1.

The Problems of Peacemaking

a. The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation
i. Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped
of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property.
Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop)
had died, people wanted to preserve what was left
ii. Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family,
work. Almost none owned land or possessions
b. Competing Notions of Freedom
i. Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice,
humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also
desired
ii. AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some
wanted economic redistribution including land, others
wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted
independence from white control
iii. Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal
government. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had
abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be
tied to plantations
iv. March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to
distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only
a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr
c. Issues of Reconstruction
i. Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c
Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub
nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and
currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for
suffering rebellion caused
ii. Republicans split between Conservatives and Radicals-
Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for
readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of
PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confederate
leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property
confiscation. Moderates in between
d. Plans for Reconstruction
i. Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan-
favored recruiting former Whigs to Republicans,
amnesty to white Southerners other than high
Confederate officials. When 10% of people took loyalty
oath state government could be established. Questions of
future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid
reunification
 ii. The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee
rejoined under plan in 1864
iii. Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864
proposed governor for each state, when majority of
people took allegiance oath constitutional convention
could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confederate
leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to
Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed
e. The Death of Lincoln
i. April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes
Booth
ii. Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant
republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a
mild plan would not come soon
f. Johnson and “Restoration”
i. Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative
factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress
in recess during summer 1865
ii. Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance
oath, Confederate officials + wealthy planters needed
special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had
provisional governors, constitutional convention had to
revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify
13th Amendment. State governments, then readmission
iii. By end of 1865 all seceded states has new governments,
waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to
recognize Johnson governments b/c public sentiment
more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confederate
Alexander Stephens as Sen)
2. Radical Reconstruction
a. The Black Codes
i. 1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as
Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves,
prevent farm ownership or certain jobs
ii. Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s
Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866
passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens,
gave fed government power to intervene to protect rights
of citizens
iii. Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden
b. The Fourteenth Amendment
i. 14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in
US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed
 all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements
allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former
Confederate members couldn’t hold state or fed office
unless pardoned by Congress
ii. Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified
amendment, only TN did so
iii. S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub
majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional
elections, could now act over President’s objections
c. The Congressional Plan
i. Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867,
established coherent plan
ii. TN readmitted, but other state governments rejected.
Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who
registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in
rebellion) for const convention that must include black
suffrage
iii. After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state
legislature had to ratify 14thAmendment. By 1868 10
former Confederate states fulfilled these conditions
(14th Amendment now part of Const) and readmitted to
Union
iv. Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act
(forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate
consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military
orders except thru commanding general of army or w/
Sen approval)
v. Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared
military tribunals where civil courts existed
unconstitutional , Radicals feared same ruling would
apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening
court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2
years
d. The Impeachment of President Johnson
i. Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked
with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868
Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act
for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1
vote
3. The South in Reconstruction
a. The Reconstruction Governments
i. In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to
¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These
 restrictions later lifted, but Republicans kept control w/
support of many southern whites called “scalawags”
(most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman),
felt Repub better for their economic interests
ii. “Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals
or veterans) who moved South after war to take
advantage of new opportunity
iii. Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who
held conventions and created black churches that gave
them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates
to const conventions, held office- although white charges
of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false
iv. Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there
were charges of corruption and extravagance. But
corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic
expansion of government services that put new strains
on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed
services previous governments had not offered: public
education, public works, and poor relief
b. Education
i. Education improvement benefited whites and blacks-
large network of schools for former slaves created (over
white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of
equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school
system led to great percentage of white and black
population attending school
ii. System divided into black and white system, integration
efforts failed
c. Landownership and Tenancy
i. Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make
Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership
reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but
Pres Johnson and government returned most confiscated
land to returning plantation owners
ii. White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or
rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on
help of failed Freedman’s Bank
iii. Most people did not own land during Reconstruction,
worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers
worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of
land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop
d. The Crop-Lien System
 i. Postwar years saw economic progress for African
Americans, great increase in income. Result of black
profit share increasing, greater return on labor
ii. Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty-
black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then
grew little more afterward
iii. Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by
ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit
institutions such as banks returned, new credit system
centered on local country stores
iv. Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit
to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores
charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien
(claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in
debt cycle
v. Effects included leading some blacks who had gained
land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers
became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only
possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to
decline in agric economy
e. The African-American Family in Freedom
i. Major black response during Reconstruction was effort
to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many
immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and
family
ii. Women began performing more domestic work + child
caring, less field labor
iii. Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to
do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of
slave activities: domestic servants, laundry
4. The Grant Administration
a. The Soldier President
i. Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868
election. Had no political experience, appointed
incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders
and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned
w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption
ii. Opposing Republicans formed faction called Liberal
Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley
in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection
b. The Grant Scandals
i. Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and
Republicans. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier
 construction company helping build Union Pacific RR.
