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CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................1
Introduction to Membrane Technology.........................................................................................1
CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................4
Four Types of Membrane Filters ...................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................7
Membrane Materials, Modules and Systems.................................................................................7
CHAPTER 4...............................................................................................12
Ultrafiltration ................................................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 5...............................................................................................18
Reverse Osmosis ............................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 6...............................................................................................20
Factors Influencing Reverse Osmosis Performance...................................................................20
CHAPTER 7...............................................................................................23
Membrane Types and configuration............................................................................................23
CHAPTER 8...............................................................................................33
Components of Reverse osmosis unit...........................................................................................33
CHAPTER 9...............................................................................................39
RO Plant Operation.......................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 10.............................................................................................41
Chemical Cleaning.........................................................................................................................41
CHAPTER 11.............................................................................................50
Troubleshooting..............................................................................................................................50
Chapter 1
Introduction to Membrane Technology
Introduction
Membrane separation processes have been used for years, but they have not come to play an important role in producing potable water supplies until the past 10 years. RO (reverse osmosis) and ED (electrodialysis) are replacing phase change desalting technologies for supplying water to coastal and island communities all over the world. Nanofiltration is becoming an economical alternative to the traditional water softening processes. Tremendous improvements have been made in recent years and the utilization of membrane technology has dramatically increased in water treatment. Today membrane technology is used in wastewater treatment for water recycling. Table 1 .l lists several undesirable water contaminants, the conventional solutions for them, and corresponding membrane processes that can do the job. There are many variations on these conventional processes that could be included, but the ones listed are sufficient to illustrate that there are membrane process alternatives available to address most water problems.
What is a Membrane?
A membrane is a film. A semi-permeable membrane is a very thin film that allows some types of matter to pass through while leaving others behind. Some membranes are porous and separate materials based on size compared to the size of the pores. Others are dense films with no apparent pores that separate matter based on differences in diffusion rates through the membrane. Membranes are divided into indistinct classes based on the size of the materials they retain. MF membrane is very porous; it allows water, dissolved salts, colloidal materials, and particles that are smaller than the pores to pass through. On the other end of the spectrum, RO membrane is a dense film with no pores, only spaces in its polymeric structure that are large enough to allow water and other small, uncharged molecules to pass through.
Constituent of concern 1. Turbidity 2. Suspended Solids 3. Biological contamination 1. Colour Odour 2. Volatile organics 1. Hardness Sulphates 2. Manganese 3. Iron 4. Heavy Metals 1. Total Dissolved solids (TDS)
Conventional process Coagulation /flocculation/settling Media Filtration Disinfection Activated carbon Chlorine +Media filtration Aeration Lime softening or Ion Exchange Ion Exchange Oxidation and filtration Same as above and ion exchange Coagulation/flocculation Distillation
Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration
Reverse Osmosis
2. Nitrate Ion Exchange (Report no 29 from US Bureau of Reclamation technical service center) There are three primary mechanisms for the separation and transport of water and solutes across a membrane: sieving, convection, and solution diffusion.
Transverse flow operation is used with tubular membranes configured such that the feed stream flows past them at right angles. The product stream permeates to the interior of the tubes. The higher turbulence across the membrane in this configuration enhances filter cake disruption and thereby maintains a higher productivity rate than cross flow or dead-end filtration operated under equivalent conditions.
Chapter 2
Four Types of Membrane Filters
Introduction
Membrane processes used today for water and wastewater include both pressuredriven processes and electrically driven processes. Pressure driven processes includes microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Electrically driven processes include electrodylasis reversal and electrodeionization. Each of these technologies utilizes a membrane barrier that allows the passage of water but removes contaminants. These membrane systems are available in different physical configuration that include spiral wound (consisting of flat sheet membrane material wrapped around a central collection tube), hollow fiber (consisting of hollow fiber material), Tubular and ceramic. Apart from the configuration, there are other factors, which may vary, in different classes of filtration. They are 1. Membrane material 2. Hydraulic mode of operation 3. Operational driving forces (i.e. pressure or vacuum).
Microfiltration
Microfiltration is basically filtration through a coherent medium with a nominal pore size range from slightly below 0.1 m to slightly above 1m size. The size mentioned above is for the pore size of the membrane media and not of any cake that gets accumulated on the medium. Thus, in terms of pore size, microfiltration fills in the gap between ultrafiltration and granular media filtration. Membranes for microfiltration, as defined above, have been available and in use for decades. The 0.45-micron membranes used for silt density index measurements are microfiltration membranes.
Microfiltration is used to remove particles, bacteria, and colloids from feed streams in water treatment systems. Ion exchange resins, ultrafilters, and RO membranes are all susceptible to fouling by microorganisms and colloids in the feed. Even after ion exchange, feed water to RO membranes must be filtered with a microfilter to remove fine resin particles. Micro filtration removes particles in the range of approximately 0.1-Micron to 1 micron. In Microfiltration suspended particles and large colloidal particles are rejected while macromolecules and dissolved solids pass through the MF membranes.
Ultrafiltration
Ultra filtration is midway between MF and NF. The method of separation is same as in MF that is by sieving. UF retains much smaller particles than MF like macromolecules like colloidal silica protein etc but allows dissolved solids to pass through. For UF, pore sizes generally range from 0.01 0.05 m (nominally 0.01m) or less, decreasing to an extent at which the concept of a discernable pore becomes inappropriate, a point at which some discrete macromolecules can be retained by the membrane material. In terms of a pore size, the lower cutoff for a UF membrane is approximately 0.005 m. UF membranes are more commonly classified based on molecular cut off (MWCO) because of their ability to retain large organic macromolecule.
Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration refers to specialty membrane process which rejects particles in the approximate size range of 1 nanometer (10 Angstrom) and hence the term Nanofiltration. NF operates in the realm between UF and reverse Osmosis. Organic molecules with molecular weights greater than 200-to 400 are rejected also dissolved solids are rejected in the range of 20 to 98 %. Salts which have monovalent anions have rejection of 20 to 80 % (for example Calcium Chloride and Sodium Chloride) whereas salts which have divalent anion have rejection rate of almost 98 %(example Magnesium sulphate).
