ANSC 221 - SAG 206

MINERALS
Macrominerals are those needed in relatively large amounts, with requirements expressed as % of the diet (even if that value is a small decimal number). The macrominerals are: Ca, P, Mg, Na, Cl, K, and S Trace minerals are those needed in small amounts, with requirements usually expressed as ppm (parts per million of the diet). The trace minerals are Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, I, Se, Mo, Co, Cr, and F, which I consider unequivocally required. Some consider that B and Si are required, and further, there is some evidence for Al, As, Cd, Ni, V, Sn, Br, Pb, and Li, although I do not consider their essentiallity established. Those in the previous list are sometimes called Ultra Trace elements, and if they are required, it is in such minute amounts that normal environmental contamination exceeds the requirement, making the question of their being essentail only interesting academically. The abbreviations stand for: Ca (calcium), P (phosphorus), Mg (magnesium), Na (sodium), Cl (chloride), K (potassium), S (sulfur), Fe (iron), Zn (zinc), Mn (manganese), Cu (copper), I (iodine), Se (selenium), Mo (molybdenum), Co (cobalt), Cr (chromium), F (flouride), and Al (aluminum), As (arsenic), Cd (cadmium), Ni (nickel), V (vanadium), Sn (tin), Br (bromine), Pb (lead), Li (lithium).

Ca (Calcium)
Most of the calcium is in the bones, which serve as a large reservoir of calcium for the body. Calcium is very inter-related with phosphorus, so the Ca:P ratio is very important. Deficiency Disease : rickets in the young, osteomalacia. ALSO: required for the blood to clot, and muscle contraction. Level of Ca in the blood is closely controlled. The parathyroid gland closely monitors the level of Ca and secretes PTH if the level falls too low. PTH is a slow, long-acting hormone that draws Ca from the bones and acts elsewhere to raise blood Ca. If the level of Ca is too high, calcitonin

is secreted from cells in the thyroid gland; calcitonin is fast-acting and of short duration, giving a fine level of control to blood serum Ca level. If you continue to provide a stimulus for PTH secretion for a long time, by eating a low Ca diet, probably by switching from drinking milk, you activate the mechanisms for maintaining blood Ca level at the expense of the bones. The most vascular bones of the body include the Dura Dentes, the bones that hold the teeth in place. If you continue on a low calcium diet for a long time (teen years through middle age), especially on a high phosphorus diet (lots of meat), YOUR BONES ARE GOING TO ROT AND YOUR TEETH ARE GOING TO FALL OUT! In dairy cattle especially, as they begin a heavy lactation, they may not be able to adapt to the sudden out-flow of calcium into milk and may exhibit milk fever. It is a temporary low level of Ca in the blood.

P (Phosphorus)
Phosphorus is one of the more expensive things in the diet. It is also part of bone, but it's needed in lots of places in metabolism also, and in phospholipids and other complex molecules. It's also involved in the energy metabolism in the body in high-energy phosphate bonds. Cheat the animal on phosphorus and it will eat poorly, grow slowly, and you'll lose money. Feed too much and you'll lost money because it's expensive, and it will pollute the environment. Lots of the phosphorus present in grains is tied up in phytate phosphorus. That can be utilized by ruminants, but not very well by nonruminants. We can use commercial phytase to better use the phosphorus in feeds, and that is becomming a more common thing to do. Deficiency of Phosphorus: rickets in young, osteaomalacia in older animals. Phosphorus interacts with calcium, so you must have the right ratio of the two. HENCE, there are 4 ways of having a nutrition problem result in rickets:
1. 2. 3. 4. Too little Ca Too little P Poor Ca:P ratio Not enough Vitamin D (needed to use Calcium & Phosphorus)

Mg (Magnesium)

Magnesium is also found in bones, but at much lower levels than Ca and P. Magnesium is involved in many biochemical reactions in the body as a catalyst. Grass tetany in calves can be prevented by maintaining high Mg status.

Na, Cl, K
These three elements are primarily involved in osmotic balance in the body and acid base balance.

Na (Sodium)
Sodium is the main cation outside of cells. Cells work hard to pump sodium out, and part of their proper function depends on their doing so (for example, nerve excitement). Potassium (K) replaces the Na. The main source of sodium for animals is salt. There is not enough sodium in natural feedstuffs, though there is no requirement for salt per se. Lack of salt will cause poor production, poor growth, and poor appetite. Increasing the salt level in sow's diets from 0.25% to 0.5% increases litter size by 1/2 pig per litter. Hence, you can't feed the same lower salt level that is satisfactory for growing/finishing pigs to sows.

