The Magical Power of Words: A Review of S. J. Tambiah's Work

The Magical Power of Words Author(s): S. J. Tambiah Reviewed work(s): Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Jun.
, 1968), pp. 175-208 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2798500 . Accessed: 01/03/2013 11:36
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THE MAGICAL
POWER S. J.TAMBIAH
OF WORDS*
of UniversityCambridge
Words ritual in of years becomeawareoftherelevance has anthropology in recent Contemporary that perhaps and advance, itis remarkable Malinowski, for linguistics itstheoretical but not than morefar-sighted manyof hissuccessors, onlysaw thisrelevance also his from whichsprang of directly theory language an putforward ethnographical in magic.' from immersion Trobriand his particularly fieldwork, of magicwas feltby theTroarguedthatthepotency Trobriand Malinowski in In particularly Volume2 of to brianders lie inwords(spells). manyofhisworks, he and their magic, providedan unusualamount of supporting Coralgardens on notably R. J. data. This evidencehas had some influence linguists, linguistic Can an examinedby anthropologists. Firth,but it has never been critically to himself managed thanMalinowski get anthropologist moreout of theevidence attenor cultures by closer from other material to by do,either resort comparative own material? tionto Malinowski's in successors worked thesameornearby who Malinowski's immediate Although (Fortune in thatthe verbal component ritualwas important regionsconfirmed devaluedtheroleof approach anthropological I967), theorthodox I963; R. Firth of of consisting a sequence behaviour whichwas seenas stereotyped wordsin ritual has of literature again However,recent and manipulation objects. acts non-verbal 2 will this of shownappreciation theroleofwords andno-onetodayI think dispute communiit Leach(I966: 407): 'Ritual as one observes in primitive by statement wordsareone thing ... tiesis a complexofwordsandactions itis notthecasethat itself a ritual.' is of The uttering thewords and theriteanother. as of of ritual consisting thewordandthedeedis that at One virtue least defining in solvesthedilemma posed by Goethe'sFaust-whether thebeginthisformula withthe his and was ningthere thewordor thedeed.Freudconcluded Totem taboo to was the deed. According Gellner that statement in the beginning rhetorical tried has philosophy unsuccessfully to solve the puzzle by (I959: 22), linguistic about Faustis thathe sayingthat'the word is a deed'. What I findinteresting thento thenotionof power,and ended fromtheword,to thought, progressed the of in systems terms in fact ingredients mostritual are withthedeed.Thesefour is between wordand thedeed,withtheother the relation whichthere a reciprocal in The raisesone questionthatis quantitative two terms intervening. formula in rituals thesamesociety mayvarybetween the nature: ratioofwordsto actions
* The Malinowski delivered theLondonSchoolof Economics Memorial at Lecture, and PoliticalScienceon 2o February has been added to the textof the I968. Extra material be lecture: future Malinowski lectures as will,however, published delivered.
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with is performed At societies). one extreme thecase of rituals (or evenbetween thoughperhaps words alone and at the otherthe case whereactionsdominate fall wordsare not excluded.Most rituals in betweenbut yet may show distinct ritual an initiation or of in differencestheproportion wordsto acts.Thusa healing is rite wordswhilea collective in whichthere massparticiparitemayemphasise of and communication moreon the display contionmay relylesson auditory symbols. material visible spicuous as wordsareat leastas important other ritual In mostcasesit would appearthat (but point, veryoften and that, thisis an intriguing act; butbesides kindsofritual 'Why is this ritual questionshis informants not always) if the ethnographer belief thatthepoweris expressed of takes form a formally the the effective?' reply if in in the'words' even thoughthewordsonlybecomeeffective uttered a very of action. specialcontext other pointI want to make is thatritual In attempting solve thispuzzle thefirst to Ritualsexploita number as be category. wordscannot treated an undifferentiated songs,spells,addresses, to of verbalformswhich we looselyrefer as prayers, is a whether ritual composedof suchrecogto etc. blessings, It is necessary study in of internal features terms their distinctive their and nisedcategories to analyse mayappear of sucha battery verbaldevices The fact that sequence. form their and but into in a single shouldnotonlygiveus insights theartofritual also dispel rite withthe Some of us have operated hangover. of traces a Frazerian any lingering of from'religion'; we have thought different conceptof 'magic' as something associated withmagic;we and mechanically as beingintrinsically spell' as acting to a kind haveopposed'spell' to 'prayer'whichwas thought connote different of to by thisthinking an extreme communication with the divine.Frazercarried and in the interest of opposed to religion that asserting magic was thoroughly of of half dismissed theglobe as victims the'confusion this preserving distinction magicwithreligion'. by It is possibleto questionthe generalvalidityof thisdichotomy demonare of in practised Ceylonthere useda variety that classofrituals strating in a single depends and thattheverylogic of theritual sequence in verbalforms a particular ceremony A healingritualor exorcism on thisorderand distinction. Sinhalese ritual (such other acts three mainkindsofverbalform3whichaccompany exploits of food offerings manipulation objects).They are called and as dancing, miming, of in and theyare arranged a progression four and kannalavva kaviya, mantra, to The corresponds our and beginning endingwiththemantra.4 mantra sequences it it notionof 'spell'. It is in prose, hasno poeticstructure,hasa characstereotype is teristic openingand ending(e.g. 'omnamo'and 'hring').The mantra muttered secret knowledge. and by theexorcist it is notmeantto be heardforit constitutes whichsummonthe demons of beginswiththe recitation mantra The ceremony as is for responsible the disease.This summoning phrasedin Sinhalese 'hitting is of by but withsound' (anda gahanava), thelanguage command also accompanied These spellsalso containabbreviated and the languageof entreaty persuasion. for the allusions myths thusprepare ground thenextsequence. to and aloud in rhythmic prosecomis whichis chanted This sequence thekannalavva languageand is meantto be heardand understood intelligible posed of ordinary maybe saidto beginwiththe as The by theparticipants. ritual a publicceremony
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is of It kannalavva. states why the ceremony beingheld,describes nature the the patient's affliction, makesa plea to thegods to come and blesstheceremony and and to the demonsto act benevolently removethe disease.Typicallythe and pleasareaccompanied foodofferings. by The nextin sequence thekaviya are (verses) whichtakeup themajorpartofthe ceremony. Kaviya are composed in quatrains with end (and sometimes also beginning) rhymes. Sinhalesekaviyaare highlylyricaland framedin literary Sinhalese the sixteenth eighteenth (of to centuries), perfectly but intelligible yet distinct fromcontemporary in everyday language.They are normally recorded texts.Fromthepointof view of thedramatic presentation theritual is imof it portant theyare sungloudlyto theaccompaniment musicand mime.The that of semantic content theverses a long and highly of is redundant of recital theorigin of in myths gods and demonsand theirencounters, which the demonsfinally subjectthemselves the practice conditional to of evil, sanctioned the deities by (varam), provided thathumans reciprocate appropriate giving.In therite by gift or the myths sungin orderthatevil and diseasecan be defined, are objectified actionof personified presented and realistically thestageso that appropriate on the changing undesirable thedesirable, other the to in which words, actoftransfer the changes condition thepatient, the of withhisunequivocal participation, take can place. The redundancy, lengthy recital and staging contrived achievethat are to crucial understanding thepatient hisillness by of whichis a necessary preludeto and a condition thecure. of The ceremony logically enoughconcludes witha mantra whichenacts exthe of pulsion thedemonitself. Typically spellconcludes this thus:'Just god so and as so, by a certain actionsubduedsuchand sucha demon,by thatpower may the patient overcome disease thedemonbe subdued'.The lexicalandsemantic the and of contents thespells present specialproblem a when compared theothertwo to forms (invocation praise and songs)whicharereadily intelligible heardby the and of audience.Indologists will be familiar withthe literature the long history on charms spells-mantra, and I dharanT, paritta-in and Hinduism Buddhism. shall and from maintheme I enter territory shall limit if digress my that and therefore myself to theSinhalese situation. A prevailing is misconception thatSinhalese mantra unintelligible even are or nonsensical.5 Credibility lentto this is notionby thefact that mantra referred are to as the'languageof thedemons'(yaksa basava)as opposedto humanlanguage.A linguistic analysis somerecorded published of and Sinhalese mantra madebyWimal of Dissanayake King's College, Cambridge, shows thattheyembodya subtle whichusesthenotionof a hierarchy languages. design of When Hindu gods are invoked and their origin myths referred thespells to, contain Sanskrit expressions, no doubtdistorted fromthepointof view of thepurist. When theBuddha and Buddhist mythological events alludedto,Pali wordsareemployed, are once again an portraying syntactical infelicities. When howeverthe spell actually narrates origin myth, language the usedis thatof theclassical Sinhalese literary forms prein valent thesixteenth seventeenth and centuries. Finally, whendemons directly are addressed commanded, wordsare a polyglotmixture therefore unand the and intelligible, being compoundedof Sinhalese, Tamil, Pali, Sanskrit, Malayalam, Telugu, Bengali and even Persian.This exotic and powerfulmixture the is
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'demonlanguage'. Somepoints be briefly can madeconcerning design the of these spells: language the stratification is indicative thehierarchical of positions ofgodsanddemons: 'demon the language' consciously is constructedconnote to power, though and largely unintelligible is nevertheless on thetheory based of language thedemons understand. far that can Thus, from being nonsensical and indiscriminately concocted, spells the showa sophisticated The logicof logic. construction ofcourse separated the must be from problem whether exorcist of the actually understandsthewords all contained thespell. in From as wellas the his, audience's, point view,thespells of havepowerby virtue secrecy their of and capacity communicate demons thereby to with and influence actions. their However, mantra notfall do outside requirements the oflanguage a system comas of munication, their and literal intelligibility to humans notthecritical is factor in understanding logic. their WhatI haveindicated this in example that single is a Sinhalese progresses ritual from spells which summon demons invocation supplicationthe the to and of gods and demons, to sungand dramatised then myths verse in form, concludes and with spell a which thelanguage command exorcism. type a uses of has and Each characteristic and content form and (though shows this redundancy), this strucis tured sequence fundamentalthelogicwhich dictated construction to has the of ritual. verbal the The forms their and twodimensions. have On sequence atleast the handthey one directly correspond thepantheon, theology embodies, to the it man'sinteraction thegodsand spirits; on theother, including with and they suggest another which logic relates the of to craft communication whereby patient andparticipants successfully experience passage the illness thepromised to from cure.Furthermore, example, is difficult see where in this it to magicendsand religion begins. I am of course suggesting thisSinhalese a not that example provides crosscultural of representative but that scheme, I am certain theexploitation different forms verbal in is of rituals. me Let arranged ordered sequence true many complex refer communivery briefly to someexamples. Stratherns (personal The report the between and that MountHageners cation) distinguish prayer (atenga) spell as bothmayon occasions combined different in be (m0n); patterns forexample is a when spell a and a maybe saidto remove sickness, then prayer madeto the is a invocation ancestral While prayer anaudible ghosts accompanied a sacrifice. by of and a supplication, spells muttered, thelanguage command the and are use a of & Strathern for employseries metaphorical images Strathern (see I968 details). rituals Richards states Bemba combine Dr Audrey (personal communication) that formal and which distinguished praise are as are and uses prayers spells songs other in of language. ihamba Turner AgainVictor reports (I964) that theNdembu which sungto are in cult there performance is mass participationhunters' songs of and of followed a spate confessions theairing grievances, 'pleaseihamba', by and then thereverent hortatory or made thedoctor theelders. He by prayers by that and of elements constitute a dialectical dialogical comments all these pattern of but not his on particular activity, hedoes focus attention this problem alternating seems me that there verbal forms their and structured It to is progression.thus inthe for this of to additional illumination study scope using frame analysis provide ofritual.
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Sacred profane and language I wantnow to pursue of the of words further question theintelligibility sacred to a If wordsarethought possess special to bothofficiant congregation. sacred and to kindof powernotnormally is associated withordinary language, whatextent and this due to thefactthatthesacred as language suchmaybe exclusive different from secular profane the or language? The role of languagein ritualimmediately confronts problemsif placed in is relation a primary to it function language of which that isa vehicle ofcommunicain tionbetween the mustunderpersons. definition, persons communication By standone another. ritual, In to languageappears be usedin waysthatviolatethe communication For it three function. instance, is possibleto distinguish different Thailand. usesoflanguage therituals a villagein northeast in of monksin whichthesacred I. Firstly, are conducted Buddhist there rituals by are to but wordsarechanted aloud,i.e. they meant be heard, paradoxically are they notunderstood themajority thecongregation someofthemonks of by them(and is In becausethesacred casethewords selves) language thedeadPali language. this are broadcast not understood. but 2. There is a secondset of rituals whereagain the major feature the loud is recitation texts,but here the words are understood of because the local Lao in languageis used. The rituals questionare calledsikhwan callingthe spirit or essence. They are used by villageelderswhen installing members thejunior of in generation villagestatuses, as inaugural threshold before or or rites individuals In start new enterprises. thisinstance, wordsare broadcast understood. and then, 3. In a third of rites set to of relating theexorcism demonswhichpossess and causemental the of is disorders, interrogation thepatient in thelocal language but are spells secretly muttered theexorcist by oversubstances water like which used are to cleanseand purify patient. the Here thevirtue thespellsresides thefact of in thatit is secret similar theSinhalese to mantra. language private The knowledge is to andis notmeant be heard. The spells whicharecalledgatha are (verses) saidto be of whicharein this portions Buddhist context sutra(sacred usedin a special texts) and is for thattheexorcist an inversion manner, there someevidence saying is of theBuddhist monk. for It is not necessary me to give detailed of descriptions thesecondand third of becausethey forms wellknownto you. The spirit types ritual represent essence of rite shares character that the classofhealing rituals whichareconstructed the on thatmessages to be transmitted and understood the are therapeutic to theory by or The celebrant patient. words recited invoke invite divine and the angels (thewada), as situation a grandmythological painttheritual eventin whichtheparticipants define becomegodsthemselves, status bind to requirements, a person hisnew role evokepastexperience of commitments, childhood dependence (especially early and and on parents), anticipate future events. contrast, exorcism the By ritual shock uses in is therapy whichthepatient made to confront, formulate give objective and in of form hisillness terms a demonic to whichis culturally agent defined. Herethe as mustappearmoreterrible powerful exorcist protagonist and thanthe demon inside patient, thesecretly and the muttered not spells onlyconstitute language the can thedemons understand, moreimportantly, but contribute theimageof the to exorcist's own power.