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis is the finest level of filtration available. The RO membrane acts as barrier to all dissolved salts and inorganic molecule as well as well organic molecules with molecular weight greater than 100.Water molecules pass freely through the membrane. Rejection of Dissolved salts is typically 95 to 99 %.
Chapter 3
Membrane Materials, Modules and Systems
Introduction
There are variety of membrane materials and modules and associated system that are utilized by various classes of membrane filtration. All membrane filtration technologies utilize a membrane barrier that allows passage of water but removes contaminants. These membranes may is either made of some organic material or may be some material like zircon or ceramic. The membrane media is generally manufactured as flat sheets or as hollow fibers and then configured into membrane modules, Though not a rule but it is common to see that most MF/UF employ hollow fiber module and NF/RO use spiral wound membrane.
manufactured from Cellulose acetate (CA), polyvinyl fluoride (PVDF), Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polypropylene (PP), polysulfone (PS) and other polymers like polyethersulfone (PES). The choice of these materials will depend upon the intended use because each of them has different properties. NF /RO are generally manufactured from cellulose acetate or polyamide membrane.
Membrane Modules
Membranes are generally manufactured as flat sheet or as hollow fiber and then configured into one of several different types of membrane modules. Membranes can be made from many different materials and can be formed into a wide variety of configurations. The most common are depth filters, plate and frame, spiral wound, pleated, tubular, and hollow fiber. No configuration is better under all circumstances; there are advantages and disadvantages inherent in each of them. One must select the best for a particular situation. Depth filters are used in MF to trap coarser particles. They are dense, thick walled cylinders made from spun polymer strands. They are formed such that the outside has a more open structure than the inside so that as water passes from the outside in, larger particles are trapped first.
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Depth filters are dense, thick walled cylinders made from spun polymer strands and so formed that the outside has more open structure for trapping the coarser particle from water as it passes from outside in. They are basically used in microfiltration for trapping coarser particles.
2.
The plate and frame configuration is less widely used in water treatment. It finds wider application in food industries. It is also used in electrodialysis (an electrical driven ion exchange membrane process). It is also used in high solids content micro- and ultra-filtration because the units can be taken apart and cleaned very thoroughly.
3. The spiral wound configuration, which is used in the whole range of filtration processes, provides a greater surface area per module than pleated or tubular configurations in the same processes, but is much more difficult to clean.
4.
Tubular and hollow fiber membranes are made from a variety of materials as mentioned above They are designed for cross-flow filtration. The pressure
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vessels are similar for tubular and hollow fiber membranes as those used for cross flow pleated cartridges but they operate in reverse direction With tubular and hollow fiber membranes, feed water flows from inside the membrane tube or fiber and is filtered to the outside. The port on the side of the module is the permeate port and the reject comes out the end. Tubular configurations can be used for MF, UF, and sometimes NF membranes. They are easy to clean but have a low surface area to volume ratio. Tubular configurations are used for high flow /high solids content feed streams.
Flux: -Membrane filtration system throughput is typically characterized by the system flux, which is defined as the filtrate flow per unit of membrane filtration area, as shown in drawing. Feed-and-Bleed Mode a term used to describe a variation of the suspension mode hydraulic configuration of membrane filtration systems in which a portion of the crossflow stream is wasted (i.e., bled) rather than recirculated Hydrophilic the water attracting property of membrane material Hydrophobic the water repelling property of membrane material
Membrane units can be 1 ft by 1 ft or 1 meter by 1 meter and the flow can be in gallon per day or M3/day
Recovery: - The recovery of membrane unit is defined as the amount of feed flow that is converted to filtrate flow, generally expressed in percent The recovery as defined in most cases does not account for the use of filtrate for routine maintenance purpose such as chemical cleaning and backwashing. General flow balance for all Membrane filtration: - A general flow balance can be written which is applicable to all membrane filtration. Qf = Qc+Qp Transmembrane Process: - Membrane filtration like MF, UF and MCF require a driving forces to transport water molecules across the membrane barrier. This is the pressure gradient across the membrane, or the TMP. TMP is defined by the pressure on the feed side of the membrane minus the filtrate pressure, commonly called the backpressure. TMP = Pf -Pp
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Where Pf = Feed Pressure and Pp = Filtrate pressure. Fouling - Interaction between substances in the feed and the membrane that reduces flux. Permeate- Solution that permeates (passes through the membrane. Also called filtrate or product water. Plugging - It means accumulation of particulates in the membrane passages that restrict flow. Retenate/concentrate: - Residual solution containing the concentrated contaminants
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Chapter 4
Ultrafiltration
Introduction
Ultrafiltration is a pressure-driven process, which uses semi-permeable synthetic membranes to separate certain chemicals and materials from water. Various membrane configurations are available. Some are fibers or tubes with the active membrane being found on the inside, while others are flat sheets, which can be stacked in frames or rolled into a spiral configuration. They all function by a similar mechanism.
How it works
Membrane separation technology is based upon molecular size. The semi permeable membrane in an ultrafiltration system has pore sizes in the range of 0.0025 to 0.01 microns. The pores at the membrane surface are so small that they will allow only water and small dissolved chemical to pass through, while stopping bigger molecules and particles. Due to very small pore size, the water will flow through the membrane only b applying pressure. Generally in most cases a minimum of approximately one kg /cm2 (15 psi) at least is required. Pressure is applied to one side of the membrane so that water and low molecular weight compounds in the waste stream flow through the pores as permeate, while the larger molecules and suspended solids flow across the membrane and become part of the concentrate. In an ultrafiltration system, water flows parallel to the membrane surface, as compared to the perpendicular flow of ordinary filtration. The cross flow motion of the water within an ultrafiltration system allows high filtration rates to be maintained continuously, whereas the constant build up of solids along the filter surface can cause blockage in an ordinary perpendicular filtration system. A phenomenon of ultrafiltration is known as concentration polarization. This is a buildup of chemical contaminants at the membrane surface as the water filters
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through to the other side. The condition is not permanent and can be removed by flushing the membrane with either more dilute feed or with clean water, or permeate
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Cross-Flow UF
During the filtration cycle, exactly the same quantity of raw water is fed through a preliminary filter into the closed loop, as of permeate and bleed leaving the plant. With the aid of the cross-flow pump and reject pressure valve, the membrane cross-flow and feed pressure gradient for the UF module is adjusted. To prevent the concentration of retained water constituents becoming too high during the filtration process, part of the retained substance flow is bled off from the loop. The permeate is either passed into the permeate tank or leaves the system as product. At the end of the filtration cycle, backwashing takes place. This can be carried out either as conventional backwashing (permeate only) or chemical backwashing (permeate and backwashing chemical).
