Land Gear

POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE NUMERICAL MODELS FOR AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2009 Chapter
r 5 Landing gear system
Chapter 5
Landing gear system
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5.1
POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE NUMERICAL MODELS FOR AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2009 Chapter 5 Landing gear system
5.1 Introduction
The landing gear system includes: strut; shock absorber; extraction/retraction mechanism; brakes; wheel; tyre. Shock absorber and extraction/retraction mechanism may not be present in small airplanes. The landing gear is the interface of airplane to ground, so that all the ground loads are transmitted by it to the aircraft structure. There is then a high influence of the landing gear on the local structure, which must be taken into account since the initial design stage. The landing loads can reach factors of 2.5 for transport aircraft, 4.5 for small general aviation vehicles and higher for combat aircraft. The system must then have considerable mechanical resistance, which means in general that its mass is significant. Depending on aircraft category, this can range from 3 to 7% of the aircraft total mass. The main functions of the landing gear are as follows: 1. energy absorption at landing; 2. braking; 3. taxi control. Landing is the main sizing conditions for the system and its surrounding structure; braking also determines both vertical and horizontal loads that influence structural sizing. Taxi control includes steering and taxi stability.
5.2 General layout and design

The layout of the landing gear system determines the load transfer to the structure, ground stability and control. With exception of gliders, which may have just a central fuselage wheel and tailskid, the landing gear arrangement is tricycle, consisting of a main landing gear group located near the aircraft centre of gravity and a nose or tail landing gear (fig. 5.1). As a matter of fact, the taildragger configuration is almost obsolete, because the nose landing gear has a series of unquestioned advantages: lateral stability in taxiing; stability in braking; steady touch down with no risk of aerodynamic bounce; high pilot visibility during taxiing; horizontal floor (occupants comfort and easy Fig. 5.1 Nose and tail wheel configurations freight loading); low drag during take-off acceleration. A second observation concerns the number of struts. The most common configuration has double main landing gear and single nose gear. This can apply for a wide range of aircraft weights, but normally for airliners beyond 300 tons of maximum take off mass an additional main landing gear strut is located under the fuselage, or two additional struts are located under wing root area (fig. 5.2).
5.2
Fig. 5.2 Most common landing gear configurations
The longitudinal position of the main landing gear group depends on the centre of gravity position and the tail cone shape. The struts must be aft enough with respect to the most rear position of the centre of gravity, in such a way that during touch down a nose down moment is generated by the ground forces to the airplane (fig. 5.3), preventing aerodynamic bounce. Moreover the tail cone must not contact the ground, a condition that may easily occur during take-off (in fact a reinforcement or skid is normally integrated in that part of the structure).
MAX REAR CG POSIT ION AIRCRAFT CG TAIL CONE CLEARANCE CG RESULTANT WHEEL TRACK
WHEEL BASE
Fig. 5.3 Main landing gear with respect to aircraft CG position and tail cone shape
Fig 4.5 Taxing stability
The lateral track of the main landing gear gives stability during taxing. The resultant force vector, due to weight and inertial forces, acting on the centre of gravity must fall inside the area delimited by the landing gear ground contact points, to prevent rollover. On the other hand the main wheels should not be too far from the aircraft centre line, to minimise roll and yaw instabilities during non levelled touch down and reduce wing root moment (if the landing gear is wing mounted). As far as the strut design is concerned, two solutions are mainly adopted: the telescopic and articulated leg, shown in fig. 5.5. The telescopic version is always lighter but requires higher ground clearance; then for small aircraft and helicopters the articulated version is more frequently adopted (from the figure it is clear that the piston stroke in the cylinder is lower than the wheel stroke).
Fig. 5.5 Telescopic and articulated leg
5.3 Extraction, retraction and steering

