6.

1 Dimensional Analysis
6.1.1 Fundamental Dimension, System of Units
and Hydraulics Variable
6.1.2 Method of Dimensional Analysis
6.2 Hydraulic Similarity
6.2.1 Types of Similarity
Geometric Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity

CHAPTER 6 : DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
& HYDRAULICS SIMILARITY
Learning outcomes
Able to apply and analyze the DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Rayleighs method
Buckinghams method
Hydraulic similarity
Geometric similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic similarity

6.1 : DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique making use of
study of dimensions.
This mathematical technique is used in research work for design and for
conducting model tests.
It deals with the dimensions of physical quantities involved in the
phenomenon. All physical quantities are measured by comparison, which
is made with respect to an arbitrary fixed value.
Types of Dimensions:
Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities
Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

6.1.1 Fundamental Dimension, System of Units and
Hydraulics Variable
Dimensionless analysis system involved qualitative and quantitative aspect.
Qualitative aspect ;
Serves to identify the nature, or type, of the characteristics (such as
length, time, stress and velocity)
Quantitative aspect;
provides a numerical measure of the characteristics (such as length,
time, stress and velocity)
Requires both a number and a standard by which various quantities can
be compared.
A standard (unit) for length might be a meter or foot, for time might be
an hour or second, and for mass a slug or kilogram.


The qualitative description is conveniently given in terms of certain primary
quantities, such as length (L), time (T), mass (M) and temperature ().
Primary quantities can be used to provide a secondary quantities, for
examples area =L2, velocity =MT-1 and density ML-3.
Alternatively, L, T, and F could also be used, where F is the basic
dimensions for force.
Newtons law states that force is equal to mass time acceleration, it follows
that F=MLT-2 or M=FL-1T2.
Secondary quantities expressed in terms of M can be expressed in term of
F. For example; stress, , is a force per unit area, so that = FL-2, but an
equivalent dimensional equation is = ML-1T-2.

Dimensions Associated with Common Physical Quantities
No. Quantity MLT FLT
1 Length, L L L
2 Area, A L
2
L
2
3 Volume, V L
3
L
3
4 Time , t T T
5 Velocity, v LT
-1
LT
-1
6 Acceleration, a LT
-2
LT
-2
7 Gravitational acceleration, g LT
-2
LT
-2
8 Frequency, N T
-1
T
-1

9 Discharge, Q L
3
T
-1
L
3
T
-1

10 Force, F or Weight, W MLT
-2
F
11 Power, P ML
2
T
-3
FLT
-1
Quantity MLT FLT
12 Work or Energy, E ML
2
T
-2
FL
13 Pressure, p ML
-1
T
-2
FL
-2

14 Mass, m M FT
2
L
-1

15 Mass density, ML
-3
FT
2
L
-4

16 Specific weight, w ML
-2
T
-2
FL
-3

17 Dynamic viscosity, ML
-1
T
-1
FTL
-2

18 Kinematic viscosity, v L
2
T
-1
L
2
T
-1

19 Surface Tension, MT
-2
FL
-1

20 Shear stress, ML
-1
T
-2
FL
-2

21 Bulk Modulus, K ML
-1
T
-2
FL
-2

Exercise :
What are the dimensions of the following variables?
Shear stress
Dynamic viscosity
Work
Modulus of elasticity
Power
The Basic principle is Dimensional Homogeneity, which means the dimensions
of each terms in an equation on both sides are equal.
So such an equation, in which dimensions of each term
on both sides of equation are same, is known as Dimensionally
Homogeneous equation. Such equations are independent of system of units.
For example; Lets consider the equation V=(2gH)1/2
Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT-1
Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)1/2=(L/T2xL)1/2=LT-1
Dimensions of LHS= Dimensions of RHS
So the equation V=(2gH)1/2 is dimensionally homogeneous equation.