With the backwash pump, permeate is forced through the UF module in the reverse filtration direction at twice to three times the transmembrane pressure
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(TMP) and so removes the water constituents retained by the membrane. The concentrate thus produced is discharged as wastewater from the filtration unit.
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Maintaining Capacity
Regular flushing and chemical cleaning are essential for maintenance of capacity. New membrane may have very high flux initially but with colloidal feed water fluxes reduces rapidly. Automatic flush arrest the decline in membrane performance experienced on colloidal feed waters. Eventually the membrane performance levels of and the plant operate in equilibrium. During further operation there will overall decline in performance and this will indicate that chemical cleaning is required. Chemical Cleaning frequency can be once a week to once per three months depending on water quality.
Monitoring Parameters in UF
There are three purposes for instrumentation in UF treatment processes. These are to monitor: 1. Hydraulic performance, 2. Retention performance 3. General water quality. Hydraulic monitoring requires measurement of the feed and permeate pressure, feed, permeate, recycle and backwash flows, and temperature of the feed stream. Retention monitoring requirements depend on the source water and treatment objectives. Operators should be able to tell, with a glance at the monitoring instrumentation, whether the product water is within specifications or not. Surface water treated for drinking purposes should be monitored for turbidity and particle count of the feed and permeate. General water quality monitoring for UF includes conductivity, pH, and chlorine residual.
Equipment Maintenance
Ultrafiltration plants have number of components that should be routinely checked for correct operation and serviced as necessary. These include 1. Pressure regulators 2. Control Valves
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3. Pumps 4. Pressure Switches 5. Membranes. 6. General Maintenance like leaks, motor fuses blown out etc.
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Chapter 5
Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis
Osmosis is a process, which can be defined as a passage of liquid from weak solution to a more concentrated solution across a semipermeable membrane. The semipermeable membrane allows the passage of liquid (solvent) but does not allow solids (solutes) to pass through
Principle of Operation
In natural osmosis water in a dilute solution passes through a semipermeable membrane and into the more concentrated solution in an attempt to equalize the salt concentrations on both sides of the membrane. This process continues until an equilibrium is reached, (depicted in Figure 1) in which the difference in fluid head between the concentrated and the dilute solutions is equal to the osmotic pressure difference of the two solutions. Its magnitude is proportional to the amount of dissolved salts in the solutions and to the temperature of the solutions.
Reverse Osmosis
If the osmotic pressure is overcome by applying an external force to the concentrated solution (depicted in Figure 2), the natural tendency of the water to flow from the dilute solution to the concentrated solution is overcome. Thus, pure water as well as any dissolved gases it may contain are forced out of the concentrated solution through the semipermeable membrane, while the salts or dissolved solids are held back. This is called Reverse osmosis. (RO)
Mineral Rejection
The purpose of demineralization is to separate minerals from water. The ability of membrane to reject mineral is called mineral rejection.
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Recovery
Recovery is defined as the percentage of feed flow that is recovered as product water.
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Chapter 6
Factors Influencing Reverse Osmosis Performance
Introduction
We all know that the performance of any membrane depends on the composition of feed water but given a standard feed water, performance varies with pressure, water temperature, level of water recovery, and the oxidation potential of the feed water. Pressure, temperature and recovery are parameters that are factors of feed water composition. Oxidation potential off feed water can effect the material of the membrane and hence the kind of pretreatment required will also depend upon the oxidant potential of feed water. Assuming that chlorine is used an oxidant, dechlorination either by chemical or by granular activated carbon filter is a must. The above factors greatly influence the permeate flux and salt rejection which are the key performance parameters of a reverse osmosis process. They are mainly influenced by variable parameters, which are as follows: 1. Pressure 2. Temperature 3. Recovery 4. Feed water salt concentration Pressure Refer to the equation for water flux Fw = A (p-) Where Fw = water flux in gram / sq. cm /sec A= water permeability constant in gm/sq. cm sec atm5 p = pressure differential applied across the membrane atm = Osmotic differential applied across the membrane atm The equation above shows that the water flux is directly proportional to the applied pressure. Increasing the feed pressure reduces the permeate TDS and increases the permeate flux. As feed water is forced at greater velocity at higher pressure more foulants in the feed stream interact at the membrane surface.