A retractable landing gear is installed whenever a drag improvement is worthy. This means in all aircraft with exception of agricultural and small general aviation airplanes, where the installation of a movable landing gear would increase the costs beyond the requirements of the aircraft category. Landing gear extraction is a primary operation and always its actuation has high redundancy. There are different solutions for the mechanism to obtain suitable landing gear movement. Some are schematically shown in fig. 5.6. Many solutions are based on the four bar linkage (cases A to C), where one bar is represented by the aircraft frame. In other solutions (case
5.3
D) one bar end can slide along a slot. More complex kinematics include three-dimensional motion and the deflection of the bogie, that for A the main landing gear of large airplanes is made of double tandem wheels. Actuators, normally of the hydraulic type, control the extraction/retraction operation. In general the mechanism should be designed in such a B way that gravity and aerodynamic drag favour extraction; if the conditions on gravity and drag are satisfied, the extraction is possible with no power from the hydraulic system; a diagram reporting piston load vs. stroke will be of the C type shown in fig. 5.7, with a constant sign: this means that retraction is obtained by applying a force to contrast drag and movable equipment weight, while extraction can initiate by gravity and be completed by drag. The area under the load line represents the necessary work. If this is divided by the area of the rectangle defined by the max load and stroke, one obtains the D efficiency of the kinematic mechanism, which commonly is in the range 70 80 %. In both extracted and retracted configurations, the mechanism must be blocked (downlock and E uplock respectively). A kinematic lock at extraction can be obtained by making the four bar linkage to reach its dead centre at full extraction. In any case a downlock based on a hydraulic or electric device is activated to Fig 5.6 Some common kinematic solutions prevent any movement of the strut when the aircraft is taxiing. An uplock is also activated when the landing gear is fully retracted, to prevent non-intentional extraction during flight, which also could be a dangerous event at high velocity. Uplocks and downlocks are normally provided for the landing gear doors too.
Fig. 5.7 Piston load-stroke diagram
Fig. 5.8 Hydraulic steering circuit
Steering may be obtained by differential braking on main landing gear wheels in a taildragger tricycle. On conventional tricycle configuration, steering is obtained by directioning the nose
5.4
landing gear. Different solutions are used for the kinematics and linkage, typically rack-pinion coupling, rotary or linear actuators. Fig. 5.8 is an example of hydraulic circuit with linear actuators linked to the steering strut.
5.4 Shock absorber layouts

The main role of the shock absorber is to zero the vertical component of the airplane velocity during landing, with no rebound and limited load transfer to the vehicle structure (and occupants). Its secondary requirement is to allow a comfortable taxiing. Different types of shock absorbers are available, but when costs and dimensions allow, a hydraulic system is commonly used. Very small aircraft with fixed landing gear may rely on the elastic properties of the landing gear legs and the damping effect of tyre sideslip on the ground, as schematically shown in fig. 5.8A. A low cost alternative to this method is to use an absorber made of a stack of rubber blocks, which are compressed by the landing gear, so that the elastic effects is due to the rubber compression and damping effect to hysteresis and local friction. The hydraulic solution is anyway mostly adopted, and fig. 5.8B shows only some of many possible versions. Substantially the system structure is made of a movable piston that, when loaded, compresses a gas (nitrogen) in a cylinder and causes an oil flow through orifices. The system elasticity is due to the gas transformation and the damping effect to the liquid pressure losses. The complexity of the system A) DEFORMABLE LEG B) HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS increases with the requirements. Fig. 5.8 Some shock absorber solutions A list of main requirements for an efficient and functional shock absorber follows: damping characteristics should be different in compression and extension; the total orifice area can be changed by inserting check valves in some orifices or valves that throttle the orifices in one flow direction; during taxiing the absorber should be softer; in this case also controllable orifices can be used; for instance the internal structure of the absorber can be shaped in such a way that, when the leg extension is that of the aircraft in normal ground operation, the orifices have maximum area; for high landing vertical velocities, the shock absorber responds with high reaction forces due to oil viscosity; to attenuate the load transfer to the airplane structure, relief valves may be installed on the absorber, then flattening the reaction curve; to increase the energy absorption in crash conditions, multi-stage shock absorbers can be used; the first stage works in normal operation, the second and further stages start compression when a high load is developed; in some application (small aircraft and helicopters), the second stage is a composite cylinder in series with the main stage (crash stage). The systems till now described are passive devices, with some hydraulic and mechanical solutions to obtain efficient energy absorption and comfortable taxiing. More advanced solutions, still under development, are based on active control of damping. Since the damping force is function of the orifice geometry and oil properties, a control of the damping characteristics of the shock absorber can be obtained in two ways: 1. control of orifices area; 2. control of fluid viscosity.
5.5
The first solution is possible with the use of micro actuators that throttle the orifices. The second solution is possible with the use of electro-rheological or magneto-rheological fluids; these oils have properties sensitive to electric or magnetic fields respectively, and their peculiarity is to achieve quasi-plastic behaviour when the field intensity is increased. Generating the field in the orifices sections allows changing significantly the damping behaviour of the shock absorber by controlling the characteristics of a small volume of fluid. Both the systems are controlled on the basis of input signals from sensors of vehicle acceleration and velocity, and shock absorber conditions.
5.5 Shock absorber functioning principles