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that rituals, I wantto takeup becauseit represents set, It is thefirst theBuddhist Thaiof situation. majority villagemonksin northeast The but a general baffling are of parts thecountry) youngmen who onlytemporarily land(as in manyother role mostimportant is to conductcalendrical of occupythestatus monk,and their other rites as forthecommunity a whole,and mortuary and certain rituals temple and families groupsof for ceremonies individual and protection-giving threshold of system Budin paradoxes thecommunication kin.Therearesomeconspicuous aloud and shouldbe recited that The view is emphatic thePali chants dhist ritual. and blessings progainsmerit, to listening themthe congregation thatthrough are The Pali wordsas suchare not understood.6 chants of Yet thesacred tection. the of expoundmatters Buddhistdoctrine, noble coursenot nonsensical-they in episodes theBuddha'slife, of victorious and of truths detachment conquest life, of to concerns villagelife.Yet at the relation theeveryday whichhaveno direct of as (chants blessing thosedesignated paritta of especially conclusion the chants, are transferred themonkto thelayman longlife, the by and protection), blessings of The intriguing and faircomplexion. paradoxis thattheconquests good health of fromlifeare in theprocess transto theBuddha whichrelate thewithdrawal of of to transmuted an affirmation life.Betweentherecitation thesacred ference of a and words (suitra) the final'pay off' to the laymanintervenes mechanism For mantra. fromthatimpliedin theSinhalese whichis not farremoved transfer so the blessing oftenheardin Buddhist the instance, chayamangalagdtha,victory a won by theBuddhaand concludes 'By in states eachof thestanzas victory rites, The mechanism and thispower,mayyou be endowedwithconquests blessings'. of structure thewordsand theritual not of transfer depends onlyon thesemantic a cordor by of them(e.g. transmission gracethrough sacred actsthataccompany between socialrelation monkand lustral water)butalso on a particular sprinkling an Villagesonstemporarily reciprocity. whichconnotes inter-generational layman, to householders life and long and their virility sexuality transfer elderly renounce in them the maintain their in ordination, sponsor and ethical merit;thelatter turn succesthemas their install whentheygiveup their robes, and afterwards, temple sors(TambiahI968). of are chants couchedin Pali is representativea more the that Buddhist The fact whichalso showthesame worldreligions, of feature mostoftheso-called general betweenreligiousand profanelanguage: Latin in the remarkable disjunction for CatholicChurch,Hebrew forJews,Vedic Sanskrit Hindus and occidental from thatare different thelanguageof are ArabicforMuslims, sacredlanguages and to attached thesacred language of use. ordinary But thenature theauthority The Muslimstake up the shows complexvariations. its rangeof exclusiveness Arabicand that it the that Koranis efficacious in itsoriginal only extreme position to attitude theBiblical The will ceaseto be theBook by beingtranslated. Jewish handtheCatholics is texts thesame-the wordofGod is in Hebrew.On theother written Latin, in that have nevermaintained anypartof theBible was originally was authorised thePope the by version, Vulgate, but it is thecasethattheofficial certain as Vicarof God in I546 at theCouncilof Trent.This textwentthrough to version. of in century reacha definitive revisions thesecond'half thesixteenth Greekand becomethe Latin But moreinterestingly, had by 250 A.D. supplanted in Rome and for the entire and worship language of church government
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considered holylanguageof theoccidental the western world,andwas explicitly church. held and the Buddhism Judaism view hasbeenstrictly that In Islam,Hinduism, shouldbe in thelanguageof the wordsrecited the in religious ceremonies sacred whether their understood the The problem congregations texts. authorised sacred either efficacy the the of wordsor not was not a major consideration affecting The Catholic of ritualor the changein the moral condition the worshippers. of untillastyear.It is the Churchmaintained sameview in respect Latinliturgy whichattacked extreme the formalism movements interesting manyreformist that of to destroy exclusiveness the the church attempted andritualism theestablished of andunderstanding amongthe accessibility in to sacred language an attempt increase are casesin point.But notethatthey Waldensians Calvinists, faithful; Lutherans, also attacked Latin Bible on the groundsthattherewere older and more the lessonto be learnedhere.EvanThereis an important genuineGreekversions. committed the precise to oftenget passionately Englishmen gelical Protestant in of version as it appears theEnglish theauthorised of wording theBiblicaltext, by illogically perhaps, the King. The of i6ii, even thoughit was authorised, of to in to Buddhauseda local dialect contrast theSanskrit theBrahmans preach of to hismessage, Pali itself later becometheenshrined but was language Theravada in come to have their trueversions and churches turn Buddhism. And breakaway of centre which and aroundwhichproblems orthodoxy first editions doctrine of criticism commentary provide of and that activities textual generate familiar the and Thusin all these for casesitcould be thebreadand butter theologians scholars. but becausetheyare ancient, thatit is said thattextstendto acquireauthority that morethanantiquity. authority matters is the The question thenis: how important it in unravelling problemof the fromthe ordinary power of sacredwordsthatthe sacredlanguagebe different in Is a language? there vitaldifference thefactthattheKoranis in Arabicand the is I the Trobriand sacredwordsare in Trobriand? think distinction not absolute the sacred but only relative.It is truethatin many of thesehigherreligions to languageis thought be thatlanguagein whichthe saviour,or prophetor to saintfirst revealedthemessage in the case of Catholicism be thelanguage (or in of or is authorised thePapacy).But this argument terms revelation authority by who that their spells camewiththeir to justas applicable theTrobrianders believed no criterion between higher first and provides distinguishing ancestors, therefore between revealedand natural religion and primitive Tylor'sdistinction religion. is false. the A moreconvincing wordsofIslam, Buddhism, and reason maybe that sacred at theJewish Christian and faiths somepointcame to be written down,and that that is religious dogma in a technology fixesand freezes writing a revolutionary fromthe dogma of oral tradition mannerthatis different which is inevitably and adaptive, even thoughit believesin an unchanging flexible tradition. But or difference? the problemthatI am For again is thisa fundamental a relative with-whencethemagicalpowerof sacredwords-this distinction again dealing is by itself The betweenthecase of a written holy insufficient. sharpdisjunction is in religion paralleled theTrobriands languagein higher languageand a secular of nevertheless thesamekind,between elements of the by a weakerdisjunction,
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spellsand thelanguageof languagein theorallytransmitted archaicor esoteric in mythology their religious peopleswho recite use. ordinary Many 'primitive' comprehenof saga formdo so in an 'archaic'form speechwhichis onlybarely The pointis e.g. is speakers, this thecaseamongtheKachin. sibleto contemporary harksback to a societies or thatas long as religionbothin literate pre-literate true transmitted texts of and on periodofrevelation insists theauthority properly coman its will contain archaic form, sacredlanguage orallyor in written either or this language olderelements whether is represented a totally different by ponent, of thesamelanguage. oral we relevant note,whenever meetsuchformalised or written to It is perhaps are that they composed to thefact that 'archaicness' mayalsobe related texts, their specially coinedwords,and devices, whichuseshighly symbolic in a specialstyle, per writing se, to I965). Furthermore meaning fillin gaps(Vansina wordswithout existence words,maylend to madepossible thealphabet, givinga physical by by thatthepresent to texts. Thus it is not at all accidental added veneration written in for term themajoralphabet Indiais Devanagari(theabode of theGods). day and of and training Another criterion-that the degree of specialisation of for differentiationreligious personnel-isagain of littlevalue in accounting true in in thebelief thepower of sacredwords.It is frequently thatthesocieties that itself specialised is existare stratified, literacy and whichthehigher religions and trained on intermediaries, that depends specially thevastbulkofthepopulation fromlay occupations modes of life. is and theprofessional priesthood separated lore to knowledge sacred of skills, subjection taboos,and exclusive But specialised of of non-literate experts simpler are in varying degreecharacteristic thereligious as societies well. of are not underthat Pali chants Buddhism normally strictly the the Finally fact intelligible spellsis largely stood by thelaitybut thatthelanguageof Trobriand in todifference theattitude has to theTrobrianders notproduced significant any for the that does he words.Thisis so because theBuddhist sacred layman fact wards are He does not mean forhim thatthe chants mumbo-jumbo. not understand thatfor thosewho know Pali the words containgreat believesquite rightly and of is and wisdom sense;hisignorance a reflection hisunworthiness involvement cometo the of withthat themonk.I havethus modeoflife in an inferior compared betweensacredand profane thattheremarkable conclusion disjunction negative linkedto the need to languagewhichexistsas a generalfactis not necessarily that or wordsin an exclusive and,secondly, language7 in writing embodysacred of in differences respect no and lower religions portray qualitative both higher and of and in office, beliefs revelation true knowledge, specialisation religious their or are thoselanguages understood not. whether to languages attitudes sacred a statement aboutthe to necessary tryto formulate general It therefore appears or words.No book on religion the in belief themagical powerofsacred widespread belief thecreative in to to fails refer thisancient of powerof the origins language The literature. this word. It would be possibleto confirm beliefin the classical thatthe gods ruledthe on Vedic hymns speculated vac (theword) and asserted between states inthebattle that the worldthrough formulae; Parsireligion magical into the good and evil it was through spokenword thatchaoswas transformed cosmos; ancientEgypt believedin a God of the Word; the Semitesand the
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were created theword of by Sumerians have held thattheworld and itsobjects of that of postulated thesoul or essence things God; and theGreekdoctrine logos in themselves thesomeBut commentators entangled have resided their in names. whatbarren that suchideasasserted thewordinitsown right debate aboutwhether or of was powerful, whether actedthrough participation thesupernatural it the or within What has not beenseenis that of through agency theLord'sanointed. the and system multiple valuesaregivento thecharacter roleofthe anysingle religious postulates form setofthree a these valuestaken together sacred language, that and in mutual tension. this of serveto illustrate trinity ideas: The Bible can conveniently names.'And God the The first idea is thatGod created worldby assigning calledthelightDay, and the darkness calledNight' (GenesisI.5). (Together he himself God created by religions theCreator that withthis goes theidea in certain his uttering own name.) God had created 2. The Bible also asserts the directly oppositeidea thatafter function through speech.'And out of assumed naming the heavenand earth, man and everyfowlof the thegroundtheLord God formed everybeastof thefield, untothemanto seewhathe would callthem:and whatsoair; and brought them . everthemancalledevery livingcreature, was thenamethereof. .' (Genesis that
i. 2. I9-20).