Cl (Chloride)
Chloride is the primary anion, balancing sodium, potassium, and other cations. Chloride is needed by animals, but it's need is met automatically by salt if salt is fed to meet the sodium requirement. Chloride deficiency is rare, and never occurs with salt in the diet. Without salt, most diets contain Cl as part of another compound, such as choline chloride, potassium chloride, or some other compound. On rare instances, in purified diets, chloride deficiency has been observed.

K (Potassium)
Potassium is the primary cation inside of cells. It is required by animals, but usually in sufficient supply in natural feedstuffs. This is not always the case, however, and especially ruminant diets containing high grain levels may need supplementation.

S (Sulfur)
Sulfur is required because it is part of some very important organic molecules, but is not needed in the inorganic form. Sulfur is part of the amino acids methionine and cystine (also cysteine), and the vitamins biotin and thiamine. It is important in connective tissues, and birds have higher requirements because of the loss in losing feathers. Supplementing a pig with inorganic sulfur will do no good. However, because the microbes in the rumen can incorporate it into organic molecules, ruminants can be supplemented with flowers of sulfur (99.5% S) or sodium sulfate (9.95% S).

Trace Minerals
Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, I, Se, Mo, Co, Cr, F

Fe (Iron)
Part of the hemoglobin molecule. Deficiency: anemia. Also part of many enzymes, like cytochromes. Unlike all other elements, body controls level by absorbing very little unless needed, but does not excrete it very well. Therefore, hemochromatosis can occur in individuals with errors of metabolism in iron absorption.

Cu (Copper)
Copper is needed in order to use iron, so a deficiency can lead to anemia. It is also needed for connective tissue formation, so deficiency symptoms include steely wool in sheep and swayback in lambs. Also, deficiency includes severe scouring. Of course, poor growth, etc. Also bone disorders. Sometimes fed at high levels (125 - 250 ppm) for an antibiotic-like growth response in pigs. Copper is very toxic to sheep, so they should not be supplemented with trace minerals intended for other species.

Zn (Zinc)
Deficiency results in parakeratosis in pigs. Fed at high levels to nursery pigs for growth stimulation. Pigs need quite a bit more than other species seem to. Deficiency similar to a fatty acid deficiency, with skin problems. Needed in humans for normal sexual maturation. Newest thing is zinc in lozenges for reducing severity and duration of colds. One form of zinc, zinc picolinate, has been used to attempt to increase leanness in pigs.

Mn (Manganese)
Prevents perosis (slipped tendon) of chickens (choline also prevents this). Necessary for normal bone and connective tissue.

I (Iodine)
Prevents goiter. Is part of the thyroxine molecule, a hormone from the thyroid. In a deficiency the animal cannot make thyroxine and keeps producing the precursor, resulting in gointer. Deficient in the Great Lakes area. Supplement in iodized salt or in trace mineral premixes. It needs to be in a stabilized form.

Se (Selenium)
Selenium was first thought to be carcinogenic, due to an erroneous report, so the FDA regulated it. Selenium is very toxic at low levels, so great care must be taken in its use. Feed only at FDA approved levels (3 ppm maximum for pigs; poultry). Some areas of the world (and U.S.) are high Se areas, where it may be toxic in feeds, and some plants are toxic by virtue of accumulation of selenium. Interacts with Vitamin E; the correct level of both is the best advice, but Se spare Vitamin E and visa versa. Most of the deficiency symptoms of Se are shared with Vitamin E: including sudden death of fast growing young pigs.

Mo (Molybdenum)
Required, because it is part of an enzyme system, but no known deficiency disease. Very toxic, and most concern with it has been with toxicity.

Co (Cobalt)
Cobalt is part of the Vitamin B12 molecule. It prevents pernicious anemia (pernicious means "leading to death"). Nonruminants need Vitamin B12; ruminants can use cobalt and let the bacteria use it to manufacture B12. Symptoms are those of wasting, just like starvation.

Cr (Chromium)
Chromium is involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Requirements are very low. Higher levels have been used to attempt to increase leanness in pigs, but that data is not yet convincing.

F (Fluorine)

Fluorine is usually associated with toxicity in animals. There are areas of the world with high fluoride levels that cause toxicity, which involves abnormal softening of the bones. Ironically, at lower levels, fluorine improves the bone, making it more dense. Rock phosphate, used for plant fertilizer, contains high, toxic levels of fluorine, and must be defluorinated before use as livestock feed (making it no longer inexpensive). In humans, F is beneficial in preventing tooth decal if used at the right level; that is 1 ppm in public water supplies. Higher levels are used in toothpastes, etc.