In its most basic configuration, the shock absorber can be described as a hydraulic cylinder linked to an accumulator. When the piston moves, the oil from the cylinder passes through an orifice and compresses the gas in the accumulator, as shown schematically in fig. 5.9. According to this approach the reaction R of the shock absorber is function of the piston position and its time derivative, as follows:
V0 3 &2 R = p A = p A + K Q A = p0 V A x A + KA 0
(eq. 5.1)
where: p = pressure on piston; A = piston area; pA = accumulator pressure; K = orifice pressure loss coefficient; Q = oil flow rate; p0 = initial accumulator pressure; V0 = initial accumulator gas volume; = polytropic exponent; = piston stroke ( = 0 for full extended shock absorber). The resulting reaction is then the sum of a polytropic transformation, elastic and proportional & to the stroke , and a viscous term, proportional to the stroke derivative . As polytropic index , a value of 1.3 1.4 can be used, because the process is fast enough to be considered quasi-adiabatic. Fig. 5.10 shows an indicative plot of the reaction. The final part is related to the piston return to static equilibrium under the aircraft weight, which normally is in the range 60 70 % of the maximum stroke .
pA RMAX
K
p R Fig. 5.9 Shock absorber schematic representation Fig. 5.10 Shock absorber reaction
The area under the reaction curve represents the work absorbed by the system. An interesting indication is given by the ratio between this work and the work that could be
5.6
ideally absorbed with a constant maximum force RMAX and the maximum stroke , called efficiency:
R d
(eq. 5.2)
RMAX
The ideal absorber ( = 1) is a perfectly stiff-plastic system. A modern hydraulic shock absorber has and efficiency around 0.8 0.9.
5.6 Preliminary stroke estimation

The max stroke of a landing gear shock absorber can be preliminarily estimated, even if many aircraft and landing gear characteristics are unknown. A simple energy balance, related to the vertical forces during shock absorber compression, can be applied to the landing aircraft considering kinetic and potential energy and the works developed by the shock absorber and lift force, as follows:
1 2 Mv Z + Mg = R d + L d , 0 0 2
(eq. 5.3)
where: M = aircraft mass; vZ = aircraft vertical velocity; g = gravity; = max shock absorber stroke; = shock absorber stroke; R=R() = function of shock absorber reaction vs. stroke; L=L() = function of lift vs. stroke. The contribution of the tyre is not included in this discussion. Eq. 5.3 in the form written above is not of immediate use, but a number of simplifying considerations can be done. First of all the work absorbed by the landing gear can be written remembering eq. 5.2 and considering the definition of the landing load factor n:
n=
then obtaining:
[R + L]MAX
Mg
RMAX + Mg , Mg
(eq. 5.4)
R d = Mg (n 1) .
(eq. 5.5)
Lift function L() can be approximately considered to decrease linearly from its max value Mg to (1/3)Mg, due to the change of trajectory of the airplane during shock absorber compression and consequent decrease of the angle of attack, as evidenced in fig. 5.12. This allows approximating the integral as follows:
L d =
2 Mg . 3
(eq. 5.6)
Substituting into eq. 5.3 and solving with respect to brings to:
5.7
[ (n 1) 13] 2g .
2 vZ
(eq. 5.7)
5.7 Two-degree-of-freedom model

