CHAPTER 1 : FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

1.1 Types of channel 1.2 Types of Flow 1.3 Geometric Characteristics of Channels

Introduction

Open Channel A conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface any flow path with a free surface, which means that the flow path is open to the atmosphere Open channel hydraulics The study of the physics of fluids flow in conveyances in which the following fluids forms a free surface and is driven by gravity

Free Surface

Essentially an interface between two fluids of different density

An interface between the moving liquid and overlying fluid medium and will have constant pressure In the case of atmosphere, the density of air is much lower than the density for liquid such as water. In addition the pressure is constant. In the case of flowing liquid, the motion is usually caused by gravitational effects and the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic (flows are almost turbulent and unaffected by surface tension).

1.1 : Types of Channel

There are 2 types of open channel; natural and artificial

Natural open channel are rivers, creeks and .... (have irregular cross section) All channels which have been developed by natural processes and have not been significant improved by humans

Artificial open channel (human construction) are flumes and canals. All channels which have been developed by human efforts Within the broad category of artificial, open channel are following subdivisions

Open channel

Open channel flow can be classified into many types and described in various way.
The types of flow encountered in open channel are classified with respect to time, space, viscosity, density and gravity.

Category of artificial open channel

Prismatic: A prismatic channel has both a constant cross-sectional shape and bottom slope. Channels which do not meet this criteria are termed non prismatic.
Canal: the term canal refer to a rather long channels may be either unlined or lined with concrete, cement, grass, wood, bituminous materials or artificial membrane.

Category of artificial open channel

Flume: In practice, the term refers to a channels built above the ground surface to convey a flow across a depression. Flumes are usually constructed of wood, metal, masonry or concrete. The term flumes is also applied to laboratory channels constructed for basic and applied research. Chute & Drop: A chute is a channel having a steep slope. A drop channel also has a steep slope but is much shorter than a chute.
Culvert: A culvert flowing only partially full is an open channel primarily used to convey a flow under highways, railroad embankments or runways.

Category of artificial open channel

Natural Open Channel

All natural channels generally have varying cross-sections and consequently are non prismatic. A nonprismatic channel varies in both the cross-sectional shape and bed slope between any two selected points along the channel length

1.2 : Types of flow

Primary criteria of classification

Variation of the depth of flow y in time, t and space, x. Time a flow can be classified as being: Steady - which implies that the depth and velocity do not change with time ( y/ t = 0) Unsteady - which implies that the depth and velocity vary with time ( y/ t 0) Space a flow can be classified as being: Uniform if the depth and velocity of flow do not vary with distance ( y/ x = 0) Non uniform (varied flow) - if the depth and velocity vary with distance ( y/ x 0) Rapidly varied the depth of flow changes rapidly over a relatively short distance such as is the case with hydraulic jump Gradually varied (GVF) the depth of flow changes rather slow with distance such as is the case of a reservoir behind the dam

Steady and Unsteady Flow

Depth, y

Steady Unsteady

Time, t

Cont : Steady-unsteady flows

The manner in which water moves through a open channel or stream can vary from simple to complex. Certain sections of the river often transition from one type of flow condition to another and back again.

The changes of flow pattern with respect to time and distance along the flow direction, it thus classified into few types.
To classify types of flow, two condition were examined: the uniformity of the flow within the stream and the steadiness of the flow over time. A steady flow is one in which the conditions of velocity, pressure, and cross-section may differ from point to point but do not change with time. If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described as unsteady. [v constant with time at any point]

Uniform and Non-uniform flows

If the flow velocity is assumed to have the same speed and direction at every point within the fluid, it is said to be uniform

[uniform flow v remain at the same speed and direction].

If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point, the flow is nonuniform

[two types of non-uniform flow : Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) and Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)].

Flow categories

For steady uniform flow, the depth is constant with both time and distance. This constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel in which the gravity forces and the resistance forces are balanced.

Steady non-uniform also called as steady varied flow. Depth varies with distance, but not with time. This type of flow may either be gradually varied or rapidly varied.

