Water's special properties as a liquid begin with the two polar covalent bonds in each water molecule.

Overall, the molecule has no charge, but the oxygen pulls the shared electrons a bit more than the hydrogen atoms do. Thus, each of the atoms in a water molecule carries a slight charge: The oxygen atom is slightly negative, and the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. The separation of charge means that the water molecule itself is polar. The polarity is very attractive to other water molecules, and hydrogen bonds form between them in tremendous numbers. Extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules imparts unique properties to liquid water, and those properties make life possible. First, water is an excellent solvent. A solvent is a liquid that can dissolve other substances. When a substance dissolves, its individual molecules or ions become solutes as they disperse. Salts, sugars, and many other compounds that dissolve easily in water are polar, so many hydrogen bonds form between them and water molecules. A salt is a compound that dissolves easily in water and releases ions other than H+ and OH" when it does. Hydrogen bonding with water dissolves such hydrophilic (water-loving) substances by pulling their individual molecules away from one another and keeping them apart. You can see how water interacts with hydrophobic (water-dreading) substances if you shake a bottle filled with water and salad oil, then set it on a table and watch what happens. Salad oil consists of nonpolar molecules, and water molecules do not form many hydrogen bonds with nonpolar molecules. Shaking breaks some of the hydrogen bonds that keep water molecules together. However, the water quickly begins to cluster into drops as new hydrogen bonds form among its molecules. The bonding excludes molecules of oil and pushes them together into droplets that rise to the surface of the water. The same interaction occurs at the thin, oily membrane that separates the water inside of cells from the water outside of them. The organization of membranesand of lifestarts with such interactions. A second property of water is temperature stability. Temperature is a way to measure the energy of molecular motion: All molecules jiggle nonstop, and they jiggle faster as they absorb heat. However, extensive hydrogen bonding restricts the movement of water moleculesit keeps them from jiggling as much as they would otherwise. Thus, compared with other liquids, water absorbs much more heat before its temperature rises. Temperature stability is an important component of homeostasis, because most of the molecules of life function properly only within a certain range of temperature. Below 0C (32F), water molecules do not jiggle enough to break hydrogen bonds, and they become locked in the rigid, lattice-like bonding pattern of ice. Individual water molecules pack less densely in ice than they do in water, so ice floats on water. During cold winters, ice sheets may form near the surface of ponds, lakes, and streams. Such ice "blankets" insulate liquid water under them, so they help keep fish and other aquatic organisms from freezing. A third life-sustaining property of liquid water is cohesion, which means that water molecules resist separating from one another. This property is important in many processes that sustain multicelled bodies. As one example, water molecules constantly escape from the surface of liquid water as vapor, a process called evaporation. Evaporation is resisted by the hydrogen bonding that keeps water molecules together. In other words, overcoming water's cohesion takes energy. Thus, evaporation sucks energy in the form of heat from liquid water, which decreases its surface temperature. Evaporative water loss can help you and some other mammals cool off when you sweat in hot, dry weather. Sweat, which is about 99 percent water, cools the skin as it evaporates. Take-Home Message: Why is water essential to life? Being polar, water molecules hydrogen-bond to one another and to other polar (hydrophilic) substances, and repel nonpolar (hydrophobic) substances.

Extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules gives water unique properties that make life possible: cohesion, temperature stability, and a capacity to dissolve many substances. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures containing a relatively large amount of one substance called the solvent (the dissolving medium, which in the body is water) and smaller amounts of one or more dissolved substances called solutes.The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a specific amount of solution. The greater the concentration of solute molecules (or ions), the greater the likelihood of collisions. Consequently, molecules within a particular space tend to become evenly distributed over time. Such uniform spreading out of molecules due to their random intermingling is known as simple diffusion (diffusere means to spread out). The term diffusion without a qualifier implies simple diffusion,as distinct from facilitated diff usion, which is diffusion facilitated by a carrier protein in the plasma membrane. To illustrate simple diffusion, in the figure, the concentration of the solute in a solution differs between area A and area B. Such a difference in concentration between two adjacent areas is called a concentration gradient (or chemical gradient). Random molecular collisions will occur more frequently in area A because of its greater concentration of solute molecules. For this reason, more molecules will bounce from area A into area B than in the opposite direction. In both areas, individual molecules will move randomly and in all directions, but the net movement of molecules by diffusion will be from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration. The term net diffusion refers to the difference between two opposing movements. If 10 molecules move from area A to area B while 2 molecules simultaneously move from B to A, the net diffusion is 8 molecules moving from A to B. Molecules will spread in this way until the substance is uniformly distributed between the two areas and a concentration gradient no longer exists(Figure). At this point, even though movement is still taking place, no net diffusion is occurring because the opposing movements exactly counterbalance each other, that is, are in dynamic equilibrium (dynamic in reference to the continuous movement, equilibrium in reference to the exact balance between opposing forces). Movement of molecules from area A to area B will be exactly matched by movement of molecules from B to A. What happens if a plasma membrane separates different concentrations of a substance? If the substance can permeate the membrane, net diffusion of the substance will occur through the membrane down its concentration gradient from the area of high concentration to the area of low concentration until the concentration gradient is abolished, unless theres some opposing force (Figure A). No energy is required for this movement, so it is a passive mechanism of membrane transport. The process of diffusion is crucial to the survival of every cell and plays an important role in many specialized homeostatic activities. As an example, Oxygen is transferred across the lung membrane by diffusion. The blood carried to the lungs is low in Oxygen, having given up Oxygen to the body tissues for cell metabolism. The air in the lungs, in contrast, is high in Oxygen because it is continuously exchanged with fresh air during breathing. Because of this concentration gradient, net diffusion of Oxygen occurs from the lungs into the blood as blood flows through the lungs. Thus, as blood leaves the lungs for delivery to the tissues, it is high in oxygen. Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Explanation