The procedure above explained is still used at preliminary stage for the evaluation of the max shock absorber stroke, but contains a series of approximations that cannot be accepted in further development stages of the aircraft design. A more detailed evaluation can be performed by a rough two rigid body model, where one rigid body is the aircraft and the other is the landing gear (legs, pistons, wheels, brakes and all parts connected to the moving equipment). Then, following the indications in fig. 5.11, a system of two differential equations can be written, as follows:
& & & M&& = R (x y ) + R( x y ) + L(x ) Mg x & & & m&& = R( x y ) R (x y ) + N ( y ) + N ( y ) mg , y M M

where: M = aircraft mass less landing gear mass; m = landing gear mass; g = gravity; R (x y ) = shock absorber elastic function;
(eq. 5.8a) (eq. 5.8b)
& & R (x y ) = shock absorber viscous function; N M ( y ) = ground-tyre normal elastic reaction function; & N M ( y ) = ground-tyre normal viscous reaction function; & L( x ) = lift function.
M x
R FSA
m y Fig. 5.11 2 dof landing gear model FG NM Fig. 5.12 Aircraft trajectory during landing
It is easy to find out that lift can be expressed as a function of the time derivative of x; in fact lift, in its classic formula, is given by:
L=
where: = air density; v = aircraft velocity; S = aircraft reference surface; CL = aircraft lift coefficient;
1 2 C L v S , 2
(eq. 5.9)
5.8
= aircraft angle of attack.

All the components of lift are constant during landing gear compression, with exception of (and, in a very minor extent, v); the angle of attack , as shown in fig. 5.12, is clearly given by the sum of the aircraft pitch orientation A with respect to the horizon and the angle of its trajectory T with respect to the horizon, and this last one is easily related to the vertical velocity:
= A + T = A +
& x . v
(eq. 5.10)
The above written system of differential equations must be numerically solved; a parametric analysis can be done by changing the shock absorber geometrical and mechanical characteristics and evaluating their influence on the load factor, stroke, etc.
5.8 Tyre normal reaction

As far as the ground-tyre normal force is concerned, the viscous component N can normally be neglected because the hysteresis of the tyre structure is limited; then the total normal force in eq. 5.8b is given by the elastic component, NM = NM ; this force can be calculated as the product of the tyre footprint area AG times the internal pressure pW :
N M = pW AG .
(eq. 5.11a)
The area AG may be approximated with the rectangular intersection between the ground plane and the tyre cylinder of width w and nominal radius R=D/2, with axis located at distance y from ground, as shown in fig. 5.13:
AG = 2w R 2 y 2 .
(eq. 5.11b)
As first approximation a polytropic function may be used for the internal pressure p w starting from tyre initial Fig. 5.13 Tyre-ground contact geometry conditions of inflating pressure p w0 and volume VW0, with a correction factor u that takes into account that the tyre has also some side deformation during ground compression:
VW 0 pW = pW 0 V uV W W0
(eq. 5.11c)
where VW is the compenetration volume between the two solids. More precise calculations can be based on the following empirical formulas from ESDU 86005: Tyre deflection, d:
5.9
( pW 0 ( pW 0
d d d = 0.96 + 10.8 for 0.067 w w + 0.08 pWr ) w wD w NM d d = 2.4 0.02 for > 0.067 w + 0.08 pWr ) w wD w NM
(eq. 5.12a)
(eq. 5.12b)
where pWr is the rated pressure. Pressure rise with deflection, pW :
pW d2 = 1 .5 pW 0 wD
Tyre footprint length, 2h:
(eq. 5.12c)
2h d d = 1 .7 D D D
Tyre footprint width, b:
(eq. 5.12d)
b d d d = 1 .7 2 .5 + 1 .5 w w w w
Tyre footprint gross area, AG:
(eq. 5.12e)
AG = 2.3d wD 5.9 Tyre rolling resistance
(eq. 5.12f)
The rolling resistance to forward motion is observed in a freely unyawed tyre and is due to friction in bearings, hysteresis and local inertia of the tyre structure volumes that are deformed during rolling. With reference to fig. 5.14, the rolling resistance is given by the normal force NM times the rolling friction factor R:
TR = R N M
(eq. 5.13)
Fig. 5.14 Centre of pressure displacement
The friction factor depends on tyre material and construction, forward speed, vertical deflection and ground surface texture. Nevertheless there is a tendency to use a fixed value for the factor in ground performance evaluation, that is R = 0.02. During steady rolling on a dry surface, the centre of pressure of the tyre-ground contact area is displaced ahead of the wheel axle. By equating the moments around the axle, one can write the displacement xc as follows:
D xc = R d 2
(eq. 5.14)
5.10
In wet conditions, the water layer under the tyre moves further ahead the centre of pressure.
5.10 Disc brakes

Airplanes are mainly equipped with disc brakes, with a functioning principle similar to that of the automotive systems, but based on different sizing principles. Drum brakes are almost obsolete. The main components of a disc brake, which is usually powered by the hydraulic system, are as follows (fig. 5.15): pressure plate; stator discs; rotor discs; back plate. The complete equipment is housed inside the wheel, then occupying a large part of the room between the axle and the wheel. The stator discs are keyed to the axle, or anyway constrained in such a way to be only free to move along its axis. They bring, on the two flat surfaces, lining blocks, or pads, made of a mixture of metallic and ceramic materials. The rotor discs are keyed to the wheel, rotating then with it and being free to move along its axis. They are alternated to the stator discs, so that the assembly results a sandwich of rotor discs and stator discs packed together.
ROTOR DISC STATOR DISC
WHEEL
BRAKE ASSEMBLY
STATOR AXLE
WHEEL KEY
BACK PLATE KEY SLOTS TO AXLE LINING BLOCKS KEY SLOTS TO WHEEL ROTOR CYLINDERS PRESSURE PLATE
Fig. 5.15 Disc brake parts
The stator disc at one extremity, or back plate, is fully constrained to the axle and brings lining blocks on one side only. The stator disc at the opposite extremity, or pressure plate, also brings lining blocks on one side only and, during braking, is pushed against the first rotor disc of the assembly by a number of hydraulic pistons located along a circle, enough to obtain a uniform pressure distribution. This action compresses the entire disc package, because rotor and stator parts are all free to move along the wheel axis, with exception of the back plate at one extremity, which contrasts the pressure. Since the rotor and stator discs are in relative rotation, the contact between the lining blocks and the rotor discs will generate a tangential friction, responsible for braking. The higher the hydraulic pressure, the higher the normal contact force and then the friction force. When pressure is reduced, the discs are released by a series of springs. The rotor discs usually have radial slots, to minimise disc deformation during friction heating. All the discs can be made of steel but, when affordable, carbon discs allow lower weight. For a short period in the 60s they were made of beryllium, but its manufacturing costs and difficulties excluded it from standard use.
5.11
The lining also can be made either of carbon (carbon-carbon disc system) or polymer, metals and ceramic materials; they are fragmented into sector blocks because both to reduce the risk of rupture when they are made of brittle material and to favour the extraction of the particles deriving from wearing.
5.11 Disc brakes heat balances

Brake sizing is based on heating during a single landing or aborted take-off, neglecting the contribution of possible thrust reverse, flaps and spoilers. This means that a large part of the kinetic power during braking will be converted into heat in the brake disc area; part of it will be absorbed by the components and part will be dissipated:
TM v = Phs + Pdiss ,
where: TM = TM(t) = braking force; v = v(t) = velocity; Phs = absorbed power; Pdiss = dissipated power.
(eq. 5.15)
The part of brakes that is involved in heat absorption is often referred to as heat sink; the absorbed power brings to heat sink heating as follows:
Phs = mcv
where: m = heat sink mass; cv = heat sink specific heat; T = temperature.
dT , dt
(eq. 5.16)
The calculation of the dissipated power is not easy, because it has contributions from radiation (Prad), conduction (Pcond) and convection (Pconv), the shape is complex and influence of any form of forced or natural ventilation is hard. n general we can write:
Pdiss = Prad + Pcond + Pconv Prad = B T T dT Pcond = S dz Pconv = HAdisc (Tdisc Tamb )
4 disc 4 amb
(eq. 5.17a) (eq. 5.17b) (eq. 5.17c) (eq. 5.17d)
where: = average surface emissivity; B = Stefan-Boltzmann radiation constant; Tdisc = disc temperature; Tamb = ambient temperature; = overall coefficient of conductivity; S = area of conduction; H = overall coefficient of convection; Adisc = disc area.
5.12
Eventually, the heat sink absorption can be expressed by a simplified formula of energy balance:
1 k Mv 2 = m cv T , 2
where: k = fraction of energy converted to brake heat; M = aircraft mass; v = initial velocity; m = total heat sink mass; cv = heat sink specific heat; T = temperature increment during braking.
(eq. 5.18)
Considering that anyway there is a drag contribution to braking, k may often be approximated to 0.8. For sizing, M should be the max landing mass or take-off mass, v the max landing velocity or aborted take-off velocity and T the difference between the allowable disc material temperature and the highest possible initial temperature. Materials with high specific heat and high operating temperature are of course preferred, because they allow a reduced total disc mass.
5.12 Braking force

Usually brakes are located in all the main landing gear wheels: the above-mentioned mass m is then related to all the brakes located in the wheels. Large aircraft may have braking nose wheels. A multiple disc brake is used whenever a high braking power is necessary, because the lining friction surface increases with the number of discs. Moreover a thick disc would not allow a suitable temperature distribution, but would be rather cold at the core and overheated in periphery. On the other hand, discs must be sized in such a way to withstand the high tangential stress that is generated by friction.
RB
RR TM NM NN
TM NM
Fig. 5.16 Evaluation of the braking intensity
The braking intensity is a function of the brake geometry and, in a minor extent, of the aircraft geometry. From fig. 5.16 the braking torque C can be easily evaluated as a function of the hydraulic pressure and discs geometry, as follows:
C = p A disc R B ,
where: p = hydraulic pressure; A = total lining friction area; disc = disc friction coefficient, normally around 0.3; RB = radius of the lining block centroids. The braking force TM will then be given by:
(eq. 5.19)
5.13
TM =
C , RR
(eq. 5.20)
where RR is the rolling radius (that depends on the normal reaction NM, tyre pressure and tyre geometry). Of course the braking force cannot increase indefinitely with pressure, but is limited by the tyre-ground friction coefficient; this is defined by a factor that ranges from 0.9 for dry runway and tyre and asphalt in good conditions to 0.5 in case of wet runway and down to 0.1 for iced runway. Then TM is limited by:
TM = N M ,
(eq. 5.21)
where NM is the normal reaction of the main landing gear. In static conditions (airplane at rest) NM will be equal more or less to 90% of the aircraft weight, due to the conventional position of the aircraft centre of gravity. In braking conditions N is lower because the inertia forces overload the nose landing gear. Depending on the longitudinal and vertical position of the centre of gravity, a simple algebraic system in the two unknowns N and TM can be set up and solved, provided any drag contribution is neglected. Friction between tyre and ground is a complex problem, where local inertia and surface deformation play important roles; then, as far as is concerned, this is a function of different parameters: speed, slip ratio, inflating pressure, tyre tread pattern and surface conditions of the runway and tyre. Fig. 5.17 shows its typical function of the slip ratio Fig. 5.17 Ground friction coefficient and speed; the slip ratio is defined by:
s=
where: v = vehicle speed; = wheel angular speed; RR = tyre rolling radius.
v RR , v
(eq. 5.22)
This parameter can range from null (free rolling wheel) to 1 (locked wheel); between these extremes, the friction coefficient ranges from null to skid, with a maximum value max developed for a slip ratio of 10 15%:
TM _ max = max N M , TM _ skid = skid N M . 5.13 Sideslip
(eq. 5.23a) (eq. 5.23b)
A lateral force arises when the tyre has a slip angle with respect to ground, as shown in fig. 5.18. A law similar to eq. 5.21, given by the normal force N and a side friction coefficient , can approximate this force:
5.14
TS = N M .
(eq. 5.24)
The coefficient is a function of the slip angle and is linear for angles lower than 5, then tending rather rapidly to the ground friction factor , as indicated in fig. 5.19.
1.0
0.5
5 10
Fig. 5.18 Sideslip
Fig. 5.19 Sideslip coefficient function
5.14 Forces with wet runway