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Increasing the pressure could also lead to scaling because the salts, which remain on the membrane surface, increase the local osmotic pressure. Ions diffuse away when the surface pressure exceeds the main stream osmotic pressure. Salts have to become more concentrated for diffusion to take place at higher osmotic pressure. This can lead to precipitation of slightly soluble salts. Temperature Water passes through the membrane with lower applied pressure at higher temperature than is required at lower temperatures. This is because the viscosity of water increases with decreasing temperature, larger TMPs (by application of increased pressure or vacuum) are required to maintain constant flux. If the temperature increases and all other parameters are kept constant, the permeate flux and the salt passage will increase. Temperature also impacts energy consumption in RO feed pumps, since temperature influences flux and flux as an impact on NDP
Recovery
The recovery is defined as the percentage of feed flow that is recovered as the product water. Mathematically Recovery =(Product flow /Feed Flow) *100 Two parameters, which determine Recovery is product water (Permeate) quality and the solubility limits of minerals in the brine. The first can happen because of exceeding product quality criteria with excessive recovery. The second is due to concentration polarization. Concentration polarization means concentration of brine to a degree where minerals get precipitated on membrane surface. Due to concentration polarization there is a tendency for sparingly soluble salts to precipitate and also for deposition of particulate matter. Effect of pH The pH of the feed water can affect the membrane structure and the scale formation potential of the concentrate stream. CA membranes are pH sensitive and operate under a very narrow pH range of 4-6. Infact there are some CA membranes, which operate at a pH range of 5.5 to 6. If exposed to a pH outside this range, hydrolysis occurs. Hydrolysis results in a lessening of mineral
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rejection capability. Thin film composite membranes generally have a much broader operational pH range, some as large as 2 to 11. The pH of the feed water may need adjustment to control scaling of the concentrate conveyance system. For example, silica solubility increases dramatically above pH 7.7, and at higher temperatures. A silica-scaling problem could be controlled by either raising the pH or the temperature of the feed water. Calcium carbonate, on the other hand, is more soluble at low temperatures and at a pH less than 8.0. Lowering the pH, temperature or adding anti-scalants can relieve a carbonate-scaling problem. However, if the concentrate is saturated in both silica and carbonate, changes in temperature or pH can cause one or the other to precipitate. Care must be taken to find the best condition to prevent scaling. Oxidants Oxidants like chlorine and ozone are added to water to control microbiological growth and to improve taste and odor. These oxidants can affect membrane. Chlorine is the most widely used oxidant but ozone and UV are also being used. Most membranes used in RO application are sensitive to oxidant. CA membranes are more tolerant to chlorine compared to other membranes. Irrespective of the type of membrane used some method of biological treatment is still needed. Chlorine is added to water supplies to control biological growth, to improve taste and odor, to remove iron and manganese, and to speed the decomposition of vegetable and animal matter. CA membranes are also biodegradable and it is advisable to have feed water chlorine held between 0.2 ppm to 0.5 ppm (Reverse Osmosis by Zahid Amjad). CA membranes are also temperature sensitive and hence at higher temperature chlorine and bacteria becomes more aggressive. This limits the use of CA membrane. Non-cellulosic thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to oxidation; yet some method of biological treatment is still needed. Systems that use chlorine with thin film composite membranes require dechlorination just ahead of the RO unit.
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Chapter 7
Membrane Types and configuration
Types of Membrane
Increased use of Reverse Osmosis process and other membrane process has led to development of variety of membranes. Membranes most widely used in water treatment are: 1. Cellulose Acetate or CA membrane 2. Polyamide membrane or PA membrane 3. Thin film composite membrane or TFC membrane
brackish water but not with seawater due to compressibility of membrane at high pressure. Its use is also limited for the following reason: 1. Works under a narrow pH range. 2. Temperature sensitive 3. Performance limitation
suspended solids, then dechlorination must be complete if polyaromatic amide membranes are used.
Configuration of membrane
Major configurations of membranes are: 1. Spiral wound 2. Hollow fiber 3. Tubular frame 4. Plate & Frame
Spiral Wound
In spiral wound configuration are assembled from flat sheet polymer Membrane and spacers are wound around the permeate collection tube to produce flow channels for permeate and feed water. These are the most commonly used in Industrial application. The advantages of this configuration are: 1. Simpler plumbing system 2. Easier maintenance 3. Greater design freedom 4. Less prone to fouling 5. Can withstand higher level of pre-treatment upsets.
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Spiral wound elements are constructed from flat sheet membranes. The "spiralwound" element is wound around a central permeate collection tube and separated by thin spacer materials. The membrane material may be either made of cellulose acetate (CA) or of composite membrane (TFC). In CA membrane the two different layers are of the same polymer and is referred to as asymmetric. In case of composite membrane the two layers are completely different polymers, with the porous substrate often being polysulphone. One of the advantages of spiral wound membrane is that the design yields a high membrane packing density. Specific packing density depends on the size of spacer material used. Spacer thickness can be adjusted depending on the application. In the spiral wound design a flat membrane envelope is formed closed on the three sides with a supporting grid inside. This is the central permeate tube. The open side is sealed to the tube Each leave consists of two membrane sheets placed back to back and seperated by a fabric spacer called permeate carrier. A single spiral-wound module 8 inches in diameter may contain up to approximately 20 leaves, each separated by a layer of plastic mesh called a spacer that serves as the feed water channel. The leaves are rolled spirally around the product tube. Each end of the unit is finished with a plastic molding called an Anti-telescopic Device Feedwater flows axially through the spiral over the membrane surface, which is roughly a path parallel to the central tube. A portion of feed water permeates through the membrane envelope in a spiral path and enters the central tube via the perforation leaving behind any dissolved and particulate contaminants that are rejected by the semi-permeable membrane. There are two flows one which is the filtered water which permeates and collected from the permeate port. This is known as the permeate or product water. The other, which does not permeate through the membrane layer, continues to flow across the membrane surface, becoming increasingly concentrated in rejected contaminants and is called the reject and is removed from the reject port. Recovery is a function of the feed-brine path length. In order to operate at acceptable recoveries, spiral systems are usually staged with three to seven)
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membrane elements connected in series in a pressure tube (or housing). The brine stream from the first element becomes the feed to the following element, and so on for each element within the pressure tube. The brine stream from the last element exits the pressure tube to waste or to feed another tube. Permeate from each element enters the permeate collector tube and exits the tube as a common permeate stream.
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Tubular Membrane
Tubular membranes are inserted into or coated onto the inside surface of a porous tube and are designed to withstand the operating pressure. Diameter of tube may vary depending on the application. At times it may also differ depending on the manufacture. One of the biggest advantages of this is that the device can be used with many different membrane types and provides opportunity for repairing the membrane, which becomes an advantage in many applications. Feed water enters the end of the tube permeates through the membrane and is collected and discharged through a concentrator concentrated reject water leaves through the end of porous tube.