Water molecules can readily permeate the plasma membrane. Even though water molecules are strongly polar, they are small enough to slip through momentary spaces created between the phospholipid molecules. However, this type of water movement across the membrane is relatively slow. In many cell types, membrane proteins form aquaporins, which are channels specific for the passage of water (aqua means water). This avenue greatly increases membrane permeability to water. Different cell types vary in their density of aquaporins and thus in their water permeability. About a billion water molecules can pass in single file through an aquaporin channel in one second. The driving force for net movement of water across the membrane is the same as for any other diffusing molecule, namely, its concentration gradient. Usually the term concentration refers to the density of the solute in a given volume of water. It is important to recognize, however, that adding a solute to pure water in essence decreases the water concentration. In general, one molecule of a solute displaces one molecule of water. Compare the water and solute concentrations in the two containers in Figure. The container in part (a) is full of pure water, so the water concentration is 100% and the solute concentration is 0%. In part (b), solute has replaced 10% of the water molecules. The water concentration is now 90%, and the solute concentration is 10%a lower water concentration and a higher solute concentration than in part (a). Note that as the solute concentration increases, the water concentration decreases correspondingly. The osmotic pressure of a solution is a measure of the tendency for osmotic flow of water into that solution because of its relative concentration of nonp-enetrating solutes and water. Net movement of water by osmosis continues until the opposing hydrostatic pressure exactly counterbalances the osmotic pressure. You can think of the osmotic pressure of a solution as a pulling pressure that tends to pull water into the solution whereas the hydrostatic pressure of a solution is a pushing pressure that tends to push water out of the solution. The tonicity' of a solution is the effect the solution has on cell volumewhether the cell remains the same size, swells, or shrinkswhen the solution surrounds the cell. The tonicity of a solution has no units and is a reflection of its concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to the cells con centration of nonpenetrating solutes. (By contrast,the osmolarity of a solution is a measure of its total concentration of both penetrating and nonpenetrating solutes expressed in units of osmoles/liter.) The easiest way to demonstrate this phenomenon is to place red blood cells in solutions with varying concentrations of a nonpenetrating solute (Figure). Normally, the plasma in which red blood cells are suspended has the same osmotic activity as the fluid inside these cells, so the cells maintain a constant volume. An isotonic solution (iso means equal) has the same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes as normal body cells do. When a cell is bathed in an isotonic solution, no water enters or leaves the cell by osmosis, so cell volume remains constant. For this reason, the Extra Cellular Fluid (ECF) is normally maintained isotonic so that no net diffusion of water occurs across the plasma membranes of body cells. If red blood cells are placed in a dilute or hypotonic solution (hypo means below), a solution with a below-normal concentration of nonpenetrating solutes (and therefore a higher concentration of water), water enters the cells by osmosis. Net gain of water by the cells causes them to swell, perhaps to the point