The presence of fluid on the runway, normally water, has two effects: reduction of the available tyre-ground friction coefficient and introduction of an additional fluid dynamic force component. The contact area can be divided in three zones, as illustrated in fig. 5.20: zone 1: this is the most forward zone of the footprint, where the tyre impact both ejects the fluid and forces it into the tread or the runway drainage paths, then introducing a fluid dynamic drag on the landing gear, aligned with vehicle velocity; in this zone a continuous, relatively thick layer of fluid is present between the tyre and the runway and the tyre is deformed inward; zone 2: this is a transition region, with the fluid captured by viscous effects in a thin film between the tyre and the runway surface; the film is broken only on sharp edges of the runway or tyre pattern, so that a very limited grip is obtained; zone 3: this is a region of predominantly dry contact, where the tyre-ground friction coefficient is almost completely developed, but Fig. 5.20 Contact on wet runway the region may be very small depending on the vehicle speed and fluid quantity. When speed increases, zone 1 extends; eventually, when zones 2 and 3 are significantly reduced, the tyre is dynamically lifted by the fluid film and loses almost any grip with the runway surface (aquaplaning).
5.15 Resultant force and dynamic analysis

Summarising the previous sections, the resulting tangential force T exchanged between the tyre and ground surface is given by braking, rolling, sideslip and fluid:
r r r r r T = TM + TR + TS + TF
(eq. 5.25)
5.15
As a matter of fact here some approximations have been already introduced: first of all the modification of the rolling force TR with sideslip angle is omitted, because it is small; second, the braking force TM, in case of skid, lies no more in the wheel plane but is redirectioned along the velocity vector; we can say that the above written equation is valid for rolling wheel and limited sideslip, that is a very common condition. Rotational equilibrium in the general case can be written as follows:
D & I = (TM + TR + TF cos ) d N M xc C , 2
(eq. 5.26)
where C is the braking torque given by eq. 5.19. In dry conditions, neglecting the rolling friction because it is significantly lower than the tyreground friction, and with no sideslip:
D & I = T M d N M x c C 2
(eq. 5.27)
In this equation, the normal force NM is obtained by the calculation on the landing gear shock absorber, possibly including the overall dynamics of the aircraft; the braking torque C is a function of pressure (eq. 5.19); the braking force TM is given by eq. 5.21 and then can be calculated after evaluation of the tyre-ground friction coefficient as a function of the slip ratio (i.e. wheel angular velocity and vehicle speed v). Maximum braking TM_max occurs at max (eq. 5.23a). This is an unstable condition, because a moderate increase of the braking torque C leads to a decrease of and TM, so that from eq. & 5.27 becomes more negative (spin down) and normally the wheel locks in a very short time. Then the condition of max braking can be obtained only by automatic control. On the other hand, in case of wheel locking the braking force TM_skid is lower than the maximum TM_max and a decrease of the torque C, from eq. 5.27, leads to an increase of the angular velocity (spin up).
5.16 Anti-skid and auto-braking systems