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surface area to volume ratio and hence considered in sufficient and is therefore seldom used in water treatment
RO Plant Layout
Most RO systems use Spiral wound membrane. The incoming water after proper pretreatment is pumped into the membrane system. The spiral wound membranes are loaded into pressure vessel, which is made of stainless steel, or fiber reinforced plastic. A standard pressure vessel can hold six to seven elements but to accommodate other number of elements they are custom manufactured. The elements are arranged in series in a pressure vessel such that the concentrate from each preceding element represents the feed water for next. A brine seal around the outside of the feed end of each element separates the feedwater from the concentrate and prevents feed water from bypassing the membrane element. For a single RO/NF element the recovery is generally considered to be less than 15 % and recovery for six elements is generally taken to be 15 %. In one of the manual called Desalting process by bureau of reclamation typical recoveries given are Maximum Maximum recovery per stage recovery per stage (for standard (for low) pressure pressure) 4 40 35 5 50 45 6 55 50 7 60 60 8 75 N/A A diagram of typical of typical pressure vessel containing spiral wound modules is shown. No of elements per vessel
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Feed spacer This is the material inserted between neighboring membrane surfaces to create the best possible flow conditions over the membrane.
Product Staging
Product staging is true series operation of two or more reverse osmosis membrane systems. In permeate staging configuration the permeate from a stage becomes the feed water for the subsequent stage. In most cases the second stage always requires its own pressurizing pump, taking suction from storage tank of the first stage reverse osmosis system. Though this configuration is mostly used in Industries it is and can also be used in drinking water when the salinity is high.
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Reject staging.
Reject staging is used when the low salinity of the raw water permits a high water-recovery ratio. Most membrane module manufacturers have a minimum allowable brine reject flow for any given membrane of their manufacture. The manufacturer's recommended maximum feed water flow rate and minimum recommended brine reject flow can be used to calculate a maximum recommended single stage recovery fraction by use of the following equation: F B/ F =R Where: F = Maximum recommended feed flow per module B = Minimum recommended brine reject flow per module R = Maximum recommended recovery rate This maximum single stage water recovery is one means of evaluating a membrane module being considered for Ro desalination of low salinity. When the reject stream is still diluted enough for further concentration after the maximum recommended recovery ratio is reached, the brine can be piped directly into another membrane module for further water recovery. This is accomplished by combining the brine flow from a number of first stage modules onto a fewer number of secondary membrane modules. It is occasionally possible to further concentrate the brine on a third reject stage
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P ro d u c t s ta g in g
R e je c t s ta g in g
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Chapter 8
Components of Reverse osmosis unit
Reverse osmosis unit comprises of following components. The schematic is shown below. The unit includes the following components. 1. Pressurization pump 2. Piping 3. Concentrate control valve 4. Sample valve 5. Flush connection 6. Cleaning connection 7. Permeate rinse valve 8. Permeate draw back tank 9. Energy recovery device 10. Membrane
Pressurization pump
The pressure required for RO unit can range from 100 psi to about 1200 psi The feed pump used for pressurizing feed water is called the pressurizing pump and is
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either a centrifugal pump or a positive displacement pump. Centrifugal pumps are used for lower pressure. Positive displacement pumps are preferred for higher pressure. For seawater desalination it is the preferred pump. The output of centrifugal pump may be throttled by use of throttling valve. This is often done for new system or after membrane cleaning. The output of positive displacement pump is not throttled. The pump discharge line should contain a pressure relief mechanism.
Piping
Choice of piping material is generally based on the salinity of water. For seawater desalination high-grade stainless steel is used for high-pressure lines.
Brackish water use 304 or 316 SS and low pressure plant (House old RO) use PVC piping.
RO Array
The array structure is determined during the design process by the hydraulics of the system. The most common arrangement has six membranes in each pressure vessel. This arrangement recovers as permeate 50% of the water fed to it. For a 75% recovery, two stages are required. When using two stages, 50% of the feed is recovered in the first stage. The remaining 25% is recovered by the second stage, as it yields a 50% recovery on the concentrate from the first stage. The largest number of stages normally used is a three-stage unit. If pressure vessels with fewer than six elements are used the recovery per stage is decreased
Valves
Various valves are used in RO. The major valves are
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1. Pump inlet
2.
3. Product outlet 4. Reject outlet 5. System flush inlet & outlet 6. Stage isolators 7. Cleaning connection 8. Permeate rinse 9. Sample valves
Sample Valve
Sample valve is located on feed, permeate and concentrate line. It is so located that sampling is possible during all mode of operation like servicing, flushing or cleaning.
Cleaning connection
All units should have cleaning connections for each bank of permeators or pressure vessels connected in parallel, isolation valves for each bank would allow for one bank to soak while the upstream or downstream bank is cleaned.
Permeate Rinse
Provision for sending the permeate from one bank or unit proves useful when troubleshooting. Some process require that permeate achieve quality by rinsing after shutdown period Irrespective of the type of membrane employed, the basic building block from which an RO Plant is constructed consists of a high-pressure pump and a, membrane module or permeator and the other components mentioned above. However, in order to obtain a reliable flow and quality of product, other components are required. These include the following items, some of which are optional depending on the feedwater quality.
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Pressure Control
In order to maintain the required pressure to make the RO unit work (usually in the order of 400 psi), a pressure control valve is required on the brine concentrate line. And in order to prevent an unexpected increase in product pressure if the membrane should rupture, a relief valve is required on the product line. Additional Instrumentation In order to properly monitor and control the routine operation of an RO Plant, the following additional instrumentation is preferred: 1. Pressure indicators for the inlet and outlet of the prefilter, the discharge of the high pressure pump, the brine concentrate and the product lines; 2. Temperature indicator for the high pressure pump inlet; 3. Flow meters with adjusting valves in the brine and product lines to control their relative flow rates, thus the design recovery ratio; 4. Conductivity probe pH probe, monitors, and recorder for the product line; 5. Grab sample points throughout the pretreatment system, in the brine concentrate line, and in the product line 6. Level control in the product storage tank to trip the high-pressure pump on high level.