Company heads steered contracts to company costing
fed government and Union Pacific millions, stock given
to Congress members to stop investigation
ii. Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers
cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that
“Grantism” brought corruption to government
c. The Greenback Question
i. Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of
1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors
wanted government to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks
(paper currency)
ii. Grant and other Republicans wanted “sound” currency
based on gold that would favor banks and other
creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation
iii. 1875 Republicans passed Specie Resumption Act-
pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied
creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supeopley grew
little
iv. National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept
money issue alive
d. Republican Diplomacy
i. Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign
affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William
Seward and Hamilton Fish
ii. Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”),
annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against
GB of violating neutrality by building ships for
Confederate . Treaty of Washington allowed for
arbitration of claims
5. The Abandonment of Reconstruction
a. The Southern States “Redeemed”
i. By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked
as majority to overthrow Republicans. In areas of black
majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku
Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity
ii. Klan led by former Confederate Gen Nathan Forrest.
Worked to advance interest of those who would gain
from white supremacy- mainly planter class and
Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic
pressure used
b. The Ku Klux Klan Acts
 i. Republicans tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed
Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)-
prohibited states from discriminating against voters on
race, fed government given power to prosecute
violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil
rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations
ii. Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC
c. Waning Northern Commitment
i. Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of
Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amendment
many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves.
Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into
Democratic Party
ii. Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support
further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability
thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did
so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this
light, favored little government intervention to help.
Depleted treasury led people to want to spend little on
freedmen, poor state governments cut back on social
services
iii. In Congressional elections of 1874 Democrats won
majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used
army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA
d. The Compromise of 1877
i. In 1876 elections Republicans sought new candidate to
distance from corruption and attract Liberals back-
chose Rutherford B Hayes, Democrats chose Sam Tilden
ii. Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral
votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote
majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress
created special electoral commission to judge disputed
votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won
election
iii. Resolution result of compromises between Republicans
w/ southern Democrats- Hayes would withdraw last fed
troops from S if Democrats abandoned filibuster of bill
iv. “Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid
for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to
help Democrats grow business and industrialize,
withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state governments
e. The Legacies of Reconstruction
 i. Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but
a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such
bitterness that solution not attempted for another
century. Failure b/c of people directing it, unwillingness
to infringe on rights of states and individuals
6. The New South
a. The “Redeemers”
i. By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern
state government “redeemed” (white Democrats held
power). “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful
ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants,
industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”,
social conservatism, economic development
ii. Dem governments lowered taxes, reduced services (incl.
public education)
iii. By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and
Redeemer government commitment to pay off prewar
and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster
movement)
b. Industrialization and the “New South”
i. Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop
industrial economy, New South of industry, progress,
thrift
ii. Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost
Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’
1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows
iii. New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c
of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco-
processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s
American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also
grew
iv. Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886
greater integration with rest of country when changed its
gauge
v. However, growth of South merely regained what it had
done before war, average income in the South
substantially lower than that of North
vi. Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force.
Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill
towns restricted by company w/ labor unions
suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of
community
c. Tenants and Sharecroppers
 i. S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of
tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop-
lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of people
in S became tenant farmers
ii. “Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large
share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after
payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth
of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence
laws” (prevented people from raising livestock) led to
decline in living self-sufficiently
iii. Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to
follow in 1880s/1890s
d. African Americans and the New South
i. Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress +
self improvement, entered middle class by becoming
professionals, owning land or business
ii. This small rising group of blacks believed education
vital to future of race- supported black colleges
iii. Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington
(founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should
attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win
respect of white population by adopting middle class
standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to
forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement
and economic gains to earn recognition
e. The Birth of Jim Crow
i. Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and
Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th &
15th Amendments (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented
state discrimination but not private organizations of
individuals)
ii. Court validated separation of races- Plessy v
Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not
deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were
equal. Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)-
laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable
school for blacks existed
iii. White policies shifted from subordination to
segregation- black voting rights had been used by
Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when
poor white farmers saw this they sought to
disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amendment thru
 “poll tax”/property requirement or
“literacy”/understanding test
iv. Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of
southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynching, etc) to
inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti-
lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to
pass national law enabling fed got to punish those
responsible for lynching
v. White supremacy diluted class animosities between poor
whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played
secondary role to race, distracting people from social
inequalities that affected blacks and whites