Cont : flow categories

Depth varies with both time and distance (very rare situation)

Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time at every point.

Flow classification

Laminar flow one in which the viscous forces are so large relative to the inertial forces that the flow is dominated by the viscous forces In such a flow, the fluid particles move along definite, smooth paths in a coherent fashion
Transitional flow One which can be classified as neither laminar nor turbulent. In open channel flow, the characteristic length commonly Turbulent flow The inertial forces are large relative to the viscous forces; hence, the inertial forces dominate the situation

Flow classification

Viscosity

Depending on the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces, a flow may be classified as laminar, transitional or turbulent The basis for this classification is a dimensionless parameter known as the Reynolds number Re= vL/ v = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity of flow L = characteristic length = kinematics viscosity = / = dynamic viscosity = density In open channel flow, the characteristic length commonly used is the hydraulic radius, R which is the ratio of the flow area, A to the wetted perimeter, P. Re < 2000 Laminar flow 2000 < Re <4000 Transitional flow 4000 < Re Turbulent flow

Density

Flow are classified as homogeneous or stratified on the basis of the variation of density within the flow.
Homogeneous All spatial dimensions the density of flow is constant Stratified The density of the flow varies in any direction

The absence of a density gradient in most natural open-channel flows demonstrates that either the velocity of flow is sufficient to completely mix the flow with respect to density or that the phenomena which tend to induce density gradients are unimportant.
The importance of density stratification is that when stable density stratification exists, i.e., density increase with depth or lighter fluid overlies heavier fluid, the effectiveness of turbulence as mixing mechanism is reduced.

Gravity

Depending on the magnitude of the ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces, a flow is classified as subcritical, critical or supercritical.
The parameter on which this classification is based is known as the Froude Number: v Fr gL Where;

v = a characteristic velocity of flow

L = a characteristic of length A = flow area

T = width of free surface

Flow states

If Fr = 1, the flow is in a critical state with the inertial and the gravitational forces in equilibrium. If Fr < 1, the flow is in a subcritical state and the gravitational forces are dominant. If Fr > 1, the flow is in supercritical state and the inertial forces are dominant. The denominator of the Froude number is the celerity of an elementary gravity wave in shallow water. Through theory of Mechanics of Wave; c = gy Where; c = celerity g = gravity y d = the depth of flow which is a value assumption if the channel is wide

With this observation, the following interpretation can be applied to the subcritical and supercritical of flow: When the flow is subcritical, F<1, the velocity of flow is less than the celerity of an elementary gravity wave. Therefore, such a wave can propagate upstream against the flow and upstream areas are in hydraulic communication with the downstream areas. When the flow is supercritical, F>1, the velocity of flow is greater than the celerity of an elementary gravity wave. Therefore, such a wave can propagate upstream against the flow and the upstream areas of the channel are not in hydraulic communication with the downstream areas.

1.3 : Geometric characteristic/Channel properties

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Geometric Characteristics of Channels

Velocity distribution

The measured velocity in open channels are always vary across a channel section because of friction along the boundary The velocity distribution is not symmetric (as in pipe) Flow may be either laminar or turbulent and determined by Reynolds Number Re<2000 = Laminar flow and Re>4000 = Turbulent flow
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Energy grade line for open channel

2.0 Uniform flow in open channel

Fundamental equations

Equations describing fluid flows can be derived from 3 fundamental laws of physics

Conservation of mass Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

Conservation of mass (continuity equation) : in incompressible flow system, mass must be constant, i.e : mass in = mass out, thus

A1v1
p1 g
F

A2v 2
v12 2g z2 p2 g
2 v2 2g

Consevation of energy (Bernuolli equation)

z1

energy head loss

Conservation of momentum (newton 2nd Law)

Q v2 v1

General Flow Equation

AV

Where; Q = discharge A = cross section area V = velocity

Continuity equations

2.0 Uniform flow in open channel

Inflow

3a Change in Storage 3b

Outflow
1 A 2
Section AA

Inflow Outflow = Change in Storage