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Chapter 9
RO Plant Operation
Introduction
After the water has been properly pretreated and desired quality of water is obtained it is fed to the membrane through high-pressure pump Feedwater to the RO system is first pumped through a fine filter. This is a replaceable cartridge element filter nominally rated at 5-10 microns. The purpose of this filter is to remove any turbidity and particulate matter from feed water before it enters the RO system and is not meant for routine filtration. The filtered raw water than flows to high pressure pump, which feeds the water at a pressure of 400 psi through the RO membrane unit. Valves and pressure gauges between the cartridge filter, the high-pressure pump and membrane modules control the flow. The RO system consists of stages. The raw water is pumped through the first stage, which contains twice the number of membrane modules as the second stage. The first stage purifies 50% of purified water fed to the system and rejects the remaining 50% that contain all the impurities. The reject from the first stage is then passed through the second stage, which again purifies 50 % and rejects 50 %. The reject of the second stage now contains all the impurities removed by both stages. Thus the total flow through the system is 75% purified water and 25% reject water. The RO system removes 90 to 95% of dissolved solids in the raw water. The exact percent of product purity, product recovery and reject water depends on the amount of TDS in feedwater, temperature and on maintenance.
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element. It should be replaced whenever the headloss exceeds the recommended specification or if the effluent turbidity exceeds 1NTU. 2. Start and check the scale inhibitor feeder equipment and adjust feed rate to desired dose (2 to 5mg/L) 3. Remember that if scale inhibitor is not added membrane can get scaled because of calcium salts and other inorganic. Inhibitor commonly employed is Sodium hexameta phosphate (SHMP). 4. Add chlorine. The dose rate is so adjusted that the chlorine residual is between 1 to 2. For small plants chlorine is dosed through metering pump but in large plant gas chlorinators are used. 5. Depending on the type of membrane and the recommendation adjust the pH to desired level and bypass the feedwater till pH is adjusted. The acid dosing pump should stop when the high-pressure pump stops. In most RO plants acid dosing start and stop is directly linked to High-pressure pump. 6. Check the suction pressure. The high-pressure pump should not start till the desired pressure is reached. Low pressure tripping is generally included in all RO plants. 7. RO pump should trip if the discharge pressure is higher than recommended. High-pressure switch is provided for tripping for protecting the membranes. 8. Adjust permeate and concentrate flow to establish the desired recovery rate.
9.
Check the following after the desired flow rates have been achieved. Check the differential pressure (p) = Feed pressure concentrate pressure. This should be noted. Bigger plants have recorder, which records this continuously. Increase in p indicates that the system requires cleaning. p should not increase more than 414 kpa or 4.1 kg / Sq cm
10. With the system online monitor all flows, pressure, level and the quality of water being produced. 11. It is very necessary and also proves very useful if pretreatment is monitored and records maintained. More problems in RO membranes are caused by faulty pretreatment.
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Chapter 10
Chemical Cleaning
Introduction
Reverse osmosis (RO) is now an well-accepted unit operation in water treatment. One of the major drawbacks of RO system is that the membrane can foul with the contaminants being removed from feed water. Membrane fouling can result from the formation of a fouling layer on the membrane surface, or from internal changes of the membrane material. Scaling is a form of fouling that occurs when dissolved species are concentrated in excess of their solubility limit The fouled membrane can cause reduction in flux rate and operating efficiency, leading to unscheduled shutdown, lost in production time, replacement of membrane and resulting in downtime and additional expense. The cleaning of fouled membrane should be as soon as possible or there is all possibility of membrane getting damaged beyond repair A number of pre-treatment methods are employed to reduce the fouling potential of a membrane treatment feedwater. These methods include various types of conventional filtration, disinfection and chemical treatment. Chemical agents can be added to slow the formation of precipitates. Acidification is used to prevent the formation of carbonates of low solubility, such as magnesium carbonate. An ion exchanger is sometimes used to trade cations of low solubility salts for cations that are more soluble, for example, sodium sulfate may be traded for calcium sulfate. No matter which method is used, most RO treatment systems must be cleaned regularly.
Types of Foulant
A membrane treatment system can be fouled by virtually anything present in the water being fed to the unit. However, for common treatment systems, such as reverse osmosis (RO), the foulants may be generally categorized as 1. Inorganic fouling 2. Organic Fouling 3. Particulate Deposition or colloidal fouling 4. Biofouling
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Organic Compounds.
Organic compounds make up the next general category of foulants. Surface water sources, such as rivers and lakes, may contain naturally occurring organics, such as humic acids. Clarified water may contain leftover polymers, and wastewater may contain any number of organic compounds. The mechanism behind organic fouling depends upon the size and chemical nature of the specific foulant. Large molecular weight compounds may act more as particles and may plug the feed spacer in the membrane element. This plugging may be worsened if inorganic particles, such as clays and metal hydroxides, are also present. Low molecular weight organics may foul the surface of the membrane through chemical interaction. As an example, chlorinated phenols will adhere to the surface of an RO membrane by means of hydrogen bonding. In this situation, a small concentration of the chlorinated phenol in the feed water can cause a large loss of flux in the treatment system.
Colloidal fouling
Colloidal fouling of reverse osmosis elements can seriously impair performance by lowering productivity and sometimes-salt rejection. An early sign of colloidal fouling is often an increased pressure differential across the system. The source of silt or colloids in reverse osmosis feed waters is varied and often includes bacteria, clay, colloidal silica, and iron corrosion products. Pretreatment chemicals used in a clarifier such as alum, ferric chloride, or cationic polyelectrolytes can also cause colloidal fouling if not removed in the clarifier or through proper media filtration
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Cleaner Hydrochloric acid 0.5 % (WT) Citric Acid 2 % (Wt) and ammonium Hydroxide(pH 4.0) Phosphoric Acid 0.5 % (wt) Sodium Hydroxide pH(11-11.9) Trisodium sulphate or sodium tripoly Phosphate 1% (wt), Sodium salt of EDTA 1% and sodium Hydroxide pH(11.0-11.9) Sodium hydrosulphite 1%(wt) & Detergent Citric Acid 2.5% (wt) & ammonium bi fluoride 2.5% (wt)
Scale/Metal Oxides X X
Colloidal/Particulate
Biological
Organic
X X X X X
Membrane Cleaning
Clean membranes are critical for maintaining the efficient operation of RO System Chemical cleaning of membrane treatment systems is a complex because of various foulants. A contributing factor to its complexity is the complex nature of the fouling problem that initiated the cleaning in the first place. The best cleaning solution is found by trial and error but however this can be minimized by by a basic understanding of fouling problems and the general types of cleaning solutions used for these problems Each membrane manufacturer publishes specific instructions for cleaning and storing membranes when necessary. Cleaning and storage are critical operations that can extend or shorten the life of membranes.