whichis it character assigned theword: that is an entity to 3. Thereisyeta third in Thus we readin Isaiah(55.II): able to act and produceeffects its own right. '. . . So shallmy word be thatgoethforth of my mouth:it shallnot return out in untome void,butitshallaccomplish whichI please, itshall that and prosper the I whereto sent it.' thing
in and cometogether the express Hebrewconcepts I think TheseBiblical notions refers the to first to linesof the Gospelaccording St Johnwhichalso explicitly Greeknotionof logos:theword was in thebeginning withGod, theword was madeflesh Jesus in Christ becamethesonsof God Christ, thosewho received and and theword dweltwiththem. It is thesethreenotionsthatare also reflected Buddhism in whichconstantly affirms three its one, gems:theBuddha,theall-enlightened was thesourceof the by sacred preached theBuddha,and inscribed words;theDhamma,thedoctrines in thetexts themselves objects their are in own right, can transmit and virtue holy and dispelevil; and the Sangha,the monastic orderwhose ordainedmembers of agentfora recital the sacred is practise good conduct, the mostappropriate words. thought. Consider following the Thesenotions alsorepresented Trobriand are in Trobriand propositions:
i. Magic appeared ancestors culture withthe and heroes, together withthefirst and created. invented and 'Magic is a thing never phenomena they gardens natural never agency'(Malinowski I960: 402). Itwas with, manor anyother by tampered succession. handedoverto manwhose descendants inherited in unbroken have it human 2. At thesametimetheTrobriands conceived magicas an essentially of of that Malinowski asserted forthe magicians. possession especially theaccredited captured man . . . and put to his by nativemagic was 'not a forceof nature,
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of the service;it is essentially assertion man'sintrinsic powerovernature'.It was of the humanbellythatwas thetabernacle magicalknowledge and theforceof in his magicresided manand could 'escape onlythrough voice' (I960: 409). also once 3. Finally, Trobrianders had the notionthatmagicalformulae, the the Hence their that voiced,actedand influenced courseof events. insistence the of spellwas themostimportant component magic,a view also heldfirmly the by Dobuans (Fortune I963: IOI). notions whichform interrelated Thus it is clearthat aredealing we withthree an ancestors their or set: deitiesor first instituted equivalents speechand the classiis and user of thispropensity; man himself the creator fyingactivity; finally, language as such has an independent existence and has the power to influence reality. I would suggest thatit is theperception these of characteristicslanguage of that has perhaps abouttheelevation theword as supremely of endowedwith brought mystical power. Let me explain.Thereis a sensein whichit is trueto say that and historical languageis outsideus and givento us as a partof our cultural is at it heritage; thesametimelanguage within it movesus and we generate as us, activeagents.Since words existand are in a senseagentsin themselves which connexions relations and between establish bothman and man,and man and the and are capableof 'acting' upon them, world, theyare one of themostrealistic representations have of the conceptof forcewhich is eithernot directly we or notion whichwe find observable is a metaphysical to necessary use. In respectof religionand ritual, threenotionsin theirwidestextension the to levelsofbehaviour whichwe meettimeand againin correspond thefollowing manysocieties:
i. The domainof myth whichrelates stories about the doingsof saviours or or and of be prophets ancestors thearrival themessage, it doctrine magic. or i.e. 2. The ritual magicalsystem or itself, thelinguistic structure thesacred of of acts wordsand thegrammar thenon-verbal thatgo withthem. or their 3. The present humanpriests magicians, day sacredstatus, links their withthesaviours ancestors their or and specialbehaviour preparations and which make their ritual effective. practices of and needsto study onlythoselevels Anyexhaustive not study religion ritual relations between them.But there againanother but also thefunctional is major a to that to in relationship be unravelled,relationship is difficult establish a meaningin ful sense,and is leastwell-established anthropology. This is thelinkbetween and and thedomainsof socialand practical religion ritual activities whichit into and but penetrates whichit influences is also at thesametimeseparated fromin somefashion.8 to To return my majorthemewhichis the basisforthebeliefin the magical power of words: I have takentheinquiry to a certain up point,but thehardest is of is partoftheexercise yetto come.Ifourdefinition ritual that is a complex it of the words and actions(including manipulation objects)thenit remains be of to is shownwhatprecisely theinterconnexion between words theactions. the and This I to of shallattempt showin respect theTrobriand magical system, paying particular to Before can do this, is necessary clearthe I attention theverbalcomponent. it to
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himof whichMalinowski boththetheory language decks critically reviewing by by otherattempts magic,and also certain selfpropounded explainTrobriand to for in to philosophers linguists account thebelief verbalmagic. and Theories magical of language Malinowski'sviews on languagecan be roughlydividedinto two related of one theory language'in to theories, pertaining whathe calledan 'ethnographic of and to general, theother thelanguage magicin particular. of character language. theory thepragmatic was The chief feature hisgeneral of as or for ideas,concepts categories, Languagewas notso mucha vehicle expressing on in stand self-conscious a attack forachieving effects. recognise this We practical in of theories languagecurrent his time,such as thoseheld by the mentalistic with approachto languagecorresponded Sweet and Sapir(I92I). Malinowski's seeing non-explanatory, his approachto mythand magic: anti-intellectualistic, as toolsforpractical living. themsimply hard-worked made no distinction between'langue' and 'parole',languageand Malinowski to context. related thespeech His was Speechwas a part speech. analysis specifically like and motion,'an adjunctto bodilyactivities'. of concerted activity, gesture to Wordswerea partof actionand wereequivalents actions (i965b: 9). It is from of that theory meaning'and the thisperspective he developedhis 'contextual of The couldonlybe of notion the'pragmatic setting utterances'. roleoflanguage to in concerted work, understood relation otheractivities; languageregulated and transmitted knowledgeand set in motiona seriesof tribalactivities, 'the their forceof suchverbalactsliesin directly effective reproducing consequences' (i965b: 49). of His definition 'meaning' was a logical derivative fromhis pragmatic persof and pective:'Meaningis theeffect wordson humanminds bodiesand through as theseon the environmental reality createdor conceivedin a given culture' of with formulation that structural for linguistics which (i965b: 53). Comparethis and are and thelistener contingent belong to 'la parole', whereas the speaker is between between signified, 'significant' signand thething meaning therelation of whichbelongto theengraphic and 'signifie', system 'la langue'.9, for the Malinowski confusing context situation of with havecriticised Linguists to levelsofanalysis other (J. I957). It was pertaining language language R. Firth qua that madeMalinowski for wordsas a partofaction hispassion viewing arguewith and texts divorced flourish wordshadno existence that that from excessive context weredirectly Thesearguments contravened himbecausehis weremeaningless. by was of and in magic in terms a wordforwordtranslaexposition Coral gardens their texts. was thesamehistrionic It on tionanda commentary recorded talent led that of wordsand the'coefficient weirdhimto dwellon theproblem meaningless of was ness' in magicallanguage.In facthis translation excellent he concluded and in of was high.His strategy teasing that 'coefficient intelligibility' thespells the of him on a circuitous repetitious and reader and taking thecredulous strewn route, and was a withhis sinsof commission omission, adoptedso that dramatic answer could be producedin theend,whichwas thatmagicallanguagewas eminently concededthatthe untranslatable And he graciously wordswere unintelligible. to of translatable commentator'. becausehe failed gettheservices a 'competent
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offered thisfinding Malinowskichose not to followthe perspectives and by maintained magicallanguageworkeddifferently ordinary that from speech.The difference thatmagicalutterances was were believedby the natives produce to supernatural effects whichtheydid not expectordinary speechto produce.The of verybasisofverbalmagicwas the'creative metaphor magic',whichsuggestive phrase interpreted 'the belief he as that repetitive the statement certain of wordsis stated'(I965b: 238). This beliefagain,thatthe believedto producethe reality of knowledgeof a name or the correct repetition a formula producedmystical Malinowski traced mythological to associations as he putit, 'some other effects, or, of aspectof Frazer's is principle sympathy' (i965b: 232). The implication that the that laws of association applyto ordinary speechdo nothold formagicalspeech, led an inference inevitably Malinowski thebarren that to conclusion magical that is and in a language objectively delusion 'irrational nature'.'The essence verbal of in whichis untrue and whichstands direct magic,then,consists a statement in to of searched another for opposition thecontext reality.. .' (i965b: 235). He thus in reason for kindofrational grounded individual psychology theobjectively false use ofmagical language. in strand Malinowski's Therewas howeveranother whichled him to thought different relationbetweenmagicaland ordinary posit a rather language.The in question was,how did mancometo believe thefirst placein themystical power his from pragmatist behaviourist He and ofwords? argued that premisses there was belief themystic binding in and a realbasis thehuman to powerofwords. Language 'The gave man thesenseof poweroverhisenvironment. belief thatto know the is true'(I965b: 233). Thus nameof a thing to geta hold on it is thusempirically of he although saw in magicallanguageobviousdistortions ordinary in language bothengendered belief the creative of the in the direction mysticism, forceand pragmatic power of words which he tracedto childhoodexperience. baby A withcrieswhichattract mother's the reactsto bodilydiscomfort attention, and is that the of later childlearns theutterance theessence welfare that actsupon and it to its theenvironment satisfy needs.Here liestheearlymagicalattitude words, to can namesufficiently repeated mraterialise thing. often the a that is to Now thisbiographical whichhavebeen theory subject thesamecriticisms to Malinowski's for directed against of attempt account theclassificatory categories this in of extensions. is kinship terms ego-centred Furthermore, theory questionbeggingbecausethe notionof languageis priorto a child'scomprehension of to It as language. is becauseadults and respond thecries meaningful, direct child's a that at efforts communication, a child learnsthe conceptand use of language. therandomactsof a babyare susceptible diametrically of Finally, opposedinterMalinowskisaw the child's physicalgraspingmovements the pretations: as in of the beginnings itsbelief thepower to control environment, whileCassirer of (I966: i8i) saw thedisplacement thegraspto a pointing indicative or gesture behaviour. of as thegenesis symbolic other theorists language of I tumnow to certain who havetried account to for to the primitive's 'magical attitude words'. I shallbriefly mention ideas of the Ogden & Richards (I923), Izutsu (I956) and Cassirer(I953). Ogden and and Richards's in linguistic philosophical arguments The meaning meaning of (for wrotehis classic whichMalinowski withMalinsupplement) happily converged
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owski's arguments based on anthropological field experience.Unlike those theorists todaywho hold theelevated of view of languagethatit is thebasisof categorical knowledge, Ogden and Richardswere impressed withthe delusions produced manby language, medium in 'a developed meettheneedsofarboreal to for needs.Theysaw man' and thereforecumbersome a instrument contemporary therootsofthemistaken belief themagicalpowersof wordsin thesuperstition in thatthere was a direct, even causal,relation betweentheword and thethingit referred between to, symbol itsreferent. denotative and The fallacy explained man's logophobia. that Thereis one simple retort this to theory. is perfectly It conceivable speakers in of a language, thatthere other are especially thosewho are unaware languages but and existence, may thinkthatwords are not arbitrary conventional truly if Westerners represent objects the they stand But surely, manycontemporary for. a think by saying wordthey who maybe victims this of do that fallacy notthereby it can conjureup a thinginto existence, is amazingthatwe can contemplate of This attitude investing attributing magical this outlookto theprimitive. cavalier is portrayed anotherwriterwho has the savage with linguistic pathology by advanceda connotative theoryof the originsof verbal magic. Izutsu (I956) of to describes withgreatperceptiveness capacity wordsas symbols evoke in the our minds wordsenableusto re-experience references images. and Extra-verbally, past events, intra-verbally evoke the associative they networks betweenwords is to All within languagesystem. thisis impeccable, whatwarrant there the but as that man speculate primitive believes words that produce images concrete reality? a cum for Cassirer (1953) propounded philosophical linguistic theory account to thebasisand origin theword veneration of reflected widelyin religious thought. He opposedmythic thought theoretical to discursive logicalthought, twopoles the in an evolutionary continuum, directly and linkedtheevolution religious of ideas to theevolution linguistic of notions. Sinceit was languagewhichactually proof duced theorganisation reality and shapedtheforms predication, conof the and logicalthought, argued,would be trasting characters mythic of thought he reflected man's attitude language.Cassirer in to of related phenomenon the the of the hypostatisationtheword(which implied notion that nameofa thing the and its essencebear a necessary internal and relation each other)to the mythic to manwho first and of of consciousness imagination early grasped experience the his world throughseparate mythical images. Mythicimagination 'tends towards of concentration, telescoping, separate characterization' images.In the sphere of in a languageit results thebeliefin word magic,in attributingphysico-magical powerto theword, in a relation identity substantial and of and unity between name and thing. whichis a laterdevelopment man has an entirely Logical thought in different attitude theword,whichis seenas a symbol vehicle to and whichmediates between immediate the data of senseimpressions ideation. and Being theoretical and discursive, 'tendstowardsexpansion, logicalthought implication systeand and maticconnection', towards establishment relations the of between phenomena whichare 'alike' according someco-ordinating to law. whichappealsto shaky Cassirer's theory, ethnography, in factan imaginary is and speculative schemeof religious evolutionary ideasand language.In so faras has Levi-Strauss demonstrated logical and relationalcharacter mythic the of
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thought, Cassirer's basicdichotomy modesof thought of disappears. ifit can And be demonstrated primitive that magic is based on truerelational metaphorical we thinking shallexplodetheclassical theory whichpostulates magicis based that on the beliefin a real identity betweenword and thing.The basic fallacyof linguists philosophers and who search theorigins the magicalattitude for of to wordsis their and priorassumption accceptance theprimitive in factsuch that has an attitude. This axiom theyhave derivedprincipally fromFrazer, and indeed from Malinowski who had affirmed truth thisclassical the of assertion thebasis on of his fieldwork. would perhaps It have been safer thelinguists have held for to to fast their knowledge how languageworksand to have questioned of whether had anthropologists correctly reported primitive thought. BeforeI conclude thissurvey shouldrefer another I to feature thetheory of of languageformulated Ogden and Richardswhich did not appeal to man's by but evolution to a synchronic whichfitted scheme beautifully withMalinowski's assertions. They postulated two usesof speech:thescientific in whichwords use a symbolised reference whichcouldbe verified relation external in to reality; and or use theevocative emotive in whichwordssimply for becamesigns emotions or their I. attitudes, referential that powerbeingsecondary. A. Richards 8) argued (193 poetrymade itsimpactthrough emotiveuse of language.Malinowski, the too, asserted thatmagicallanguagewas an emotiveuse of language, thatmagicwas tension particular of bornoftheemotional situations thatthespells, and ritual acts a flowofemotions. and gestures When carried expressed spontaneous awayby his own emotiveuse of language, even arguedthattheparaphernalia ritual he and of substances Trobriand to magicwereusedas they happened bearon thepurpose emotional of theact through association (Malinowski I948: 53). Thesestatements formalised nature Trobriand of rituals. do not do justiceto thehighly And as for matchand corrective Leach use viewsfindtheir in emotive of words,Richards's that (I964) who hasdemonstrated even the mostemotive wordsof abusehavea and basis. referential structural ritual A re-analysis Trobriand of of I If I am critical these theories shouldtryand providean alternative view of of of works.I shallattempt brief a how thelanguage ritual re-analysis someaspects I of Trobriand magicin orderto demonstrate pointof view. But first should my that outline scheme assumptions guidemyanalysis. the and Trobriandmagicallanguageis intelligible not mumbo-jumbo shot language, It with mysticalideas not amenableto rationalexamination. is not through from but 'different' use qualitatively ordinary language, is a heightened ofit.The that samelawsofassociation applyto ordinary language applyto magical language. Trobriand that moreoften thannot, magicis a clearcase of a system combines, rather thananalysethe words word and deed, languageand action.Therefore from actions shouldfinda way oflinking the we them. separately I This difficult inquiry call the 'innerframe'of Trobriand magic,and it deals in of the are the withthetechnique transfer, manner whichspells constructed, logic of of choice of the substances used,and the mode of synchronisation linguistic in action a structured We maycallthis withthoseofnon-verbal devices sequence. of ritual. the perspective 'semantics' Trobriand
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I use the term'outer frame'to refer another to level of meaning. Here the ritual complexas a whole is regarded an activity as engagedin by individuals or groups pursuit their in of institutional aims.This perspective may call 'pragwe calledthe'context matics', and it corresponds somewaysto whatMalinowski in of situation'. investigates ritual It how relates other to activities, whatcontexts in and situations is practised what consequences may produceforvarious it and it segments thesociety. of for At thecostof oversimplifying could saythatthere two perspectives one are viewingthis relationship between ritual and other activities: ritual be seenas a can stimulus signalforactivities followin time,e.g. in thecase of prospective or that magicexemplified Trobriand by agricultural canoe magic,and as a response and a to preceding events, e.g. in thecase of 'retrospective' ritual, good exampleof whichis witchcraft. in In investigating languageand actionare synchronised Trobriand how magic I havefound useful elaborate suggestion it to a madebyJakobson (I956). Having and discussed devicesor operations language, metaphoric metonymic, two in the he a whicharebasedon theprinciples similarity contiguity, indicated formal and of of and correspondence between themand Frazer's division magicinto'imitative' of and contiguity. 'contagious' kinds also based on the principles similarity Frazer, willrecall, you usedtheseprinciples in relation thewordsbutto the not to objectsusedand actions enacted magicalrites. in In respect linguistic no of operations concept metaphor the of presents problem. The dictionary meaning thatit is a figure speechin whicha name or desis of criptive termis transferred some objectto whichit is not properly to applicable. The implications metaphor of (whichis a shorthand expression use to include I simileand analogy)are thatit is a surrogate whichhas a dual reference the to originalobject and to the object forwhichit now stands. Every metaphor or it but contains symbol bothtruth fiction: it is taken and if literally misrepresents, a The it is more than a conventional sign because it highlights resemblance. on is metaphor a mode of reflection enablesabstract and thought the basis of analogical predication (Urban1939). In terms ofJakobson's formulation, metathe and substitution of phoricuse of languageexploits procedures selection the by whichwordsor ideasreplace another terms semantic of in one similarity. whichhasforits whatimplications devicemayhaveforritual, this Contemplate The spellcan exploitthe aim theactualtransfer an attribute therecipient. of to makesthetransfer. use metaphorical of language, whichverbally in thought and is Thereis no trick here; it is a normaluse of language.The verbaltransfer an the exampleof whatwas calledin traditional theology analogyof attribution. The dictionary of in meaning metonymy a 'figure speechwhichconsists of is for or substituting thename of a thing name of an attribute partof it', e.g. the when'sceptre' stands 'authority'. isa caseofthepart for for This standing thewhole a is based on the contiguity is If principle. a metaphor a substitute, metonym a complement; bothinvolveverbaltransfer. Jakobson expands notionof metothe of and nymyto discuss linguistic operations, based on the principles contiguity contexture, whichenable the formulation complexformsof linguistic of units to and strung rules:therulesby whichwordsare combined according syntactic to to together formsentences sentences and combined formutterances.