Example MLT and FLT
Determine the dimensions of force, pressure, power, specific weight and
surface tension in MLT system
Determine the dimensions of discharge, torque and momentum FLT system

NON- DIMENSIONAL GROUP
Non-dimensional/dimensionless group can be defined as ratio of two same
quantities or a group of parameters that are not produce any dimension.
For example, main component of force that act on fluid element is
influenced by viscosity, gravity, pressure, surface tension and elasticity.
Combination of these force is named as inertia force.

Dimensionless Numbers
These are numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or
elastic force.
As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a
dimensionless number. These are also called non-dimensional parameters.
The following are most important dimensionless numbers.
1. Reynolds Number
2. Froudes Number
3. Eulers Number

Some common variables and Dimensionless
Groups
Reynolds Model Law
It is based on Reynolds number and states that
Reynolds number for model must be equal to the Reynolds number for
prototype.
Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous forces are dominant.
These problems include:
1. Pipe Flow
2. Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed
bodies etc.

Influence of viscosity
Inertia force/Viscous force








Reynolds number (Re)
2
2 3
2
. /
/
/
L L v
L v L
dyA dv
t
v
V
tA
ma

=
=
v
vL vL
= =
Froudes Model Law
It is based on Froudes number and states that Froudes number for model
must be equal to the Froudes number for prototype.
Froudes Model Law is used in problems where gravity forces is only
dominant to control flow in addition to inertia force. These
problems include:
Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc.
Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
Waves on surface of fluid
Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another

Influence of gravity
Inertia force/Gravitational force


Froude number (Fr)

g L
v L
mg
ma
3
2 2

= =
( ) ( )
m
p
r
m
p
r
r
r
m
p
m
p
m
m
p
p
m m
m
p p
p
m r p r
L
L
L
v
v
v
L
v
L
L
v
v
L
v
L
v
L g
v
L g
v
F F
= =
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
,
where
1
or or or
Froudes model Law
The various ratio for Reynolds Law are obtained as :
( )
2 7
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 5 2 2
m
p
r
r
: ratio power
: ratio force
: ratio discharge
1
a
a
a : ratio n accelratio
T : ratio time
: ratio velocity
since
r r r
r
r r
r
r r r
r
r r r r
r
r
r r r
r
r r r r r r r
r r r r r
m m
p p
r
r
r
r
r
m m
p p
r
r
r
m m
p p
m
p
r
m
p
m
p
r
m
m
p
p
L L L v L v v L v F P
v L v v L v Q a m F
L L L v L
v A
v A
Q
L
L
T
v
T v
T v
L
L
L
v L
v L
T
T
L
L
L
v
v
v
L
v
L
v


= = = = =
= = = =
= = = =
= = = = =
= = = =
= = =
=
Exercise :
Prove that under the influence of pressure, Euler number (Eu) is
dimensionless.
Prove that under the influence of surface tension, Weber number (We) is
dimensionless.
Prove that under the influence of elasticity, Mach number (Ma) is
dimensionless.
NON-DIMENSION ANALYSIS
Rayleigh s method
Buckingham Pi () Theorem

6.1.2 : Methods of Dimensional Analysis
Three methods available:
Rayleighs method
Buckinghams method
Hydraulic similarity

If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known,
then the relation among the variables can be determined by the following
two methods.


6.1.2(1) : Rayleighs method
It is used to relate variables or develop dimensionless groups when there is
a limited number of variables (generally five or six)
If the variables are more than four or five this method becomes difficult to
solve

STEPS
Write the functional relationship with the given data
Write the equation in terms of a constant with exponents a, b, c
Find out the values of a, b, c by obtaining simultaneous equation.
Substitute the values of these exponents in the main equation and simplify
it.