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Cleaning Regimes
There are two basic types of cleaning regimes i.e. at low pH and high pH. Organic and biological films are best broken down with a high pH solution at the maximum temperature and pH limits for the membrane. Sodium hydroxide works well. Some suggest adding enzymes to help break down cellular matter, surfactants to help penetrate and dissolve the film, and a chelating agent to bind calcium ions. Calcium is an important component in extra-cellular polysaccharides (EPS, or extra-cellular polymeric slime) which are produced by well-established bacteria. EPS protects them from disinfectants and cleaning agents. Depleting the EPS of its calcium building blocks helps the cleaning solution penetrate the biofilm.
Equipment
The components of Clean in system (CIP) are 1. Mix tank or storage tank with some method of mixing (volume should be twice the capacity of the vessel or stage that is to be cleaned) 2. Pump with some method of flow control 3. Flexible plumbing connectors (to isolate stages or vessels) 4. Temperature control 5. Cartridge filter 6. Temperature/pH sensor (portable or hand-held model will do)
Preparation
1. Isolate the vessel or stage that is to be cleaned. 2. If pump does not have a variable speed drive, be sure that plumbing allows for flow bypass of pressure vessels so that flow can be controlled without increasing pressure to the membranes. 3. Make sure that the mixing tank is clean and that fresh cartridges have been installed in the filter. Also, make sure that the hoses or piping used to connect the cleaning equipment to the membrane system is clean. 4. Fill the mix tank with an adequate volume of RO product water, at least two times the volume of the piping and pressure vessel that is being cleaned. 5. Begin mixing and warming the RO product water with a heater or 100 percent bypass.
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6. The operator prepares the cleaning solution as per manufacturers instruction. Adjust pH as recommended by manufacturer. Adjust temperature to maximum possible limit as recommended by manufacturer. 7. Thoroughly mix the cleaning solution and adjust for proper pH and temperature. Allow enough time for the pH and the temperatures stabilize before starting the cleaning process. If you are using a commercial cleaning formulation, make sure to follow the manufacturers instructions.
Fill System
Introduce the cleaning solution into the vessel or stage at a low flow rate with the concentrate stream going to drain. To determine when the system is completely filled, monitor the pH of the concentrate and divert the concentrate stream back to the mix tank when it matches that of the cleaning solution.
Soak
Reduce flow to lowest possible level for the soak period. Soaking helps to dissolve stubborn films and precipitates. The membranes should soak for anywhere from one to fifteen hours, depending on the degree of fouling. It is important to control the temperature during long soaking periods. The cleaning solution should be kept at the optimum temperature. In most cases, this means keeping the temperature from rising too high; however, if the ambient temperature is low and the optimum temperature is high, heating may be necessary.
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High pH Cleaning
It is often possible to determine what has happened to a membrane system by noting changes in the NPF, AP, and rejection for each stage over time. Table 9.2 describes the symptoms of major types of fouling and which cleaning regime is called for. Generally, a decrease in NPF in the first stage means particulate fouling. Particulates could be mineral, vegetable, or animal in nature. Spiral wound and HFF membranes serve as excellent cartridge filters - most particulates are trapped in the first couple of elements. The cleaning strategy indicated for front end fouling of this sort is a high pH /high temperature regime.
Low pH Cleaning
Precipitative fouling, or scaling, occurs at the tail end of the system where the feed stream is at its highest concentration. Effects are a decrease in rejection and NPF and an increase in AP. A low temperature/low pH-cleaning regime is needed for scaling. Low temperature means normal operating temperature. Since calcium carbonate is less soluble at higher temperatures, it is best to use a low pH /low temperature cleaning solution first if more than one type of cleaning will be used.
Passive Cleaning
Passive cleaning is a milder form of cleaning that does not use chemicals or even a separate pump. If, say at 5 percent change in AP, NPF, or rejection, passive cleaning is performed, it may be possible to extend the time between chemical cleanings. The following are some procedures that can have a beneficial effect without avoiding the manufacturers warranty.
1. Turn off the system for an hour. Osmotic pressure will draw product water through the membrane to the concentrate side. This can help lift foulants off the surface. If live bacteria are present, stopping flow could encourage a growth spurt, so this method should be used only when disinfectants are present. 2. Reduce backpressure for a short time. Permeation rate should drop, and flow rates through the system should increase. This changes flow patterns through the system and can disrupt films that may be in process of taking root. It also
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washes away the high concentration layer right at the membrane surface and, in doing so, could slow the scaling process. 3. Perform a high flow, low pressure flush with product water. RO product water is very aggressive in dissolving precipitates. The change in flow pattern will also have the effect described above.
Membrane Storage
Membrane systems work best when they operate continuously. It is unavoidable to have occasional shutdowns, though. When a membrane system is to be down for a few days, flush the process water from the system and replace it with RO product water pumped into the system at low pressure. If the concentrated process water and pure product water are left in the membrane vessels, the difference in concentration across the membranes will cause osmotic flow from the product side to the concentrate side. This can be beneficial in lifting foulants from the membrane surface in small quantities, but too much back flow can destroy the glue lines. For thin film composite membranes, the storage water should be oxidant-free. Otherwise, the membranes will degrade over time. CA membranes should be stored in chlorinated water, though. While the danger of biological growth is the same for both types of membrane, damage from oxidation would be worse than biofouling for thin film composites.