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Now metonymy traditionally as understood expandedbyJakobson and sheds of lighton thestructure Trobriand spells.Frequently variouspartsor conthe units of it stituent oftherecipient themagic, whether be a canoeor a human being, are enumerated the magicaltransfer and made to each of them.Thus we get a of realistic picture thewholebuiltup from parts, this the and metonymic technique has several for a message realism therite, transmitting to for implications lending for through redundancy, storing vitaltechnological knowledge an oralculture, in as and fortheconstruction thespellitself a lengthy of verbalform. Both linguistic procedures,metaphorical throughsubstitution permitting and an wholethrough abstractions, metonymic through building organic details, in areaccompanied Trobriand magicby action. are Objects and substances used as agentsand vehiclesof transfer through we contagious action.In thesevehiclesof transfer findexpressed Frazer'ssuband stitution similarity) contiguity imitative contagious and (or principles, magic, of but neverin an exclusivemanner.A close analysis Trobriand ritualshows of that it activelyexploits the expressive properties language, the sensory of qualitiesof objects,and the instrumental properties action simultaneously of in a numberof ways. The semantics ritualare more complex than sugwhichlead to absurdinferences about the logic of gestedby Frazer's principles magic. to Now we are in a position see how thesepropositions hold in detailin the case. Trobriand the Malinowskiconsidered spell (yopa)as the most important constituent of In took two forms. one, spellswere uttered Trobriand magic.The magicalrites a of rite but form without concomitant (i.e. manipulation objects), this abbreviated In in whichwas themoreimportant, was notpractised themajorrituals. theother, of thespellswere accompanied simplerites 'impregnation' 'transference', or by certain which shareda commongrammar.I'Typically, substances (e.g. leaves) into withan objectsuchas an adze,or a lashing werebrought contact or creeper, a closeto them that and wereuttered so becamecharged; pregnancy cloak, spells they to in of transferred virtue thefinal their these objects turn recipient themagic.Thus the whichwas usedforlashing thewayugo creeper, together parts, imparted speed medications kulabeauty of to thefinished canoe,andthecharmed magicconveyed to beautyand attractiveness thevoyager. Trobriand consecutive The mostelaborate spellshad three parts:theu'ula,the The meanings and the dogina. associated with u'ula are 'foundation', tapwana 'first ' cause','beginning', 'reason'; thetapwana a similar had possessor', coherent rangeof meanings: 'surface','skin', 'body', 'trunk','middle part', and 'main meant part'; thedogina 'tip', 'end', 'tail', or 'finalpart'.The three parts appearto The the present following progression. u'ula,whichis brief, states basison the the or whichthespellis constructed, firstly majortheme metaphorical which idea is elaborated the spell and secondlythe mythical in heroesand ancestors who wielded the magicalpowersin questionand withwhom the magicianhimself is This of becomesidentified. secondfeature theportion thespellthatrelates the The tapwana thelongest mainpart to myth, whichI do not discuss. is and magic in to on whichwe haveto concentrate order seehow thespellis constructed to and of thelogic and technique therite.The dogina, unravel whichis also brief, a is
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statement theintended that effect beenachieved. is clearthattheTrobriand has It spellis constructed an ordered as progression. and, Malinowski described tapwana as a 'continuous the stream utterance' of important us,he stated thismainpartoftheformula easier translate for that was to in thanthe u'ula becauseit was expressed a less condensed formand in words approximating ordinary language. We are thusfacedherewithdescriptive referthanuntranslatable entiallanguagerather language. in In thesimpler kindofspella listofwordsis repeated sequence in withchanges of The keyexpressions. listis an enumeration theconstituent of a canoe,or a parts of These wordswe may looselycall yam house,or theanatomy theperformer. ' substance is an action words'.The keyexpression wordor a verb.The logicofthe an is thateachpartenumerated recitation undergoes eventor process whichit by i 2 or quality. attribute acquires desired the (Examples and 3 in diagram illustrate a single or nounmaybe attached substance word thisconstruction.) Alternatively a or to of states proin succession a series verbswhichrepresent rangeof related ia in diagram cesses example (see i). consists theuse of two series key expressions, of of A morecomplexstructure of of to one consisting thebodyparts therecipient, eachof whicharetransferred series verbs(seeexampleib). of energies represented another by
of DIAGRAM I. The structure Trobriand spells (withspecial reference thetapwana) to 2 of I. and Example The striking thesoil.Formula in Coral gardens their magic. leavens a. The bellyof mygarden rises reclines growsto thesizeofa bushhen'snest growslikean anthill rises is boweddown and rises theironwood like palm liesdown swells as swells witha child b. Listi (garden pests) thegrubs theinsects withthesharp thebeetle tooth that bores thebeetle thebeetle that the destroys tarounderground on thewhite blight taroleaves themarking blight theblight that shines List2 -->I sweepaway I blow I drive off I sendoff I chaseaway
the and 2. Formula inCoral Example Anchoring garden (after planting erecting posts). IO garden andtheir magic. Parts thegarden of named: soil 'shallbe anchored' magical prism (kamkokola) yampole (kavatam) branching (kaysalu) pole stem savedfrom cutting the (kamtuya) stick training (kaybudi) uncharmed prism (kaynutatala)
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partition stock (tula) slender support (yeye'i) boundary (tuklumwala) line boundary triangle (karivisi) light yampole (tamkwaluma) tabooing stick (kaytuvatova) great yampole (kayvalituwa) Example Post-harvest 3. magicofprosperity-the second ofvilamatia act magic (anchoring the yamhouseand village). Formula in Coral 29 gardens their and magic. Parts theyamhousenamed: of corner stone (ulilaguva) 'slhall anchored' be floor (bubukwa) log house(liku) compartments (kabisivisi) youngsprout taytu of yam(sobula) sticks divide log cabin(teta) that the decorated front board(bisiya'i) gableboards (kavalapu) supports thatch of (kiluma) roofbatten (kavala) rafters (kaliguvasi) thatch battens (kivi) lowerridge pole (kakulumwala) thatch (katuva) upper ridge pole (vataulo) ornamented ofridge end pole (mwamwala) of Other examples, which show the same regularity structure, are: The kayikuna spellin kulabeauty(mwasila) magic(I960: 439). sulumwoya In thisspellfirst man'skulaobjects enumerated eachis saidto 'boil'; nextthe a are and performer's headparts enumerated eachin turn own are and 'boils' ('to boil', 'to foam', 'to stir'are frequently to represent used activation): Inventorykula objects of My mint plant(boils); myherbornament, limespatula, limepot,mycomb, my my bundle. mymat,mypresentation goods,mypersonal blanket, magical my Headparts enumerated My head (boils); mynose,myocciput, tongue, larynx, speaking my my my organ, mymouth. 2. The renowned wayugo (lashing creeper) spellused in canoe building magictransfers notethattechnically the construction speedto thecanoeunder (I960: 43I). We should the maintains cohesionof the variouspartsof the canoe. Here is an lashingcreeper of of enumeration the constituents the canoe,each of whichis followed the verb by heel over' (i.e. overtake): 'might Inventorycanoe of parts I (might heelover); mykeel,mycanoebottom, prow,my rib,my threading my stick, prowboard, transverse my my board,mycanoeside.
i.
in features thespells constructed such on Therearesomereadily comprehensible with words allow for a great deal of simpleprinciples."Such permutations to of whichMalinowski referred as theprosaic repetitiveness pedantry Trobriand magic. Today in the lightof communication theorywe would say thatthe to its is redundancy a deviceusedin ritual transmit message (Cherry I96I), a point thathas already beenarguedby Leach (I966). whichin contemporaryjargon of we Another implication therepetitive pattern,
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or would call 'storeof information' 'memorybank' in the absenceof written upon theKudayuri by was noted casually Malinowski.Commenting language, building and their accountof canoe parts a whichcontained detailed canoe myth the one after to recite is wrote:'lHe [thenative] quiteused sequence, Malinowski and in proceedings hisownnarratives, he does of stages customary the other various and and accuracy completeness, itis an easytaskforhim pedantic itwithan almost whichhe is calledupon to makein the to qualities theaccounts to transfer these contain (I960: 3I8). It is clearthatthespellsand myths of service ethnography' but beliefs, a livingknowledge of whichis not theremains archaic information, and to related technological socialactivities. a the and Furthermore, thisI would emphasise, spellsI have cited portray and of in operations terms combination i.e. use metonymic oflanguage, linguistic of All basedon contiguity principles. theparts a canoe,or a humanhead context, associaof or a or a yamhouse,comprise configuration a setby virtue contiguous a varied withactionwordscreates long utterance. tionwhichwhensystematically to so Metonymy used lendsa 'realistic'colouring thedescription. e.g. transference, 'The an soundsas if it states imperative Now each utterance swells'or 'The floorof myyam houseshallbe anchored'.It bellyof my garden thata magicalspellis identifiable by is a commonview,also shared Malinowski, and use by itsinsistent of imperatives thatthisprovidesthe evidenceforsaying This their effects their veryutterance. believethat wordscreate by that primitives term whichis is assertion mediated a middle by is however notthecase.The verbal and thesesubinto medica) whichthespellsare uttered; thesubstance materia (or It necessary to in recipient. is therefore stances turn conveytheattribute thefinal the substances. mediating to investigate roleofthese rites used in two contrasting in the Let us takeas our examplethe substances in of rite cutting thesoil,thefirst the cycle.The inaugural of thefirst gardening on which of has the cycle, foritspurpose conferring fertility thesoil; thevilamalia the of comes at the end is enactedafter storing the yams,and seeksto confer on and durability permanence theyamstocks.