A-Calcium & Phosphorus:

A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus in the diet of young growing birds results in abnormal bone development. The recommended ratio P:Ca in diet of poultry is 1:1.2 (range 1:1 to 1:1.5) For laying hen 1:4 ( Ca important for bone & shell formation) Ca in diet utilization of Mg, Mn & Zn. Inorganic P have a higher availability than organic P All P from animal origin & 40% from plant origin (wheat bran & rice bran) is available. A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus results in lack of normal skeletal calcification.

B- Salt (NaCl):
The amount added depend upon the feed ingredients. The recommended level in the ration 0.5-1% of the ration. Adult poultry can tolerate much higher inclusion but the water consumption increased.

C- Manganese:
Def. Of Mn cause perosis with slipped tendon.

A free flowing Mn suppl. Should normally be included in all poultry feeds. Mn needed for egg production & hatchability. Mn carbonate, oxide, sulfate & commercial mineral mixture can be used.

D- Iodine:
Iodine included at rate of 0.5mg but when fish meal included at 5-10% no need iodine suppl. Ca & P in diet iodine requirement E- Magnesium: No Mg Suppl. Needed for poultry ration. Mg in diet laxation
Minerals Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Manganese Iron Copper Iodine Zinc Poor egg shell quality and poor hatchability, rickets Rickets, poor egg shell quality and hatchability Sudden death Perosis, poor hatchability Anaemia Anaemia Goitre Poor feathering, short bones

Trace mineral balance in poultry

Introduction Trace mineral nutrition has a rich history of discovery and research in the field of poultry nutrition. Many of the early basic nutrient metabolism studies were conducted in chicks and then related to other livestock species and humans. The bulk of this work was conducted and reported in the era from 1960-1980. Nutrient requirements were established for each species of poultry and functions of those nutrients trace minerals were also researched and reported. More recently, in the past 25 years, trace minerals role in immune function and related physiological roles have been studied. New organic sources of trace minerals have been patented and marketed providing a more available form of trace minerals for the chicken or turkey. The complexity of trace mineral nutrition requires a thorough review of functions, interactions and availability of sources from time to time by the poultry producer/nutritionist. The intent of this presentation is to do such a review of established functions and roles, as well as new opportunities for trace minerals in the field of poultry nutrition. The trace minerals of primary concern in poultry diets and having recommended levels of supplementation by the NRC (1994) Nutrient Requirements of Poultry include Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Selenium (Se) and Iodine (I). The trace minerals typically supplemented in poultry premixes include Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe and I.

Selenium is very often supplemented either in the premix or separate from the premix formulation. Trace mineral premixes should be formulated and supplemented to poultry feeds separate from the vitamin premix due to potential vitamin oxidation by the trace minerals.

Functions of trace minerals Zinc plays an important role in poultry, particularly for layers, as a component of a number of metalloenzymes such as carbonic anhydrase which is essential for eggshell formation in the hens shell gland. Other important zinc metalloenzymes in the hen include carboxypeptidases and DNA polymerases. These enzymes play important roles in the hens immune response, in skin and wound healing, and for hormone production (testosterone and corticosteroids). Classic deficiency symptoms of a zinc deficiency in poultry could include a suppressed immune system, poor feathering and dermatitis, infertility and poor shell quality. Copper also plays an important role in a number of enzyme functions in the bird. Copper is closely associated with iron metabolism as it is a part of ceruloplasmin which is an enzyme that plays an important role in the oxidation of ferrous to ferric iron, controlling the movement of iron from the reticuloendothelium to liver and then plasma, affecting red blood cell formation. A copper deficiency can cause microcytic hypochromic anemia. Another important enzyme dependent on copper is lysyl oxidase which is an integral enzyme in elastin and collagen formation in birds. A deficiency of copper can cause bone abnormalities due to abnormal collagen synthesis. Tibial dyschondroplasia is an example of a leg disorder in poultry that can be caused by a copper deficiency. Poor collagen and/or elastin formation can also lead to cardiovascular lesions and aortic ruptures. Copper is also important for feather development as well as feather colour via its role in disulfide bond formation. Iron has a very specific function in all animals as a component of the protein heme found in the red blood cells protein haemoglobin and in the muscle cells protein myoglobin. Iron has a rapid turnover rate in the chicken 10 X per day, so it must be provided in a highly available form in the birds diet on a daily basis. Any internal infection such as coccidiosis can also interfere with iron absorption and availability. Iron deficiency can result in microcytic, hypochromic anemia in poultry. Manganese plays a significant role in the chickens body in the formation of chondroitin sulfate. This mucopolysaccharide is an important component of bone cartilage. Deficiencies of manganese in poultry will result in perosis, bone shortening and bowing and in poor eggshell quality in laying hens. Selenium is a very unique trace mineral in the chickens diet in that its inclusion rate is regulated and limited by the FDA. Selenium is considered a heavy metal in manure and is limited in its soil application. Selenium was recognized for its toxicity in animal diets before its essentiality was established.