Table 1
Cleaning Cycle Module diameter
Soaking Low flow Moderate flow High flow
Feed flow rate, L / min (gal/min) 64 mm 102 mm 203 mm (2.5) (4) (8)
2 (0.5) 10 (2.6) 15 (4) 20 (5) 3 (1) 19 (5) 30 (8) 38 (10) 15 (4) 75 (20) 100 (26) 150 (40)
Table 2
Impurity Soluble inorganic substances Causes Over saturation Presence of crystallizati on centers Effects Decrease In salt rejection in end stages Increase in pressure drop in end stages Decrease Normalized Permeate flow WF) Scale formation on membrane surface or In bulk w/subsequent deposition Formation of salt bridge facilitating Prevention Softening Acidification Use of chelating agents Remedy Low pH w/ chelate Normal operating temperature Soak cycle Physical methods: ultrasound, magnetic,
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Humic and fulvic acids natural to surface waters Lack of adequate pretreatment Over utilization Over utilization Inadequate sedimentati on period
protein Adsorption High concentration at membrane surface can cause denaturation of proteins which then are more of a fouling problem Formation of H bonds on contact w/ membrane Partial diffusion through membrane dependent on degree of branching
Ultrafiltration High pH Coagulation High Sedimentation temperature High flow rate Detergent
Colloid materials (water insoluble inorganic Compoun ds: silica, iron hydroxide s, etc.) Biological materials (bacteria, algae, Fungi, etc)
Gel formation on membrane surface Decrease in salt rejection Decrease in NPF Symptoms most likely to appear in last stage
Softening
Same as Colloids
Inadequate pretreatment Inadequate flow through module dead spaces Hydrophobi c attraction between cell and membrane surfaces Production of extracellular
Decrease in NPF Initial increase in salt rejection Increase in pressure drop Symptoms most likely to appear in first stage Accumulation of byproducts of metabolism Eventual deterioration of the membrane resulting in a decrease in rejection Decrease in flow at
Pre filtration Use of surfactants during normal operation has been shown to prevent bacterial attachment Reduce recovery rate
Same as Colloids Use of enzymes has been shown to help loosen biofilm
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polymeric substances Cell fimbriae may help attach bacteria to molecular matrix of the membrane
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CHAPTER 11
Troubleshooting
Starting the RO unit
1. Any interlock provided to RO unit should be tested before the unit is put into operation 2. Ensure that all valves in the water supply line to RO are open. 3. Ensure that all pre RO devices have been flushed, tested, and are operating within their specification. 4. Turn the feedwater supply on gradually and check for leaks in the inlet plumbing. No flow should go through the RO membrane while the power is off and the solenoid valve is in closed position. 5. Open your concentrate and recycle flow control valves. Proper adjustment of these two valves is critical to the operation of RO Unit. The concentrate valve determines the amount of rejected water leaving the RO unit and creates operating pressure shown on pressure gauge. 6. With the power source to the motor starter de-energized, switch to on position. Water will begin to flow but the pump will not start. Check for leaks and repair if needed 7. Energize the power source to motor starter. The pump should not start at this point. 8. After the minimum suction pressure is built the high-pressure pump will start immediately switch off and check the direction of motor rotation. The motor should rotate clockwise while looking at the motor end. 9. If the motor is rotating in opposite direction change any two of the three leads Always Turn Power off When Changing wire 10. Initiate the start from the control panel 11. Once all condition like desired suction pressure, pH are met, the high pressure pump will start automatically. 12. Once the high-pressure pump starts the Permeate and Concentrate flow should be adjusted so as to establish the desired recovery rate. 13. Once the flow has been established check the delta P (P) across the RO unit. (P = feed pressure Concentrate pressure). When the elements get fouled P usually increases, thus indicating the need for cleaning. 14. Adjust the Concentrate valve to achieve desired flow and the recycle valve to bring the operating pressure upto 15. Once the desired flow rate is achieved at the operating pressure no further valve adjustment is required. 16. The system is now operational. 17. The Permeate and concentrate are allowed to flow to drain before the RO unit is taken to operation. 18. This will ensure that all the preservative has been removed from the membrane element.
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Troubleshooting RO Plant
Troubleshooting of any plant is carried when it performance does not meet the specification or when there has been abrupt change in its performance. Similarly RO plants also require troubleshooting if there is unacceptable change in quality and quantity of water produced. The following indicates that RO plants need troubleshooting. 1. Normalized production changes by 15 % 2. Normalized salt passage changes by 50% 3. Differential pressure changes by 15 %
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4. Increase in percent recovery of the system increases the reject TDS (This boosts permeate conductivity) 5. We had mentioned earlier that passage of salt is independent of passage of water through the membrane. Therefore if recovery is constant, a reduction in permeate flow results in a lower water flux, which will increase conductivity. RO operation can be done by examining operating logs and by normalizing the logged operating data. Normalizing helps in predicting system performance and also helps in scheduling the cleaning frequency. Normalization is the mathematical procedure for correcting actual production and salt rejection value to standard condition. Most membrane suppliers today have developed computer software for projecting Normalization. The program graphically charts normalized permeate flow, percent salt rejection and feed to reject pressure drop called corrected p.
Improper acid addition: More acid can lead to membrane damage and sulfate scaling if H2SO4 is used. Lower dosage can lead to metal oxide formation or carbonate scaling.
3. Improper scale inhibitor dosing- high dosing leads to fouling and low leads to scaling. 4. Higher than recommended dosing of coagulants and polymer can lead to membrane fouling.
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Once all the above problems Mechanical, chemical upset and water chemistry have been ruled out as the likely cause, the next step is to identify the foulants. This is done by studying the water analysis of feed, brine and product stream over a period of time, which will help in verifying if any extraordinary changes have taken place. This will help in identifying the problem and the likely foulant, which caused the problem.
Shutdown
Every time the RO shuts down or trips for any abnormal conditions, the unit automatically goes into the flushing mode. If the RO plant is run under manual condition, the RO must be flushed for 5 minutes with DI water before shutting down the system. If the unit is going to be shut down for long, carry out the recommended procedure of storing (see previous Chapter)
dosing pumps. The pH controller should be calibrated periodically and tripping of dosing pump to the set point should be O ring checked. Probing with plastic tube and by measuring how far it has been Brine valve inserted. Should not be closed fully.
Failure can lead to increase salt passage, increase permeate flow. Decrease pressure drop. If fully closed, 100% recovery will result and cause membrane damage due to precipitation of inorganic salt.
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