DIAGRAM 2.
vols. i and 2 and magic, from Coral and gardens their (compiled Thesexual ofsavages). lIfe rite cutting the of soil). used inaugural (first Substances inthe and A. Leaves, plants creepers. (small yam) leaves; 'theyare of the darkgreencolourwhichthe taytu i. Yoyu:coconut are and haveifthey to be strong healthy'. leavesshould as leaves:sameassociation I). 2. Arecanut are and used 'the taytu which white beautiful; so that wildplant withlongtubers 3. Ubwara: will beautiful white tubers'. (The whitecolouris associated in thegarden alsoproduce in and withfertility purity thepregnancy ritual.) used so thatthe 'taytu shouldhave a whitepetalsof thefragrant pandanus; 4. Kaybwibwi: is of usedin pregnancy ritual smell . .' (Hereagainthesymbolism 'whiteness' . pleasant relevant.) as sameassociation 4). withscented flowers; 5. Kubila:a plant usedto influence sizeofthetaytu the yam. withbig round fruit; bulky 6. Sasoka:tree of trunk out swelling neartheground; variety banana;it has a massive largest 7. Wakaya: as sameassociation 6).
magic garden
in used The metaphorical associations substances in tworites Omarakana of
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used and 8. Youla'ula: creeper withwhiteflowers luxuriant foliage resembling foliage; taytu will is with so that taytu havethesameluxuriant the foliage; 'whiteness' associated also 'pregnancy'. withluxuriant 9. a) Ipikwanada creeper foliage, J sameassociation 8). as b) Yokunukwanada substances. B. Earthy mounds 'used IO. Ge'u: enormous scraped together thebushhenforbreeding by purposes; the mounds'. so that taytu growand swellup,likeone ofthese may ii. Kaybu'a: chalkfrom association sameas io). Also notethesymbolism of largeboulders; 'whiteness'. makein theground;'the taytu I2. Kabwabu: largeroundnests whichhornets shouldbe as and bulging largeas one ofthese nests'. Substances inVilamalia used (prosperity village ofthe magic). in A. Treesandplants; materials figure thetwoactsofvilamalia the which 'anchor' magic I-5 The metaphorical of as theyamhouseand thevillage. association theobjects regards is 'anchoring' clear. tree i. Kakema: dwarf withpowerful roots usedin thefirst of vilamalia. act to 2. Lewo: stunted tree reaching veryold age,usedin thesecond act. weedwithstrong usedin thefirst 3. Setagava: tough roots act. an tree wood cannot broken canbe cutwithan axe be but 4. Kayaulo: extremely tough whose or knife. usedin thesecond associated fierceness toughness. with and 5. Leya:wildginger act; B. Othersubstances. or stone volcanic rockimported Binabina: from south; is heavier, the it hardier less and brittle thelocaldeadcoral;thetwo stones than usedin theritual called'thepressers are of thefloor'whichimpart their to qualities thestored food.
in of The contrast the meanings the material symbolsused is clear-cut (see rite intocontact diagram In theinaugural thesubstances 2). brought withan adze whilethespellis recited luxuriant are or ritually wildplants planted green leaves, whichproduce whichproduce scented whiteflowers tubers and largetubers, plants and soil from enormous the (thewhiteconnoting fertility sexualpurity), scraped moundsmade by thebushhen,etc. In thevilamalia substances the usedconnote and hardness durability; wood of stunted toughweedswithstrong roots, longlived trees,hard volcanic rock, etc. The logic guidingthe selectionof these is force that in inheres them;they selected articles notsomemysterious are magical characters sizeandshapeandtheir on thebasisoftheir like spatio-temporal sensible like whichareabstract properties colourandhardness concepts whicharegiven and scheme symbolic valuesin theTrobriand of metaphorical classification. is What then thegarden some soil from bush a magician to whenhe scrapes up it withan adze,and recites 'The bellyofmygarden hen'snest, brings intocontact a growsto thesizeofa bushhen'snest'?Is this caseofmystical contagion between a bushhenmoundand thesizeoftheyam,orisitsimply metaphorical equivalence the of between property sizeportrayed thebushhen'snestwith setup verbally by in sameproperty theyam,and lending mental the thedesired an comparison air of operational reality usingthe soil of the bush hen's nestas a mediumof by a The transfer? rite of transfer use portrays metaphorical of language(verbal an is to via substitution) whereby attribute transferred therecipient a material as whichis usedmetonymically a transformer. Frazer would simply symbol have as the described procedure contagious magic.The technique gainsitsrealism by in a or mode of clothing metaphorical procedure the operational manipulative bothconcept and action, word and deed. practical action;it unites
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usedwithout the is argument whenwe scrutinise spells Confirmationlentto this call substances, spellswhichthe Trobrianders 'mouth of the mediation material is magic' (o wadola).A good exampleof thiscategory the magic of growth are The natives aware thatnature in performed the middlephaseof gardening. The and mustdo itsworkand thatthecropshaveto sprout growby themselves. of is by function described Malinowskithus: 'In a rapidsuccession magician's the and of each he rites, hasto anticipate stagein thegrowth thegardens, stimulate of phasesin thedevelopment theplant. . .' (I96Sa: I39). variouscrucial I3, formulae I7 and I8 in 'The magicof taken from In thefollowing examples, the linesand thenin parenthesis growth'(I96Sa: ch. 4), I statesome suggestive upon them. nativecommentary againand again'. (The native commentary sprouts tree FormulaI 3. 'O dadeda that it we rankgrowth; cutit,already has is thatthe'dadeda a plantof extremely is speed of suggesting othermetaphors contains sprouted'.)The same formula growth: the are 'Thy shoots as quickas theeyesofthekapapita, quickbird, the are Thy shoots as quickas thekababasi'a, quickblackants'. shootsalong as the millipedeshootsalong'. FormulaI7. 'Thy head, 0 taytu, of is say (The natives thatthemillipede notedforitsrapidity movement.) 0 the thy Formulai8. 'Thy openspace,theopen spacebetween branches, taytu, 'thatas thespider Malinowski toldme' reports up'. ('The natives covers spider plantproducemanybranches'.) the spinshisweb, so slhould taytu and metaphors on entirely suggestive magicdepends It is obviousthat mouth the indeed as recognise such.It is puzzling themselves whichtheTrobrianders similes on haveinsisted the should exegesis notes native on who compiled whyMalinowski associations' 'the mystical of function words' and in thesamebreath 'pragmatic invokethe the gardens Trobrianders of magic.Thus, when in the wind-blown the interprets act as porimage of a dolphinplayingin thewater,Malinowski of movements the dolbetweentheundulating association 'the mystical traying of and phinand thewindings weavings thevine . . .' (I96Sa: I70).I2 view of language, and to Becauseof his commitment his emotional pragmatic magicwith garden of the failed connect symbolism theinaugural to Malinowski The (I929). of in Thesexuallife savages whichhe described thepregnancy ritual denied bellyofmygarden'.Malinowski to refers 'the magicconstantly gardening but allusionto animalor humanfertility, he thatthisimpliedany metaphorical on commented of as wenton to say: 'My informants, a matter fact, disarmingly itin this is sense. . . " taytu thechildofthegarden"' (I96Sb: 262-3). form the illuminates inner ritual, it succinctly for the Let me consider pregnancy magician. of of Trobriand magicand also someof thebehaviour thegarden (womenof thefather's the When a womanachieves first conception tabugu her own sister)are chargedwith the chiefof whom is the father's matrilineage, skirts two mantles, and two fibre They prepare ritual. conductof thepregnancy of whitein colour;one setis wornby thepregnant womanat thecelebration her whenshe childbirth month) thesecondsetafter and (aboutthefifth first pregnancy are The mantles to and returns her conjugalhousehold. fromseclusion emerges They magicisperformed. the thegarments special on of importance which saykeulo whiteleavesof thelily of are placedon a mat,thefleshy lowerparts thecreamy
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plant (which bears snowy a white flower) cutandstrewn them the are over and tabugu thrust faces their close sayspells. and Thesymbolismthese of objects operations, and aswellasthose the of subsequent rituals, cannot understood be without paying closeattention thewords the to of spell I929: i8i). Theu'ula, stem thespell, (see the of refers thebwaytuva, to a bird ofwhite plumage (similar thereef to heron) which invited hover is to overthe bathing placeandtheprincipal of locations water thevillage. white in The bird is themajor symbol there no doubt the and is that pregnancy stands the cloak for bird's plumage. tapwana, mainpartof thespell, The the shows following the patterni: white is saidto make the bird resplendent different oftherobe the parts (thetop, fringe, etc.) whichare namedin turn;nextthe birdmakesresplendent various the parts thebody the of of pregnant woman from headtofoot (head, nose, cheeks, chest, belly, groins, buttocks, thighs, knees, calves feet). and The dogina, conclusion thespell, the of states thepregnant that woman been has a is whitened;metaphorical between head the the equivalencestated of woman and the pallor before dawn, face the her and white sprouts the of areca plant (I929: I82). It is clear therobe(which that materially represents bird) itscharming the and havefortheir of'whiteness' thepregnant the to objective transference woman. Thisis alsotheemphasis theceremony which woman actually in at a is invested bythetabugu therobe with after months pregnancy. is carried the of five She into on water a 'queen's chair' formed human of arms, cleansed bathed, and isolated from earth made stand a mat, the and to on subjected an elaborate which to toilet smoothes andwhitens body, out her dressed a robe, in lifted carried deup, and on posited a small in she platform herfather's mother's or brother's house. There remains elevated, sacred separated: should speak, is fedby her and she not she because cannot tabugu she touch and tobecome food, shewashes frequently white, indoors andkeeps the awayfrom sun. Thusthe'whiteness' which conveyed thewomanitself is to for stands the attributes elevation, of sexual 'she about purity whitening doesnot think (by and adultery' shemust henceforth also refrain sexual from intercourse her with and of husband) beauty motherhood. bathing The ceremony, from apart ritually in womb. cleansing loosens child the her, the Thepregnant is to woman subjected certain taboos: avoids food she delicacies, fruit it for fruit child havea bigbelly, willbe the will mainly (kavaylu'a) ifsheeats of full excrement die.Shealsoavoids that insubmarine andfish fish live and holes, fins. is with and sharp-pointed poisonous Thelogicofthese taboos a metaphorical and is rule food similarity difference which thefirst of Trobriand taboos: principle an to of mother edible that e.g.normally things suggest analogy thecondition the insome in and in are respect ofthetree, fish holes likethechild thewomb) (fruit butarealsoantagonisticcertain in other in respects rot, fish submarine (fruit and must delivered be holesdo noteasily and emerge, a child but easily whole)are tabooed. One more offacts set to into before return the we to requires be brought focus is In pregnancy theconcept 'whiteness'opposed of to garden magician. the ritual, theconcept 'blackness' black of of The of has woman magic. father thepregnant togive ofthe towomen possess who black to part sagali distribution magic, appease 'for the the to them, byaddressing mwanita [black millipede: symbol opposite the
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is whitebird],thesorceress able to makea pregnant woman'sskinblack,as black as thewormitself' is Ifa woman'sskin blackshehasmenon hermind. (1929: I90). Now thecustoms mourning of after on death, especially those imposed a widow, showa precise of associated withpregnancy. colourofmourning The reversal those is black and the widow's mourning is behaviour concordant with the idea of ugliness. The widow's hairis shaved,she wearssoiledclothes, cannotwear she ornaments, body is thickly her smeared withsoot and greasewhichwill not be washedoff a long time.Her bodyblackness associated for is withtheblackness of witchcraft whichsheandhermatrikin must disavow.She is confined a in publicly to insidethehouse.But herritual smallcage and relegated darkness uncleanliness in also resulting her separateness sharessome aspectsof the sacredstateof the pregnant woman,in thatthewidow too shouldnotspeakand cannot touchfood has and therefore to be fed. Some of the symbolism the inaugural of rite gardening and the food taboos in on of imposed thegarden magician becomeintelligible thelight these facts. Both the gardenand the magicianare considered 'pregnant'.It is the gardenthatis impregnated activated indicated theword vatuvi, first and (as by the wordof the which means'to make rise'), and the whitescented magic formula, vegetable and substance coralchalkused in theritehave thesamevalue as thewhitesubstances thepregnancy in ritual. But it is themagician who simulates woman the and practises food taboos.Thus in theact of 'striking soil', as he inserts her the a a sapling he into the ground, assumes femalesitting whichno male position formensquatandwomensitwiththeir wouldnormally buttocks adopt, touching theground(i965a: ioi). The food taboos he observes the following. cannoteat immature are He or imperfect taytu takenfromthe soil duringthe thinning process, theyimply for imperfect children; thesinabirdwithblackplumage,cuttle whichsquirt and fish blackfluid, other blackfish and whichlive amongcoralrocks(all associated with theinauspiciousnessblack)areforbidden. alsoavoidstheflesh theordinary of He of bushhen and its eggs,wakaya and tubers the ubwara of all bananas, creeper, of whichare either in in mentioned thespellor usedas substance theinaugural rite: thelogicofthese taboosbelongs a secondruleelucidated to below. One lastexample willhelpto roundoff discussion itintroduces third our for the primary colourofredandalsobrings other out dimensions thelogicofthefood of taboos.The aim of the'beautymagic' of kula(mwasila) to makeeach man atis tractive irresistible hiskulapartner, themagicharks and to and backto themyth in which an ugly old man is transformed into a radiant,charmingyouth. All the voyagerswash in sea water,rub themselves with medicatedleaves, apply coconut grease on theirbodies,tease out theirhair with combs,paint ornamental in designson theirfacesin red and black, and insert theirwhite in armlets mintplants preserved coconutoil. In thespellsrecited (e.g. kaykakaya and talospells, I960: 338-9)themajor reference to redcolouras represented see is kindsofredfish red by certain (e.g. 'Red paint, paintoftheudawada fish')which of are the'foundation' thespell.With characteristic the regularity spellsaysthat thevarious up' kulaappurtenances theparts theheadofeachmanwill'flare and of and 'flash'. It is clearthat magicdoesnotsaythat menbecomeredfish that this or the there
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a postulates comparison but them, it simply between identity is a substantial redness face, on of fish the between redness the andtheredpainting thehuman the time fact Atthe attractiveness. same and for standing flashing irresistible itself and ('We eatbad fish we are foodon theexpedition red are that fish tabooed with by ugly')leavesus in no doubtthattheidentification redfish physical the and is metaphorical, that that is ingestionrepudiated, thecomparisonstrictly Thus resemblance. we and qualities notphysical of made 'transfer' is that abstract as invoked metaphors objects food law the caninfer second ofTrobriand taboos: be must of ritual tothe are attributes tobe transferred recipient the abstract whose with identification any thereby unambiguously as avoided food, rejecting physical them. is frame, semantic its symbolism, inner magical of My elucidation Trobriand magic to who beauty from of different that Malinowski attributedthis quite thus it of concatenation ideas' and saidthat and obscure confused 'an exceedingly of the of thought, contagion ideas'as forms magic 'one expressed ofthetypical can Thereis muchmorethat be saidaboutTrobriand by propounded Frazer. not a organisation shows systematic which again (see symbolism appendix) colour the misunderstood that It by appreciated Malinowski. wouldappear Malinowski of he but of 'semantics' themagiche described, that had a keenappreciation frame. its of magic, outer feature that another activity between and magic technical Therelation its magic, pragframe Trobriand of is I questiondealwith theouter Thefinal Trobriand between Whatis therelation as which shall I phrase follows: matics, Trohere that I must emphasise I am dealing with activity? and magic practical of that argue theexamination thefunctional magic briand prospective andI shall ofthe a revealsrefraction magical activity and magic technical between relationship appreciated. fully yet that prism hasnot been or of activities but in conducted a vacuum, inthecontext other is A rite never did that insisted theTrobrianders it. it which events precede andfollow Malinowski la of the for (megwa keda) work; them road magic with magic practical notconfuse time, Yet la work (bagula keda). atthesame from wasdistinct theroadofgarden from inseparable eachother, ideas, workwere,in native magicand practical not they though were confused. doubt there he and (linguistic behavioural) provided, islittle From evidence the as must or building be seen onelong of the that wholecycle gardening ofcanoe of a form regular which pattern M-*T, M->.T, M->-T, of series activities operation the rite for M M-*T; where stands themagical andT for technical is a activityinvolved.) S for succeeds (We couldsubstitute T where social it. that in two is there a longchain which showthat clearly Malinowski's descriptions in It sequence. isonly were kinds distinguishable ofactivities united analternating of the that for we building, example, firstly sequences technical when seeincanoe and them, secondly rites precede are by construction punctuated magical which bound is canoe inextricably of the for that theTrobriander building theseagoing of in the of (that fact constructionthe the proceedings thekula up with general the that of kula is first in chain the exchanges), we canappreciate canoe the link the
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to relation the rites of semantic content the magicalspellsand thefunctional of their extra-ritual context. activities of rites technical and Diagram3 is a summary thesequences magical of three sequences form single a chain.I shallselect in canoebuilding whichtogether in to comment. The ligogu spellis uttered theory in canoebuilding particular for activity of impartmagical virtueto the adze; it is followedby the technical the scoopingout thecanoe hulland making canoeparts;thespellas suchevokes operation is imagesof thefantastic speedof thecanoe aboutto be built.Another of by thefixing theornamental preceded thereciprowboards;it is immediately tation kulabeauty of magicwhichwill makethecanoeownerirresistibly (mwasila) to One ofthemostimportant the (lashing attractive hiskulapartner. spells, wayugo in imparts great speedto thecanoewhilethetechnical creeper), itsverbalcontent of operation thatfollowsis thefixing gunwaleplanksand ribs,and the lashing of withthelashing creeper. together theparts
Mi in of (M) andtechnical sequences canoebuilding. (T) DIAGRAM 3. The inter-relationmagical expert). except first performed thecanoe-building the are by i. First phase ritual (all sequences in and expulsion before tree, the which anticipaRite ofoffering wood-spirits their to is to tionisreferred as 'canoe' (waga), cut. of shapeofthecanoe. Felling thetree cutting thelog intotherough of and the of it Rite fordispelling heaviness thelog and forgiving lightness; spellalso the canoe. evokestheimageofa fast of Carrying thelog to thebeach. virtue theadze; thespell fact to in evokes of magical Chanting theligugu to impart spell and imagesof thefantastic speedof the canoe and its parts(whichare enumerated withspeed). charged of Scooping ofthecanoeandmaking thecanoeparts. out the up Rite of 'finaldetermination'; canoemakes itsmindto runquickly.