Example 1 :
Using the Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis, develop an equation
for the power delivered by a pump to lift a fluid of a specific weight with
a rate of Q to a static level of H

Solution:
From the MLT and FLT table:

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
c
b a
-
c b a
-
L T ML
H Q P
T ML P
QH
1 - 3 2 - 2 - 3 2
3 2
T L T ML
: write be can equation following the thus,
table; MLT/FLT from and
is Power

=
=
=
Cont.. Example 1
Fundamental equations are then written as:

( )
1
M
=
=
a
M
a
( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 2 2
thus,
) 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 2
1 3 2 2
L L
3 2 - 2
= + =
+ + =
+ + =
=
c
c
c b a
L L
c
b a
( ) ( )
1 2 3
thus,
1 ) 1 ( 2 3
1 2 3
T T
1 - 2 - 3
= =
=
=
=
b
b
b a
T
b a
-
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) | | QH P
H Q P
c b a


=
= : write be can
thus,
Example 2 :
Assuming that the distance (z) traveled by a freely falling body is a
function of time, the weight of the body and the acceleration due to
gravity, find the relation between z and other variables.

Solution: From the given information

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
c
b a
c b a
LT F T L
g W T z
2
: form l dimensiona in
: write be can equation following the thus,

=
=

Cont example 2
1
thus;
1
: as written are equations l fundamenta the
=
=
c
c L
( ) ( )
2
thus,
) 1 ( 2 0
2 1 0
0
: form l dimensiona in
2
=
=
=
=

a
a
c a
LT T
c
a
( )
0
1 0
0
=
=
=
b
b
F
b
6.1.2 (2) : Buckingham Pi () Theorem
Since Rayleighs Method becomes laborious if variables are more than
fundamental dimensions (MLT), so the difficulty is overcome by Buckinghams
Theorem which states that If there are n variables (Independent and
Dependent) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain m
fundamental dimensions then the variables are arranged into (n-m)
dimensionless terms which are called terms.
x1= f(x2 , x3, x4 , xn )
f1(x1, x2 ,x3, xn ) = 0
f (1, 2 ,3, n-m ) = 0
term can be expressed as
1 = x2a1 x3b1 x4c1
2 = x2a2 x3b2 x4c2
n-m = x2a(n-m) x3b(n-m) x4c(n-m)


Repeating variables

Geometrical variables length, diameter etc
Flow property velocity, acceleration etc
Fluid property density, viscosity etc
Steps
List all the variables that are involved in the problems.
Express each of the variables in terms of basic/primary dimension.
Determine the required number of -terms by k r where k is the number
of variables in the problem and r is the number of reference dimensions.
=n-m (MLT/FLT) (m=2 or 3(usually taken value))
Select a number of repeating variables, where the number required is
equal to the number of reference dimensions.
Form a -term by multiplying one of the non repeating variables by the
product of the repeating variables, each raised to an exponent that will
make the combination dimensionless.
Repeat step 5 for each of the remaining non repeating variables.
Check all the resulting -terms to make sure they are dimensionless.
Express the final form as a relationship among the -terms .
Exercise :
The pressure drop (p) in a pipe depends upon the mean velocity of
flow(v), length of pipe (l), diameter of pipe (d), viscosity of fluid (),
average height of roughness projections on the inside surface (k) mass
density of fluid (). By using Buckinghams - theorem, obtain a
dimensionless expression for p. Also show that hf = 4flv2/ 2gd
where the hf is due to friction (p/w) and w is the specific weight of the
fluid and f is the coefficient of friction
Buckingham-t method
Using the Buckingham-t method, derive an expression for the shear stress,
t, in fluid flowing in a pipe assuming that it is a function of the diameter, D
pipe roughness e, fluid density, , dynamic viscosity and fluid velocity v.

Solution:
Variables are : , t, D, e, , , v. (6 variables (n) contain M and F,
the m=3; thus repeating t =6-3).