of rupturing or lysing. If, in contrast, red blood cells are placed in a concentrated, or hypertonic, solution (hyper means above), a solution with an above-normal concentration of nonpenetrating solutes (and therefore a lower concentration of water), the cells shrink as they lose water by osmosis. When a red blood cell decreases in volume, its surface area does not decrease correspondingly, so the cell assumes a crenated, or spiky, shape.(Figure). Because cells change volume when surrounded by fluid that is not isotonic, it is crucial that the concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the ECF quickly be restored to normal should the ECF become hypotonic (as with ingesting too much water) or hypertonic (as with losing too much water through severe diarrhea). For the same reason, fluids injected intravenously should be isotonic, to prevent unwanted movement of water into or out of the cells. For example, isotonic saline (0.9% NaCl solution) is used as a vehicle for delivering drugs intravenously or for expanding plasma volume without impacting the cells. (Sometimes hypotonic or hypertonic fluids are injected therapeutically to correct osmotic imbalances. pH is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions in water or any other liquid. When the number of H+ ions is the same as the number of OH- ions, the pH of the solution is 7, or neutral. The pH of pure water (not rainwater or seawater) is like this. The more hydrogen ions, the lower the pH. A one-unit decrease in pH corresponds to a tenfold increase in the amount of H+ ions, and a one-unit increase corresponds to a tenfold decrease in the amount of H+ ions. Acids and Bases Acids give up hydrogen ions when they dissolve in water, so they lower the pH of fluids and make them acidic (below pH 7). Bases accept hydrogen ions, so they can raise the pH of fluids and make them basic, or alkaline (above pH 7). Environmental Concern: Acids or bases that accumulate in the environment can be harmful to organisms because they change the pH of fluids in an ecosystem. For instance, fossil fuel emissions and nitrogencontaining fertilizers release strong acids into the atmosphere. The acids make rain acidic, which in turn can drastically change the pH of water and soil. Such changes are harmful because most enzymes and other biological molecules function properly only within a narrow range of pH. Even a slight deviation from that range can halt cellular processes. PLUS Class Lecture regarding this slide. Understanding the architecture of a particular macromolecule helps explain how that molecule works. In molecular biology, as in the study of life at all levels, form and function are inseparable. Biological Polymers (monomers as subunits) Many macromolecules consist of polymers. A polymer is a large molecule built up from smaller building block molecules, called monomers. Monomers (subunits) are the building block molecules. Small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into unique macromolecules. The inherent differences between human siblings reflect variations in polymers, particularly DNA and proteins.

Polymerization (Condensation reaction, Dehydration reaction, Dehydration synthesis)

 Polymerization is the linking together of monomers to form polymers. Polymerization in biological systems typical occurs via dehydration synthesis. A condensation reaction occurs via the loss of a small molecule, usually from two different substances, resulting in the formation of a bond. Dehydration reaction is synonymous with condensation reaction except that dehydration reaction is limited to those condensations in which the small molecule is water. Dehydration synthesis is synonymous with dehydration reaction. Energy is expended to polymerize so all condensation/dehydration reactions require an input of energy in order to move forward!!! Energy is expended to make polymers! In biological systems, enzymes are required to polymerize without enzymes, no polymerization; so enzymes are required to make polymers.

Hydrolysis The reaction known as hydrolysis represents the opposite of condensation reaction (specifically, the opposite of dehydration reaction/synthesis). Hydrolysis acts to convert polymers to monomers. Hydrolysis liberates energy polymers contain energy put there by dehydration synthesis; thus, some of the energy required to polymerize is returned upon hydrolysis Hydrolysis plays a very important role in the liberation of usable energy (ATP) within cells. Enzymes are employed in biological systems to effect most hydrolysis reactions. Example: Digestion of food involves numerous hydrolysis reactions.

Some simple sugars that are important to living things are glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose.Glucose is the most common monosaccharide. Glucose is the main fuel for bacteria, plants and animal cells. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates. For example, two monosaccharides can bond to form a disaccharide. Some disaccharides are sucrose (one molecule of glucose linked to one molecule of fructose), lactose (one molecule of glucose linked to one molecule of galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose linked together). Before disaccharides can be used by organisms, they must be broken down into their monosaccharide units. The disaccharides have the molecular formula C12H22O11.

 A disaccharide is formed upon the formation of a glycosidic linkage (a type of bond) between monosaccharides. This glycosidic linkage forms via a dehydration reaction:

Some starches are made of thousands of monosaccharide (glucose) units. Plants often store their excess sugars in the form of starch. Potatoes, beans, and grains such as rice, corn, and wheat are examples of plants that store large quantities of starch. The starch molecules must be broken down by hydrolysis (breaking down molecules by water) into monosaccharide units or glucose molecules before they can be used as energy sources by organisms. Glycogen Humans and some animals produce starch called glycogen in the liver. It is stored in the liver and in muscles. When extra energy is needed, the glycogen is broken down into glucose.