Ti M2 T2 M3 T3 M4
2.
4.
l{.
4-
are by of canoe (toliwaga)). Secondphase ritual (all sequences performed theowner the MS to his partner. by Kulabeauty (mwasila) magicis performed theowner influence kula Ts M6 T6 M7 T7 M8 4. T8 S Fixing ornamental of prowboards. of creeper) spellto givespeedto thecanoe. Chanting wayugo (lashing and of of andlashing theparts withthecreeper. Fixing gunwale planks ribs to and the Ritesof smoking fumigating cleanse canoeand to impart speed;chanting overthepaints. spells of red colour), and whitecolours. Painting thecanoewithblack(primary of Kula (mwasila) on magicand 'staining theredmouth'(ochrespots bow and stern) performed. of Launching thecanoe. concluded withthe ceremonial socialactivity sagali(ceremonial and of Proceedings to distributionfoodby thecanoeowner thebuilders helpers). of and
4,
focusof thecanoemagicasjudged by thewordssaidis It is clearthatthechief in kula is thesubsequent activities whichreputation gainedthrough speedand the of seaworthiness the canoe whichgive renownto the owner,and thepersonal successof each man in his dealings withhis partner. But thereappearsto be a in wordsaresaidimmediately out before scooping thelog, discrepancy thatthese or lashing canoe,or fixing prow-boards are indeedaddressed the the the to and and usedin theseoperations. Hence we maywell wonderhow implements parts of thedramatic of can to description feats sailing give magicalvirtue an adze or
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of whatrelation fixing theprow-boards to thebeauty the owner.Since the has of in explanations terms irrational of mystical associations seemto me to be therefuge of theliteral-minded, I mustseeka different answer. is Surely there another way forward? can askthequestion We whether there is not an expansion overflow meaning of and from mechanics theriteto the the of humanparticipants themselves, who, let us not forget, alwayspart of the are scene.I shallpresently examinethissuggestion morerigorously, let me here but pose thequestion whether sharpadze is not an extension partof thecanoe a and and an of builder, theornamental prow-board apt representation thepainted face and plumedhead of the canoe-owner leadingan expedition? More importantly, is not the expandedmeaningof the magicalritualan imaginative, prospective and creative of understanding thevery technological operations socialactivities and theTrobrianders preparing enact? are to It was precisely becausehe viewedTrobriand magicin terms the'contextof of situation' thatMalinowski illuminatingly arguedthatmagicsignals, inaugurates andregulates work.Buthe subjected positive systematic this functional sociological statement a negative to function whichwas in direct psychological contradiction of to thefirst. arguednarrowly He thatmagicis a product man'slimitations of of thatit is objectively absurdbut has thought, gapsin his empirical knowledge, as a subjective rationale an anxiety-queller. thusreduceda highly pragmatic He formalised structured and to of system thespontaneous expression emotion with no intellectual content. would be more in line with his evidenceto say that It Trobriand to of thatitslogic is an magicis a testimony the creativity thought, I effect. am not merely that incentives to anticipatory stating themagicprovides More importantly is a blue-print it work-thoughthatis a partof the matter. and a self-fulfilling and for an prophecy embodies theTrobriander understanding in of the technical, and of aesthetic evaluative properties his activities, a manner is civilisation. pointaboutgardening not that The deniedto us in our segmented it is uncertain thatit is a regularised but activity repeated yearafter yearand with valuesreflected generous in whichis associated prideof matrilineal the urigubu is it but the payments; pointaboutthekula not so muchthedangers carries that are made to proveindividual success expeditions regularly through competitive with cast fierce In transactions neighbours in therole of stereotyped foreigners. a not sense Trobriand whatthey magicalrituals produce predict, in idealorfantastic as in but thatare in accordance withreality. The terms painted myths in terms and successes. Trobrianders regularly enjoygood harvests kula the PerhapsI can make my point obliquelythrough words of Wittgenstein, who wrote: 'An intention embedded itssituation, humancustoms institutions. is in in and If thetechnique thegame of chessdid not exist, could not intend play of I to in a gameofchess. so faras I do intend construction a sentence advance, In of the is that madepossible thefact I in that canspeakthelanguage question' by (I953: io8). The Trobrianders practise prospective magic because theyhave engagedin to conceived in systematically activities thepastand becausetheyintend engage in them thefuture. whenfate when in of But doeswithhold regularity events, the
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strikes whencanoesproveunseaor pigsrunaway intothebush,whendrought to of with worthy, resort a retrospective they system evilmagic(bulubwalata) which their withfailure. withall classic As to re-order experience cometo terms and types ex not of witchcraft, Trobriand the system dealswithmisfortunes post, in terms of of an of 'laws ofnature' in terms deviation but from idealorder socialrelations. We can now return the question:to whom are rituals to addressed what and of do is whenthe kinds effects they seekto produce? Thisquestion notproblematic in rituals questionare directly addressed humanbeingsas in healingrituals, to initiation rites, beautymagicand thelike (e.g. Levi-Strauss I963: ch. IO; Turner rites? and I964). But whataboutagricultural canoe building Descriptions anby of us thropologists thesealmost persuade thatit is immaterial objectssuchas the adze and thecanoe or thesoil thatare addressed thatthespellsand magical and are in contravention knownphysical substances usedas causalagents direct of laws. us case Malinowski The Trobrianders provide witha revealing whichmystified Beforeand after filling thecerethe of and whichthrows lighton our problem. houses(bwayma) words monialyam the theyperform vilamalia magic: theritual are anchortheyam house,and hardbinabina stones and toughsubstances placed on thefloorto impart of Malinowski his qualities durability. phrased incomprethus:'Whereastheobjective hension facts revealto us that wholeperformance the of at is directed theyam-house, thefoodaccumulated at there, comments the the nativemake the human organism of the real subject-matter magic influence' (i965a: 226). While therite saysthattheyam house,yamsand thevillageshould the have not the slightest doubt thatit does not directly endure, Trobrianders act on thefood but on thehumanorganism, specifically humanbelly.If the the vilamalia werenotperformed andwomanwouldwantto eatall thetime, man but its after performance hunger would be reduced, and the yamswould rotin the storehouse. Malinowskifound this explanationastonishing and wrote an unnecessary on and harangue theTrobrianders' misunderstandingtheprocess nutrition of of metabolism (matched theirmisapprehension the fundamentals human by of of procreation). What are thefacts? The natives havepostulated homology a between yam the house and the humanbelly.A man's ceremonial storehouse is filledwith the urigubu gifts-the yamsare usedprimarily ceremonial for distributions forwasi or (ceremonial barter). The yamsare the foundation wealthand a Trobriander of gloatsoverhisfullstorehouse. One neverreturns yamto thestorehouse adds a or to itscontents. is better lettheyamrotthandeplete stock. It to the Whiletheyamhouseshould 'full',thehuman be stomach whichdiminishes the yamsshouldbe 'empty'.The Trobriand ideologyin the midstof plenty that is abstention fromfood is a virtue, and to have littlefood or to show hungeris shameful. Thereis no greater insult than foodthine' 'thyhunger'.Now, in 'no or Trobriand thought bellyis notonlythereceptable food,it is also theseatof the of emotions understandiing and of formulae and (I965a: io). It is thestorehouse magical i.e. traditions, it is theseatof memory 409). Sincethebellyis thetabernacle (I960: of magicalforce, food taboosand restrictions intimately are connected withthe preparations themagician achievea sacred of to state before performing magic. The Trobriand logic is thata riteconducted realistically makethestorehouse to
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its the bellyto restrain analogy urging human a is endure really metaphorical the 'hears'and'understands' rite that for and hunger greed food.It is thebelly The carry object. Trobrianders the on is performed aninanimate which externally taboo There conclusion. isa Trobriand oncooking to exacting furtherits metaphor the near yam ring in inner ofthevillage that on imposed anydwelling stands the and there, stand dwelling and house thechief's the only bachelor In houses. fact, of is of taboo interms phrasing the The in is cooking prohibitedthem. Trobriand to Is of (yam)to thesmell cooking'. it so difficult of the'sensibility thetaytu of in vicinity to that belly is sensitive cooking the that understand itis thehuman houses? the yam to is the whatever idiom, addressed the that to it Thus ispossible argue allritual, and to attempts re-structure which and participants usesa technique human and verbal combines technique The of actors. and the integrate minds emotions the is Language anartificial properties. their and behaviour exploits special non-verbal it reality: thus to owesnothing external is that and construct itsstrength itsform past refer andcomparisons, totime andfuture images to the enjoys power invoke on action the Non-verbal inaction. be cannot represented which events andrelate by analogically do-it cancodify easily cannot in whatwords handexcels other implications multiple acts technical andexpress reproduce realevents, imitating in actions realphysical enlargement, Words simultaneously. excelin expressive presentation. istic confused by than to rather being mind saythat, to savage tribute the Itisa truer conlaws, of physical it ingeniously in or fallacies acting defiance known verbal with of propertieslanguage theoperational and joinstheexpressive metaphorical operamagical which gives It activity.isthis of propertiestechnical andempirical through their to them achieve expressiveness and a colouring allows tions 'realistic' that technique combined withan instrumental and verbal substitution transfer treats magic saidthat (I963: 22I) hasaptly Levi-Strauss action. practical imitates Let of determinism.meemphasise are as actions ifthey part physical certain human are the and here, that mechanics also involved there onlya simulation is that not laws' which implies onlythat of by accompanied a 'humanisation natural but meanings also that are dates givensymbolic and objects sensory material Language actors. by and are entities postulated impersonatedhuman supernatural and to on of relation ritual myth theonehand inthis importantly double figures instrumental on theother. action the from Frazerian ourselves allowsus notonlyto retrieve Thisperspective Mauss formulation. (I902-3) in problems Mauss's but absurdity alsotoseecertain of thought. ideas magical area category collective right wassurely inhisviewthat on and in primarily to He wasnotsensitive theroleofwords magic concentrated the he of as of the act. themanual Taking notion mana hispoint reference,located of to of comparable ourconcept force theessence magic, as of concept spiritual magicto themoregeneral ableto assimilate and force', was thus 'mechanical on principle variation the as Magicwas described a 'gigantic of theme causality. was that step But theoretical alsoledhimto assert magic 'absurd ofcausality'. this some understood aspects Mauss perhaps While reason'. of the from standpointpure he of the especially technique transfer, action, of frame magical of the inner and meanings refractions. missed expanded its
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not has Levi-Strauss applaudedMauss's views and has therefore been able to in contained them. In The savagemind fromthe difficulties extricate himself of whenhe first in vacillates a series equivocations argues (I966 ch. I) Levi-Strauss an determinism, an on the linesof Mauss, thatmagic postulates all-embracing in 'an of apprehension thetruth determinism', actoffaith a science of 'unconscious in his magicis likescience;thenshifts ground thefaceof yetto be born',i.e. that thannot to order results say thatto orderis better to illusory magic'ssometimes in aesthetic 'taxonomy' as represented magicalideas has eminent and therefore magicand says value,i.e. magicis like art; and finally thattheanalogybetween it magicand science, of instead contrasting science merely is formal, therefore and modesofacquiring knowledge'. them twoparallel as wouldbe better compare 'to wit has that primitive withincomparable and the at Thesevacillations indicate least puzzle. Malinowskiwas by an posed for anthropology ingenious imagination close and moreconsistent lessequivocaland in somewaysremarkably comparison Malinowskiwas quite clear in his mind thatTrobriand to Evans-Pritchard.13 impliedin their withideas of determinism magicalideasshouldnot be confused activity was equally clear thatmagic and practical and he practicalactivities; itself view commends to This werejoined in complementarityone totalseries. in serious consideration.