6.2 : HYDRAULICS SIMILARITY
Hydraulics similarity or similitude is the science of study of the flow by
performing experiment over a model, which has been designed so that the
experimentation may be carried out on it in a laboratory, and the
performance of the prototype be predicted from the results obtained on
the model.
The actual prototype may be very big or small in size, or maybe using a
fluid that may be replaced by a more convenient fluid during the
experimentation.
This kind of study requires that the model and the flow pattern over it
should be exactly similar to that for the prototype. The two flow patterns
will be similar when these have geometric, kinematic, and dynamic
similarity.

6.2.1 : Type of Similarities
Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering Models and also
known as model studies
Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution of
hydraulic phenomenon.
Therefore experimental investigations are often performed on small scale
models, called model analysis.
A few examples, where models may be used are ships into
wing basins, air planes in wind tunnel, hydraulic
turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river channels etc and to stu
dy such phenomenon as the action of waves and tides on beaches, soil
erosion, and transportation of sediment etc.

Type of Similarities
Similitude:
Is defined as similarity between the model and prototype in every respect,
which mean model and prototype have similar properties or model and
prototype are completely similar.
Similarity between hydraulic model and prototype may be achieved in 3
basic forms.
1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity

6.2.1(1) : Geometric Similarity
Geometric similarity exists between a model and a prototype when the
linear dimension between a model and the prototype satisfy the
corresponding linear dimension ratio.
Mathematically,


where Lr = length ratio and L, b, D represent length, width
and depth. Lp=length of prototype and so on.

Same for ,

Lr
D
D
b
b
L
L
m
p
m
p
m
p
= = =
2
r
m
p
L
Area
Area
=
3
r
m
p
L
Volume
Volume
=
r
m
p
L
U
U
=
Example : Geometric Similarity
The ratio of the corresponding linear dimensions of a model and a
prototype are equal
Lr = Lp / Lm
where Lr = length ratio
Lp = length prototype
Lm = length model

6.2.1(2) : Kinematic Similarity
Kinematic similarities mean similarities of motion of fluid between a model
and prototype.
Mathematically,



where Vp1 and Vp2 are velocities in prototype and so on and Vr is
velocity ratio

Similarly, ar=acceleration ratio=


r
m
p
m
p
V
V
V
V
V
= =
2
2
1
1
r
m
p
m
p
a
a
a
a
a
= =
2
2
1
1
Example : Kinematic Similarity
Similarity of motion in a model and prototype
Vr = Vp / Vm

where Vr = velocity ratio
Vp = velocity prototype
Vm = velocity model

6.2.1(3) : Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarities means the similarity of forces between a model and a
prototype.
Let Fi = Inertia force
Fv = Viscous force
Fg = Acceleration due to gravity force

Then, (Fr = force ratio)
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
r
m
g
p
g
m
v
p v
m
i
p
i
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
= = = = ......
Example : Dynamic Similarity

Similarity between forces in a model and prototype
Fr = Fp / Fm

where Fr = force ratio
Fp = force prototype
Fm = force model

Example :
In a model test of a spillway, the discharge and velocity of flow over the
model were 1.5 m3/s and 1.2 m/s respectively. Calculate the discharge and
velocity over the prototype, if the prototype is 50 times larger than the model
size.
Example 2:
The characteristics of a spillway are to be studied by means of a
geometrically similar model constructed to the scale ratio of 1:10.
If the maximum rate of flow in the prototype is 28.3 m3/s, what will be
the corresponding flow in the model?
If the measured velocity in the model at a point on the spillway is 2.4 m/s,
what will be the corresponding velocity in the prototype?
If the hydraulic jump at the floor of the model is 50 mm high, what will be
the height of jump in the prototype?
If the energy dissipated per second in the model is 3.5 J, what energy is
dissipated in the prototype?

Example 3:
A 7.2 m high and 15 m long spillway discharges 94 m3/s discharge under
a head of 2.0 m. If a 1:9 scale model is to be made
Determine :
The model dimensions, head over spillway and the model discharge.
If the model experiences a force of 7.5 kN, determine force on the
prototype.