Cellulose Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is still more complex that the starches, but made up be only glucose units. The cell walls of plants are made of cellulose. The paper, cotton, and wood are made up of cellulose. 1. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet. 2. A non-essential amino acid is an amino acid that can be synthesized by the organism (usually referring to humans).So there is no deficiency of this AA in the body if they are not supplied in the diet. Role of amino acids and Nutrition 1. Most microorganisms and plants can biosynthesize all 20 standard amino acids, while animals (including humans) must obtain some of the amino acids from the diet. The amino acids that an organism cannot synthesize on its own are referred to as essential amino acids 2. In animals, amino acids are obtained through the consumption of foods containing protein. Ingested proteins are then broken down into amino acids through digestion, which typically involves denaturation of the protein through exposure to acid and hydrolysis by enzymes called proteases. Some ingested amino acids are used for protein biosynthesis, while others are converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis, or fed into the citric acid cycle. This use of protein as a fuel is particularly important under starvation conditions as it allows the body's own proteins to be used to support life, particularly those found in muscle. Amino acids are also an important dietary source of nitrogen. Functions of Proteins

1. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. 2. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. 3. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. 4. Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. 5. Proteins are also necessary in animals diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism. Lipids are a structurally heterogeneous class of biological molecules that are, as their common characteristic, hydrophobic. Lipids posses numerous C-H bonds (i.e., they are very hydrocarbon-like). Examples of lipids include: (i) Fats, (ii) Oils, (iii) Waxes, (iv) Phospholipids, and (v) Steroids, etc. Lipids are similar to carbohydrates in that they contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They differ from carbohydrates in one important way: no specific ratio (C:H:O). Many also serve as source of energy. In fact, a gram of fat can produce over twice as much energy as a gram of carbohydrate. Lipids are also store energy. The proportion of hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates is two to one. In lipid it is much higher.

Fats and oils possess more energy per molecule and less hydration compared with carbohydrates, resulting in fats or oils possessing much more energy stored per unit mass or volume. During digestion, the fat or oil is broken down into these simple molecules. Fats and oils function in biological systems as energy storage molecules (e.g., nuts, seeds, and animals). Fats Fats are solid at ordinary temperatures. Generally, fats are produced by animals. In animals, fats are stored in adipose cells. Fats are also important as cushions for body organs and as an insulating layer beneath skin. Oils Oils are liquid at ordinary temperatures. Generally, oils are produced by plants. Some common vegetable oils are peanut, soybean, and corn oil. Waxes Both plants and animals produce waxes. The waxy coating on some plants leaves is an example of plant waxes. Beeswax is an example of a wax produced by an animal. Phospholipids

1. Phospholipids are a variation on the triacylglycerol theme in which one fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group, which in turn is bound to additional functional groups. 2. Structurally and functionally, the important thing about phospholipids is that these molecules are simultaneously hydrophobic (at one end, the fatty acid end) and hydrophilic (at the other end, the phosphate end). Steroids 1. All steroids possess a common ring structure. 2. These ring structures vary by attached functional groups. 3. Cholesterol is example of a steroid; cholesterol is a membrane component 4. The common steroid structure is the basis of sterol hormones including the human sex hormones (the estrogens and the androgens, including testosterone). Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them. Only two EFAs are known for humans:alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid). Linoleic Acid: Linoleic acid is a carboxylic acid with an 18-carbon chain and two cis double bonds; In terms of its structure, it is named all-cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid. The body cannot synthesize linoleic acid from other food components.It is abundant in many vegetable oils, comprising over half (by weight) of poppy seed, safflower, sunflower, and corn oils. (Omega 6 FA) Alpha-Linolenic acid is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. In terms of its structure, it is named all-cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (Omega 3 FA) Nutrition and Health 1. Most of the lipid found in food is in the form of triacylglycerols, cholesterol and phospholipids. 2. A minimum amount of dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and carotenoids. 3. Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet. Both of these fatty acids are 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds. Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid (safflower, sunflower, and corn oils). Alpha-linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants, and in selected seeds, nuts and legumes (particularly rapeseed, walnut and soy). Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). 4. A large number of studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega3 fatty acids on infant development, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and various mental illnesses, such as depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia. In contrast, it is now well-established

that consumption of trans fats, such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The American Heart Association's Nutrition Committee strongly advises the fat guidelines for healthy Americans over age 2: Limit total fat intake to less than 2535% of your total calories each day; Limit saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total daily calories; Limit trans fat intake to less than 1% of total daily calories; The remaining fat should come from sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats such as nuts, seeds, fish and vegetable oils; and Limit cholesterol intake to less than 300 mg per day, for most people. For example, a sedentary female who is 3150 years old needs about 2,000 calories each day. Therefore, she should consume less than 16 g saturated fat, less than 2 g trans fat and between 50 and 70 grams of total fat each day (with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, such as fish, nuts, seeds and vegetable oils). Genes The basic unit of genetic information They determine the nature and the function of the cell. The human genes (about ~ 30- 40,000) are referred to as the human genome. A genome is the full set of genes in each cell of an organism.

22 of the pairs are called autosomes and are numbered from largest to smallest. The autosomes are not involved in determining sex. The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes: XX in females XY in males Transcription Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is transferred to a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA). It is facilitated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors. Transcription occurs in the nucleus. Translation Translation is the process where ribosomes synthesize proteins using the mature mRNA transcript produced during transcription. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm.