Gausss law for magnetic flux
density
3.
t
B
E
c
c
= V

}} }
=
s
s d B
dt
d
l d E
c

Faraday law
4.
t
D
J H
c
c
c
+ = V

s d
t
D
J l d H
s
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ =
}} }

Amperes law with Maxwells
correction for displacement current
5.
t
J
v
c
c
= V

( )
}}} }}} }}
= V =
v v s
dv
dt
d
dv J d J
v c
s

Conservation of charge or continuity
equation

TI ME HARMONI C FI ELDS
A time harmonic field is one that varies periodically
or in a sinusoidal manner with time. As in the case of
general AC circuit analysis, the phasor representation
of a sinusoidal signal provides a convenient and
efficient method of signal representation. Consider a
vector field that is a function of position and time,
e.g.:
( ) t z y x A , , ,

The vector field ( ) t z y x A , , ,
, may be conveniently
written as:
( ) ( )
t j
e A t z y x A
e
~
Re , , , =

Using the phasor notation, the differential and
integral forms of Maxwells equations for the time
harmonic case may be written as illustrated in Table
IV.

Table IV Maxwells Equations for Time Harmonic Fields
Differential Form for Time Harmonic Fields Integral Form for Time Harmonic Fields

E j J H
H j E
B
D
c
v
~ ~ ~
~ ~
0
~
~
ec
e
+ = V
= V
= V
= V

( )
}} }
}} }
}}
}}
+ =
=
=
=
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
d E j J l d H
d H j l d E
d B
Q d D
c
c
c
~ ~ ~
~ ~
0
~
~
ec
e

END OF PART 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges Dr. Tekamul
Bber for his diligent review and helpful suggestions
in the preparation of this tutorial, and Dr. Robert Egri
for suggesting several classic references on
electromagnetic theory and historical data pertaining
to the development of potential functions.
The tutorial content has been adapted from material
available from several excellent references (see list)
and other sources, the authors of which are gratefully
acknowledged. All errors of text or interpretation are
strictly my responsibility.

AUTHORS NOTE
This investigation began some years ago in an
informal way due to a perceived deficiency acquired
during my undergraduate study. At the conclusion of
a two semester course in electromagnetic fields and
waves, my comprehension of the material was vague
and not well integrated with other parts of the
electrical engineering curriculum. In retrospect, I was
unable to envision and correlate the relationship of
the EM course material with other standard course
work, e.g. circuit theory, synthesis, control and
communication systems. It was not until sometime
later that I realized the value of EM theory as the
basis for most electrical principles and phenomenon.
In addition to my mistaken belief of EM theory as an
abstraction, the profound contribution of Maxwell
and others of his period and later to the body of
scientific knowledge could hardly be acknowledged
and appreciated. Experimentation as demonstrated
by Ampere and Faraday advances the art; while
Maxwells intellect and proficiency in applied
mathematics and imagination, has yielded a unified
theory and initiated the scientific revolution of the
20
th
century.

REFERENCES
[1] Cheng, D. K., Fundamentals of Engineering
Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 1993.
[2] Griffiths, D. J., Introduction to
Electrodynamics
, 3
rd
ed., Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.
[3] Ulaby, F. T., Fundamentals of Applied
Electromagnetics, 1999 ed., Prentice Hall,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey, 1999.
[4] Kraus, J. D., Electromagnetics, 4
th
ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
[5] Sadiku, M. N. O., Elements of
Electromagnetics, 3
rd
ed., Oxford University
Press, New York, 2001.
[6] Paul, C. R., Whites, K. W., and Nasar, S. A.,
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3
rd

ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998.
[7] Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. O., and Sands,
M., Lectures on Physics, vol. 2, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1964.
[8] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 1, unabridged 3
rd
ed., Dover
Publications, New York, 1991.
[9] Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism, Vol. 2, unabridged 3
rd
ed., Dover
[10] Harrington, R. F., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Engineering, Dover
[11] Schey, H. M., div grad curl and all that, 3
rd

ed., W. W. Norton & Co., New York, 1997.

Maxwells original Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism is available on-line:
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich
http://www.archive.org/details/electricandmag02maxwrich

Tutorial On Maxwell's Equations - Part 2

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TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM: TUTORIAL ON MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

REVISION 02 JANUARY 2013 Page 1 of 12

) and is directly proportional to the value of

Gausss law for magnetic flux density

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