Deceleration is obtained through the friction between the braking wheels and ground: by increasing the braking system pressure, the braking torque increases according to eq. 5.19, the wheel tends to spin down and the increase of slip ratio brings to the increase of the friction coefficient ; then also the tangential force TM between wheel and runway increases. The pilot controls the system pressure through the pedals. If this tangential force exceeds the limit indicated in eq. 5.23a, the wheel tends to lock and the friction coefficient decreases. Three effects result from the wheel locking: 1. a theoretical increase of the stopping distance, due to reduction of the friction coefficient; 2. a loss of guidance control, due to the loss of tyre grip; 3. tyre explosion, within a few tens of meters. The anti-skid braking systems, which were developed after the Second World War, avoid wheel locking by modulating the braking system pressure. The wheels are equipped with speed sensors and their signal is transmitted to a processing unit (the older systems were of course based on analogue technology, but worked on the same principle). The speed decrease of all braking wheels is monitored and compared to each other and with predetermined deceleration patterns. If one wheel is decelerating more intensively than the others, or outside a predetermined pattern, the event is interpreted as incipient wheel locking. A servo-valve then releases the braking pressure of that specific wheel, by allowing it to spin-up to the speed level sampled prior to slippage deceleration, and then the control system starts to find the new modulating pressure.
5.16
Older systems were actually on-off control systems, because they operated an intense reduction and increase of pressure; current systems have a smooth and refined control, capable of maintaining the wheel speed at a limited slip ratio level that maximises the ground friction. Fig. 5.21 shows a possible block diagram of an anti-skid simulation system, where: SR = slip ratio; kp, kd, ki = proportional, derivative and integrative constants for the PID; Iabs = control signal; tire = tire angular velocity; vlong = vehicle speed; Ipilot = pilot signal demand.
Fig. 5.21 Anti skid block diagram
The automatic braking system is often associated with anti-skid system. In auto-braking the pilot does not need to use the pedals to brake, because a pre-set braking deceleration is automatically applied. With the auto-braking armed in landing mode, brakes will be automatically activated a few seconds after touch down, or at spoiler extension, then providing a constant deceleration; the intensity is pre-set by the crew before landing. The system works also in take-off mode: if the pilot makes any operation typical of a rejected take-off (extends the spoilers, or moves the thrust lever back to idle, or operates the thrust reversers), auto-braking is triggered at maximum level. In any case the pilot can overcome the auto-braking by pressing the pedals beyond a predetermined excursion. The anti-skid system is always operating, also during automatic braking. It increases the braking efficiency, defined as follows:
TM _ med TM _ max
eff max
(eq. 5.28)
This parameter has values between 50 and 60% for a well trained pilot and rises to 90% with a modern adaptive anti-skid system.
5.17
5.17 References
1. A G Barnes, T J Yager, Enhancement of Aircraft Ground Handling Simulation Capability, AGARD-AG-333, 1998 2. ESDU 71025, Frictional and Retarding Forces on Aircraft Tyres - Part I: Introduction, The Royal Aeronautical Society, 1971 amended 1995 3. ESDU 71026, Frictional and Retarding Forces on Aircraft Tyres - Part I: Estimation of Braking Force, The Royal Aeronautical Society, 1971 amended 1995 4. ESDU 85029, Calculation of Ground Performance in Take-Off and Landing, The Royal Aeronautical Society, 1985 amended 2006 5. ESDU 85029, Vertical Deflection Characteristics of Aircraft Tyres, The Royal Aeronautical Society, 1986 6. ESDU 95015, Examples of Distributions of Hard Paved Runway Surface Types, The Royal Aeronautical Society, 1995 7. S Gualdi, M Morandini, G L Ghiringhelli, Anti-Skid Induced Aircraft Landing Gear Instability, Aerospace Science and Technology, vol. 12, 2008 8. S Artus, V Cocquempot, M Staroswiecki, S Hayat, C Covo, Temperature Estimation of CHV Brake Discs using an Energy Balance Approach, IEEE Intelligent Transportatlon Systems Conference 2004
5.18

Land Gear

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POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE NUMERICAL MODELS FOR AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2009 Chapter

r 5 Landing gear system

Landing gear system

5.2 General layout and design

Fig. 5.2 Most common landing gear configurations

Fig 4.5 Taxing stability

Fig. 5.5 Telescopic and articulated leg

5.3 Extraction, retraction and steering

Fig. 5.7 Piston load-stroke diagram

Fig. 5.8 Hydraulic steering circuit

5.4 Shock absorber layouts

5.5 Shock absorber functioning principles

5.6 Preliminary stroke estimation

5.7 Two-degree-of-freedom model

& & & M&& = R (x y ) + R( x y ) + L(x ) Mg x & & & m&& = R( x y ) R (x y ) + N ( y ) + N ( y ) mg , y M M

(eq. 5.8a) (eq. 5.8b)

= aircraft angle of attack.

5.8 Tyre normal reaction

where pWr is the rated pressure. Pressure rise with deflection, pW :

AG = 2.3d wD 5.9 Tyre rolling resistance

Fig. 5.14 Centre of pressure displacement

5.10 Disc brakes

Fig. 5.15 Disc brake parts

5.11 Disc brakes heat balances

(eq. 5.17a) (eq. 5.17b) (eq. 5.17c) (eq. 5.17d)

5.12 Braking force

Fig. 5.16 Evaluation of the braking intensity

TM _ max = max N M , TM _ skid = skid N M . 5.13 Sideslip

(eq. 5.23a) (eq. 5.23b)

Fig. 5.18 Sideslip

Fig. 5.19 Sideslip coefficient function

5.14 Forces with wet runway

5.15 Resultant force and dynamic analysis

D & I = (TM + TR + TF cos ) d N M xc C , 2

5.16 Anti-skid and auto-braking systems

Fig. 5.21 Anti skid block diagram

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