Trobriand coloursymbolism red colours-white, and black-which appearto have threeprimary The Trobrianders unamWhiteand redhave relatively are of aesthetic, importance. symbolic ceremonial and it although aspects shifting context, with and blackhas positive negative biguousmeanings, valuesis their conthan single too has a dominant moreimportant their meaning. Perhaps in as colours combined, forexample faceandcanoe are significance all three when figurational and I of the below first connotations each colourseparately thenof all painting. summarise three combination. in
APPENDIX:
Primary colours associated with colouris that A white appears thedominant as in White. setofrituals which is for The dominant symbol thespellandtherite thewhite to pregnancy (referred in thetext). whichthe bird bwaytuva, the whitepigeon.The fibre bananaleaf cloaksand skirts or or white the pregnant womandonsare whitein colour.In theriteforcharming cloakcreamy her the leavesandwhite flowers thelilyareused.During toilet faceandbodyofthewoman of ornaments. (Note arestroked withwhite shell and of withthemother pearlshell sheis decked ritual white the that kula In and (armlets).) thepregnancy the valuables red(necklaces) white are of of and in symbolism expressed terms whitening smoothing theskinand body.Washing is of for: and cleansing achieve objective. also Whiteness stands beauty bodybutnotof here this womanmustnot an erotic in sexualpurity thatthepregnant or kind; fertility conception; like of in elevated status that thechief, with or indulge adultery evenintercourse herhusband; agricultural and on expressed sitting a platform being'offtheground'.In theinaugural by of whichalso connotes of impregnating thesoil and therising thebellyof thegarden, rite, peripheral has white are and substances used(seetext).Whiteness alsocertain vegetable chalky and that the as blight attacks yamleaves albinism connotations in thecaseofthewhite negative ofhuman beings. symbols being one dominant with and are Black. Witchcraft sorcery associated black, oftheir the with ugly of is Blackness skin considered anduiattractive; black mwanita, blackmillipede. skin(as opposedto whitened deformity deand baldness, skin, boils,ulcers, skin)go patchy is adultery women:ifa woman'sskin blackshehas in Blackness connotes also fective speech. in customs expression mourning mnen hermind.Blackness itsunambiguous emphatic gets on whenthewidowwearsdirty and she withgrease charcoal, does her clothes, bodyis blackened notwashand is prohibited Thusblackis ornaments scent. and wearing festive clothes, from
2-M.
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her by Paradoxically shaving headhairand by being dirt. and withphysical ritual associated whichmay of are showthat they innocent witchcraft the blackened, widow(andtheaffmes) when comprehensible we examine more will of But the havecaused death. shaving hair become and of conceptions beauty headdecoration. Trobriand however, Blackness, of the include avoidance blackfish. foodtaboos magician's The garden oil and withcharcoal coconut headis smeared A virtue. child's positive contexts hasin certain has beautiful. is Also,blackcolour the A to maketheheadstrong. blackheadofhair positively and witchcraft, evilintentions. it with-sorcery, powerto dispeltheverything is associated it connotations. with colours haspositive Whenblackis usedin combination other on puts the magicforattracting kulapartner emphasis red.Red paintis Red.Kula beauty I960: 337, (see magicspells Malinowski is calledtalo, which alsothenameofoneofthemwasita foodfor is in 339). The majorsymbol thismagicis thered fish.Red fish also theproper power.Rednesson the whole in presumably orderto 'animate' themor their ancestors, charmand beauty.The main wordsasirresistible physical animation, radiance, connotes perritual (I960: 449). In thebeauty (flashes) up) (flares and inamila withtaloareikata sociated of value.Chewing betelnut has redness erotic and dancing courtship, formed ceremonial for Loverschewbetelnuttogether. with'excitement'. red produces liquid)is associated (which spell. it after to nut In thekula, betel is given thepartner charming witha seducing of theory the that Trobriand with association blood,except to Red appears haveno special to Nor doesit appear flesh contributes andbloodto thechild. the says conception that mother have valuesas amongtheNdembu.The Trobrianders no for stand conspicuously matrilineal is and menstruation, there 'no pronounced at ablutions first nor taboos, special menstruation I929: I44-5). blood' (Malinowski dislike dreadofmenstruous or ornamentation Facepainting (soba)andhead that notes all three at points Malinowski several in activity. All thecolours cometogether this but scrolls designs, he doesnotbother and withgraceful of colours usedfor are painting theface and ornamental as he because viewsthematter simply primarily the to document intricacies, and ornamentation ceremonial of a appreciation Trobriand more.Buthe shows lively nothing basis. the evidence us to compile symbolic for and enough display, provides oil. them witharomatic The wishedbut their bodies, anoint rarely paint The Trobrianders of face of beautiful is that The is state thebodyand itsskin 'whiteness'. shape theideally of for are and imageroundness whiteness expressed. I929: 249), in which thefull moon(Malinowski whiletheseatof is on of The mainerotic interest theTrobriander focused theheadandface, and and in is emotions located thelowerpartofthebody,in thebreasts belly.Face painting with associated of are feature beautymagic in general head ornamentation an important the to Bothmenandwomenappear practise dancing. kula rituals, and ceremonial pregnancy sametoilet. of is froma compound thus. are The three paints manufactured Red (talo)paint obtained made betelnutand lime; redochreis also used.Whitepaintwas traditionally from crushed leadis alsoused.Thereare white but coral, imported kinds claymixedwithcrushed certain of fibre charor charred coconut madefrom paint (sayyaku) of two kinds blackpaint-aromatic charcoal is blacking. which theordinary withscented coconut andnowa oil, coal mixed are and withpaints ornaments, given The individual of parts thefaceand head,decorated 'the seatof of the desire', The eyesare considered 'gateways erotic values. aesthetic complex ducts communicating to the (I929: I4I) with passion desire lust',thecause(u'ula)ofsexual and Howof of lowerparts thebody.(The eyeswe maynotearea combination blackandwhite.) off are and (The biting of blackhairon thefaceis notappreciated, theeyebrows shaved. ever, of that in is play.)Nextto theeyesitis themouth is thefocus theeyelashes indulged in sexual the The attention. magicof talo(theredpaintmadeofbetelnut)is usedto redden lips.The manwitha special are which blackened contact by the against teeth vermilion aresetoff lips with and normally and groveroot.The earlobesarepierced theholesenlarged ornamented, The shell with madeespecially redspondylus discs. shell ornaments of earrings turtle andother hair moppy body).Blackthick head(andnoton anyother ofthe part hair placefor isthe proper considered ugly.The Trobrianders hair being is highly grey appreciated, orwhite and baldness or such mop and haveelaborate modesofhair-dressing hairstyles, as thefavourite (gugwapo'u)
THE
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205
form thereare full theelongated cylindrical (bobobu); separate mourning styles, including shaving state oftheheadto convey withdrawal from normal andobligatory life assumption a dirty of withflaming attire blackheadofhairis crowned the (I929: 253). In ceremonial (red)hibiscus and arm The wornon thebodyarerednecklaces white shells. flowers. ornaments to We havelittle information aboutfacial designs: white, though used, appears haveseconOne could guessthatred colours. daryemphasis red and blackpaintare thedominant and the and blackforpowerto dispel evilforces intentions and stands animation erotic for charm, On other stemming from human beings. thewholethefaceand headdecorations emphasise in and its in redandblack, withwhite showing thearmlets beinggiven valuemainly relation to thebodyandskin. as of Festive dressforwomenis described a 'radiantcombination crimson, purpleand is Normaldress theyellowish-whitegolden skirts' blackprobably or golden (with excluded?). or colourof fibre bananaleafskirts. Canoe painting in of the is The canoe(waga) alsopainted thethree is primary colours, which most important that dominance blackis expressive thecanoe's the of I960: I40). It is clear of black(Malinowski the and or of Whenthecanoehas speed, thepowerofdispelling withstanding dangers sailing. are rites exorcism conducted, smoke cleanse andto of to and it beenconstructed, magical three This is of impart speedand lightness. sequence followed thepainting thecanoe.Ritesare by for for performed eachpaint:thekaykoulo blackpaint,the malakava red paintand the for is and pwakaforwhite paint (I960: 4I6). The first compulsory others (the beingoptional), the bird called of of and substances arethewings thebat,thenest a small used posisiku dried bracken in to leaves(all blackbuthereconnoting, addition dispelling power,lightness therefore and The are with husk. first ceremonial strokes black madewith of are speed) which charred coconut mixture charred of coconut. this followed a watery mixture, by of It is clearthatthemagicof blackpaintand thesymbolism thecolouris related the to witches who Trobriand notion female of flying (mulukwausi) in thenighttaketheform of etc. and flying foxes nightbirds, andattack or corpses ship-wrecked sailors. byan inversion But this sameimageofthewitch becomes imageofthemuchdesired the 'flying canoe' (see'Myth of Kayaduri'in Malinowski I960) whichhas great speedand powerto dispeldangers. The used are brew'. substances in themagic a 'witch's is The nextpainting of sequence the'staining theredmouth'of thecanoe: a cowrieshell is The at attached the to prowboard is (tabuyo)stained eachend(bowandstern). rite a component ofkulamagic, and theredmaybe saidto symbolise animation flashing the and beauty the of Malinowski no on canoe.Unfortunately and provides dataon thedesigns theprowboards how see werepainted XXVI and XXVII in Malinowskii they (however, plates I960). of The reader the coloursymbolism theasserto maywishto relate significance Trobriand is made of tions hypothesis byTurner and of (I966). There confirmationhisthesis a basic colour in triad. Each colourmaybe emphasised rituals in separately particular (white pregnancy rites, redin kulamwasila beauty or blackin mortuary butthey alsocometogether a magic, rites) as in and for configuration facepainting canoepainting. But,unlike theNdembu,redforthe does to Trobrianders notappear be an ambivalent colour. Theydo nothunt do they nor fear is and menstrual blood.White positive, blackdominantly negative, ittooinitsproper but place can to virtues. and context be inverted produce positive
NOTES
I am grateful EdmundLeachforreading critically to and on commenting this lecture while He it wasinpreparation. is of course responsible itslimitations controversial for not and stateI ments. am also grateful M. Egan andW. Dissanayake providing withmostofthe to for me on information thewordsusedin Sinhalese rituals. healing I Malinowski's theoretical concemwithlanguageprobably started after first his tripto he Kiriwina I9I6. In Argonautsthe in of western Pacific hadbegunto state ideaswhich the were in formalised theclassic supplement Ogden and Richards to Sincemagicwas so per(I923). vasivein theTrobriands his other all works(e.g. I929) contained further elaborations his of viewson language. attempted mostelaborate He his statement thetwo volumes Coral in of gardens their and magic, which considered bestwork. he his
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2 Recentliterature one way or another beensensitive theroleof words ritual. in to has in Freedman (I967) has referred thedidactic to nature thesongssungwhena Chinese of bride leavesherhomeand thesignificance bawdysongs of before is deflowered. she Goody(I962) has reported Lodagafuneral speeches chants and (which interestingly largely are impromptu though they alwaysuse phrases a proverbial of kind).Middleton's (I960) analysis thecult of ofthedeadamongtheLugbara, to alludes theritual addresses madeby elders. therites (adi) In and of sacrifice purification, in which legitirnise changes thealignment lineage of segments, the addresses recount traditional lore,genealogical history, animosities quarrels the the and of participants themotive identity theagent and and of responsible theillness. for Moredramatic is Spencer's description (I965) of the'brain washing' Samburu of brides inquisitorial by elders. Tumer(I96I) hasdescribed cybernetic the function Ndembudivination a form social of as of and But of concentrates on analysis a mechanism socialredress. eventhissupreme exponent majorsymbols (Turner I962; I964; I966) to theexclusion words of because said:itis precisely Tumerseeksthemeanings symbols theverbalexplanation in of of (exegesis) hisinformants thathe has successfully our pushed understanding ritual of awayfrom sympathetic magicto expressive symbolism. Would not thenan analysis the wordsused directly theritual of in this In advance kindofinterpretation further? a wayitisA. I. Richards's Chisungu (I956) which shines in in morebrilliantly this galaxy:for herdescription theinitiation of for ceremony girls amongtheBemba,a ceremony which explicitlyteaching was a device, highlights comshe the plex inter-relation songs, of mimes, ritual objects and actions, whichcomprise system a of and of to She that knowledge a mnemonic theroles be assumed. concludes themumbo-jumbo I in was oneoftheprized items informationthesociety. throw forgood measure of in Kuper's of description theRoyal Incwalaceremony (I96I), ifonlyto indicate that Gluckman's theory of or turns of therituals rebellion (I954), rightly wrongly conceived, on crucially theinterpretation songs of sungduring installation. the 3 There alsoa fourth ofwords is use in which do notdiscuss, I namely, comicdialogues prose in whichareinterludes theritual. 4 The account owesmuch information to provided M. Egan andW. Dissanayake. by Egan's of ritual and study Sinhalese will,whenit is published, a morecorrect revealing give analysis and of form buildup theceremony. that oftheuseofwords thekinds verbal 5 A book written Sinhalese in (Andris Appuhamy a I927) makes cogent caseforthecomof prehensibility intellectual and structure mantra. Mantra usually are recorded memorised and someofthem though maybe transmitted orally. 6 While theBuddhist situation showsa disjunction between sacred the languageand the of in we be aboutthelackof language ordinary discourse, should careful drawing conclusions of can knowwhich understandingPali chants thecongregation. by Villagers recognise chants, for occasion understand ofthekeywords, they and some for havesome areappropriate which of sermons which infull in part are or in measure moral instruction rendered thelocal through Furthermore a number them of havethemselves monks thepast,although been in language. this countered thequickobsolescence liturgical is of that or by learning hasno direct relevance use Thusthedisjunction nevertheless is there. frequent in laylife. 71In respect thefirst I of somereaders the conclusion mayfeelthat havecheated ignoring by in caseoftheuseof'mystical sounds' 'unintelligible' and and phonemes the mantras dhdranYs in of of tantric and Hinduism Buddhism (and theMuslimtechnique dhikr mystical Sufism, to uninformed to it the aboutwhichI am altogether except saythat appears resemble tantric are for and The of is the technique). theory thedharanrthat phonemes 'supports' concentration to The as will revealtheir meditation. sounds suchare not 'meaningless'; they meaning the are Thus thesounds secret initiated meditation onlyduring accompanied yogicexercises. by are to Furthermore dharant different the from to theinitiated unintelligible theuninitiated. and is secular the to the ordinary language onlybecause latter considered inadequate communicate a language discovers primordial that the consciousness. This mystical experience; represent they of within confines conventions the and thensquarely theory placesthelanguageof dhdranY normallanguage a system communication. phonemes as of The and 'distorted' wordsare the use a full from secular taken and constitute language putto special bythesects. Theyhardly as to in blownlanguage such.My argument anycaserelates massreligions. 8 There arethus aboutsixfunctional to levels: relations be analysed to relating thefour i. The relation myth what enacted the to is in ritual. of 2. The relation the of persona myth theritual of to practitioners recruitment, etc.). (pedigree, of time 3. The relation mythical to present reality. day it inbetween ritual a symbolic and who 4. The relation (as form) theofficiants enact (which cludes modeoftraining theofficiant thetaboosandspecial the of rules that and applyto him). between whichit is supposed ritual and the socialor practical activities to S. The relation influence.