Selenium is an important constituent of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione peroxidase functions in the cell as its first line of defence against oxidation. Other selenoproteins in poultry play an important role in prevention of exudative diathesis, normal pancreatic function, and fertility. Levels of selenium supplementation are limited by the FDA to only .30 ppm in poultry diets. Levels of selenium in feedstuffs for poultry can vary considerably dependent on soil content of selenium the crops are grown on. Soils in the Dakotas and Canada can contain high levels of selenium resulting in higher grain levels of selenium. Often times, total selenium of poultry diets in our plains states will reach levels of .40 to .50 ppm when corn and soybean levels are combined with .30 ppm supplementation levels. These high levels can to be beneficial to the immune status and performance of poultry flocks without being toxic. Dietary selenium works with Vitamin E in boosting the immune status of poultry. Interactions A number of negative interactions can occur such that an excess of one trace mineral will interfere with another trace minerals availability. The most common antagonism occurs between zinc and copper. High levels of dietary zinc will inhibit copper absorption, hepatic accumulation and deposition in the egg. Ratios greater than 4:1 of zinc:copper can be considered antagonistic. High levels of copper and iron can interfere with zinc availability and potentially could induce anemia. Excess dietary phosphorus will interfere with manganese availability in poultry. Environmental factors such as water, equipment and or soil conditions for crops may also contribute to a birds exposure to excessive trace minerals. Many soils in the Midwest have an abundance of manganese and zinc which can correspond to sometimes higher levels in the corn grown on these soils as well as high drinking water levels of some of the trace minerals. All of these potential sources need to be accounted for when calculating the birds consumption rate of trace minerals. Dietary sources of trace minerals Traditionally, inorganic sources of trace minerals have been utilized in poultry feed supplements. Trace minerals as inorganic salts such as chlorides, sulfates, carbonates and oxides have all been supplemented to poultry diets. In general, the chloride and sulfate forms are more available than the carbonates, with the oxides having the poorest availability. During recent years, organic chelates and bioplexes of trace minerals have become available for supplementation in poultry diets. A trace mineral bioplex is defined as a trace mineral with ligands to amino acids or proteins. A number of companies have patented organic trace mineral products. Research has indicated that these inorganic sources are more bioavailable than their inorganic counterparts due to the following reasons: 1. The ring structure protects the mineral from unwanted chemical reactions in the gut 2. Chelates are absorbed more efficiently in the gut. 3. Fewer interactions occur between competing minerals for absorption sites. Numerous studies have reported beneficial effects of chelated organic trace mineral supplementation on bird health and production parameters as well as product quality.

Summary With new research being published showing improved utilization of organic trace minerals, the poultry nutritionist has to contemplate the validity of the NRC Nutrient Recommendations for Poultry (1994) and how one can formulate rations more responsibly using organic trace minerals. With the stress to reduce flow of waste nutrients into the environment, poultry producers may be able to reduce overall supplementation of trace minerals, yet still receive optimum performance when using organic trace elements. References Leeson, S., 2005. Trace mineral requirements of poultry validity of the NRC recommendations. Published in Re-defining Mineral Nutrition edited by JA Taylor-Pickard and LA Tucker, Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, United Kingdom. Monsalve, D., G. Froning, M. Beck and S.E. Scheideler, 2004. The effects of supplemental dietary Vitamin E and selenium from two sources on egg production and vitelline membrane strength in laying hens. Poultry Sci. 83: Supplement 1, p. 168. Ceylan, N. and S.E. Scheideler, 1999. Effects of Eggshell 49, dietary calcium level and hen age on performance and egg shell quality. Proceedings of Alltechs 15th Annual Symposium, Biotechnology in the Feed Industry.