THE
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207
Thereare thusimportant in and convergences theideas of Malinowski Evans-Pritchard, of whatever critique Levy-Bruhl Malinowskianis their other Evans-Pritchard's differences, they in whilein others why do primitives somesituations behave'ritually'or 'mystically' behave'empirically', whydo thesameobjects evokedifferent attitudes ritual nonin and and ritual contexts?
REFERENCES
does in factproduce it. . .' (I937: 475, 476, 477).
and activities occupations. and 6. Therelation between ritual practitioners non-ritual 9 Thereappearsto be a resemblance formulation and betweenMalinowski's pragmatist lies of 'The meaning words intheir (I953: use' Wittgenstein's oft-quoted operational that view on for Wittgenstein placedemphasis 8o, I09). But thisresemblance superficial, although is are he meanings bestestabcontext thedetermination meaning, wenton to arguethat in of is wordsforeachother, that and which language likea gameof chess, lished substituting by his views brings functional theory linewithstructuralist (UllmanI957). in I0 Malinowski was where mediating the object anessential distinguished ofimpregnation rites as in of component thefinal of objectof magic(either an implement themaking it, or as a in which object the chanted overandthen used constituent ofit)from part rites transference of of object had connexion with final the as themedium transfer magical of of virtue no intrinsic and But is between rites, the magic, a pregnancy e.g. cloakora stone. there no realdistinction a also The of in myviewthey havethesamearrangement. rite impregnation involves transfer. II The naming theparts in is spells of which evident Trobriand of andthetransfer attributes I963), in some of the spellscitedby appearin identical form Dobuan magic(Fortune in Skeat(I900) andin Sinhalese mantra (Wirz I954). One can see two waysin whichtheverbal of The in can of may technique be exploited. recipient thetransfer be described terms hisbody or attribute present thedesirable in symbol metaphor parts metonymically) the (i.e. and required or definition transferred The converse where 'unknown' disease evilisgiven objective toit. is an its in of of knownconcrete objects or and form describing parts terms thecharacteristics by and By describing metaphorically metonymiit persons, thedescription a demon. thus e.g. of he it to representing a patient, is madeto expelor callyyou areable to control or by thus it, the the reject demonandby implication disease. I2 The native are of usedin thespells polyvalent commentary indicates many thewords that inmeaning haveranges meaning, is thecasewith poetic with as our language indeed and and of which our ordinary startling commentary thesephenomena, on discourse. Malinowski's is polyvalence homonymy as follows: and linguists discuss underthe labelsof synonymy, 'It is important realise thenative transcommentaries notto be regarded correct are as to that to to by lations, rather free but as associations suggested thenative thewordmentioned them. it to We must words to of makes futile attribute them remember thevery that character magical a precise definite the of point viewwhen and lexical meaning. .' (i965b: 26I). He misses native . hereports isthemultifarious the fringe theword, of which believed is 'It associations, emotional to the their and this influences own by them influence course nature, whichthrough really of work'(i965b: 26I). psychology theorganisation their and of I3 Evans-Pritchardhisclassic and Zande witchcraft in contribution (I937), whileanalysing in relation to was felt to magicas a coherent system itsown right, it necessary askwhattheir Zandeempirical comand which was oriented achieving to effects, activity, alsohow magic, of and This paredwithWestern empiricism basedon canons proof experimentation. brilliant faced menbook thus someof whichwerethecreation an European of intellectual problems Like a that perceive tality. Malinowski, Evans-Pritchard 8I) states 'Azandeundoubtedly (I937: difference whatwe consider workings nature theonehandandtheworkings between of on the ofmagicandwitchcraft theother, in of doctrine natural of on though theabsence a formulated do law they not,andcannot, the as it' express differencewe express (seealso I937: 463).Again in empirical knowledge (I937: 73 passim)he argues that belief witchcraftno waycontradicts in it ofcauseandeffect, focuses is 'the socially on relevant cause, since is because whatwitchcraft allowsintervention determines and socialbehaviour'; other in it theonlyone which words, is on a different length wave from action altogether. empirical Certain myconclusions Trobriand magicare confirmed Evans-Pritchard by of concerning of to in respect Zande prospective whichmagicis supposed produce magic: 'The results which are after areperformed 'Magic isonlymadetoproduce rites events actually happen . .,' to likelyto happenin any case ,. . Magic is not askedto achievewhatis unlikely occur'; askedto produce result itself, is associated a that by but withempirical action 'Magic is seldom
Andris Appuhamy, D. W. Appuhamy.
I927.
Ceylon:W. D. Andris Maha mantra (2ndedn).Velitara, pota
20 8
S. J. TAMBIAH
Cassirer, Ernst I953. Language myth. and New York:DoverPublications. New Haven: Yale Univ.Press. I966. The philosophysymbolicforms, of i, Language. C. Editions. Cherry, I96I. On human communication. York: Science New among Azande. the Oxford:Clarendon Evans-Pritchard, I937. Witclcraft, andmagic E. E. oracles Press. with reference Malinowski's to Firth, R. I957. Ethnographic J. analysis language and views. In Manandculture R. Firth. (ed.) London:Routledge& KeganPaul. Firth, RaymondI967. Tikopia ritual belief. and London:Allen & Unwin. R. Fortune, F. I963. SorcerersDobu.New York: E. P. Dutton. of Sir and (abridged edn).London: Frazer, James I922. The golden bough, study magic religion a in Macmillan. marriage. London:G. Bell. Freedman, MauriceI967. Rites duties, Chinese and or Gellner, Ernest I959. Words andthings. London:Gollancz. Manchester: M. Africa. Univ.Press. Gluckman, I954. Rituals rebellion south-east of in London:Tavistock Publications. Goody, JackI962. Death, property the and ancestors. T. of Studies. Izutsu, I956. Language magic. and Tokyo: Keio Institute Philological of In Roman I956. Two aspects language and two types aphasicdisturbance. Jakobson, of Fundamentals oflanguage R. Jakobson M. Halle. The Hague: Mouton. (by) & Univ.Press. Kuper, Hilda I96I. AnAfrican aristocracy. London:Oxford and animal abuse. categories verbal Leach, Edmund I964. Anthropological aspects language: of Cambridge, Mass.:MassaIn Newdirections study language E. H. Lenneberg. inthe of (ed.) chusetts Institute Technology of Press. and socialdevelopment. Phil. I966. Ritualization man in relation conceptual in to New Levi-Strauss, Claude I963. Structural anthropology. York,London: BasicBooks. & I966. The savage mind. London:Weidenfeld Nicolson. in Melanesia. London: Malinowski, BronislawI929. The sexuallifeofsavages northwestern Routledge. Boston, Mass.: BeaconPress. I948. Magic, science religion other and and essays. 1960. Argonautsthe of western New York: Dutton. Pacific. Indiana Univ.Press. gardens their and magic I. Bloomington: Vol. I965a. Coral Indiana Univ.Press. gardens their and magic 2. Bloomington: Vol. I965b.Coral de sociol. g6n6rale la magie.Annee 7, Mauss,M. & H. HubertI902-3. Esquisse d'uneth6orie Middleton, JohnI960. Lugbara religion. London: OxfordUniv. Press. London:KeganPaul,Trenich, of Ogden,C. K. & I. A. Richards I923. Themeaning meaning. Trubner. Richards, Audrey I956. Chisungu. London:Faber & Faber. of I. Library Richards, A. I938. Principles literary of criticism edn).London:International (2nd Psychology, Philosophy Scientific and Method. Sapir, I92I. Language. E. New York; Harcourt, Brace. Skeat, Walter WilliamI900. Malaymagic. London:Macmillan. Paul I965. TheSamburu: study gerontocracynomadic London:Routledge ina tribe. Spencer, a in & KeganPaul. of and Andrew& MarilynStrathern Strathern, I968. Marsupials magic:a study spellsymLeach(Camb. bolism religion Edmund (ed.) amongtheMbowamb.In Dialectic practical in Pap. socialAnthrop. Cambridge: 5). Univ.Press. of in Tambiah, J. I968. The ideology merit thesocialcorrelates Buddhism a Thai S. of and In Leach(Camb.Pap. social in Anthrop. 5). village. Dialectic practical religion Edmund (ed.) Cambridge: Univ.Press. V. and (Rhodes-Livingst. 31). Pap. Turner, W. I96I. Ndembu divination,symbolism techniques its Manchester: Univ.Press. In ritual:an interpretation. I962. Threesymbols passage Ndembucircumcision of in in ritual social Manchester: Univ.Press. Essays the of relations Max Gluckman. (ed.) and (ed.)AriKiev.Glencoe, I964. An Ndembu doctorin practice.In Magic,faith healing Ill.: FreePress. to study In approachesthe of I966. ColourclassificationNdembu in ritual. Anthropological Publications. Monogr.3). London:Tavistock religion M. Banton (ed.) (Ass.social Anthrop. Ullman,S. I957. Theprinciplessemantics. of Oxford: Blackwell. of London:Library Philosophy. Urban,WilburMarshall I939. Language andreality. London:Routledge& KeganPaul. Vansina, I965. Oral tradition. Jan Leiden:Brill. and art in Wirz,Paul I954. Exorcism the ofhealing Ceylon. Oxford:Blackwell. Wittgenstein, Ludwig1953. Philosophical investigations.
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Trans.R. Soc. B, 251, 247-526.

The Magical Power of Words: A Review of S. J. Tambiah's Work

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The Magical Power of Words: A Review of S. J. Tambiah's Work

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The Magical Power of Words Author(s): S. J. Tambiah Reviewed work(s): Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Jun.

in used The metaphorical associations substances in tworites Omarakana of

does in factproduce it. . .' (I937: 475, 476, 477).

Andris Appuhamy, D. W. Appuhamy.

Ceylon:W. D. Andris Maha mantra (2ndedn).Velitara, pota

Trans.R. Soc. B, 251, 247-526.

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