Ships and Boats as Archaeological Source Material Author(s): Jonathan Adams Reviewed work(s): Source: World Archaeology, Vol.

32, No. 3, Shipwrecks (Feb., 2001), pp. 292-310 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/827924 . Accessed: 16/09/2012 10:05
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Ships and boats as archaeological source material

JonathanAdams

Abstract
cultures, ofthepast.Yetinso many socialinteractions itis potsthat areusedto explore So often they are that be argued itmight profile, symbolic sucha prominent andboatshaveacquired ships examines Thispaper transported. so often thepotsthey than carriers ofmeaning evenmore potent justbeginweareonly that andargues potential their archaeological that watercraft thefactors give them to thefull. to exploit ning

Keywords
ritual; symbol. ideology; tradition; materials; economics; environment; technology; Boat;ship;

andexchange trade subsistence, Communication,

and environmental paradox. Even today,in an age a cultural Bodies of waterconstitute or a boundary barrier, wateras a hazard,a physical we acknowledge of global transport, of thesequalitiesmusthave been far another'world'.In thepast themagnitude frontier, rather lakes and seas were the means of connecting yetat the same timerivers, greater, than dividingsocieties.To acknowledgethisis becomingrathera cliche,a mandatory maritime-related yetthe reasons it has become lecture, in any introductory observation evidenceforseafaring goes back at least 60,000years, The indirect so cannotbe ignored. while the postglacial archaeological record indicates frequentmovementof people, and hence ideas, over long distancesby water. materials and exchange, by the Mesolithicand perhaps communication As well as fortransport, considerablyearlier, societies were exploitingaquatic resources as part of complex has been found evidenceofthesecommunities Rich archaeological subsistence strategies. in coastal environments (Andersen 1987a), in estuarineareas (Wright1990; McGrail 1996) and in lakes (Dixon 1991; Morrison1980; Ruoff1972). Many societiestherefore or were at least tapped into communications of some description, used watertransport to understand past societiesmust networks facilitated by water.It followsthatattempts social factors. and theinterrelated ofwatertransport culture take accountofthematerial 292-310 Vol. World Shipwrecks 32(3): Archaeology O0oV L4,6 online LtdISSN 0043-8243 print/1470-1375 & Francis 2001Taylor
&t?' Franc*>s?

10.1080/00438240120048644 ~~~~~~~DOT:

sourcematerial 293 Ships and boats as archaeological

ofboatsandships that itistheremains a primary Within this general designation comprise thehazardous nature ofwater Of thevastnumbers classofevidence. transconstructed, craft ofwrecks, that database tous an enormous port hasbequeathed augmented bythose orritually ofinvarious wereabandoned disposed ways. Preservation valuethatboat and shipremains As wellas anyintrinsic mayhave as archaeological thathave caused a steady the same environmental forces assemblages, fortuitously, them inan extraordinary condition. Thisis oflossesoften to preserve sequence conspire theanaerobic that is assimilated into sediments thecase for cultural material particularly indry thepreservation found The difference between ofthebedsofseas,lakesorrivers. has beenfrequently and wetenvironments highlighted (e.g. Dean et al. 1992:31; Coles better of and Lawson1987);above all it is characterized by dramatically preservation in wet environments. An important materials of thisdifferential organic by-product is that material found underwater is often to that found on preservation complementary landsites, thevalueofresearch thataddresses thereby promoting to questions relating landandsubmerged material in an integrated way. Failure orsuccess? It couldbe argued that thewreck is biasedtowards database inthat itinevitably failure, forbad designs, accounts forpoorly old and rotten or foraberrant maintained, vessels, behaviour. If thisis trueit undermines claims thatwatercraft havehigharchaeological thewreck potential. In fact database is more indicative ofenterprise andcalculated risk. Formal'risk-assessment' is fastbecoming institutional commonplace procedure in all walks oflife. whether ornot, conscious is ofcourse a constant Risk-assessment, ofhuman behaviour butperhaps an activity where it has always been explicit is seafaring. Every with voyage begins a risk-assessment that balances ofenvironmental, judgements human andtechnological factors. As a vessel gets older, risk-assessment progressively takes more account ofitscondition until at somepoint itsusers decidediscretion is thebetter part of valour. Soundjudgement mayofcourse be overridden byother motives. In morerecent wesee this periods incommerce particular clearly where arekept ships inusewellbeyond their safeworking life. Thisis expressed inMurphy's 'onemore voyage' hypothesis which that wrecks aretheresult argues many ofan erroneous judgement that thevessel inquestionwas good for'one morevoyage'(Murphy 1983:75). This is a self-perpetuating forthetemptation wouldbe to see vesselsthatreturn tendency, as fit foryetanother Ifthis voyage. process at somepoint continues, thevessel's lossproves thejudgement to havebeeninerror. an old andunseaworthy Nevertheless, shipmight be lucky enough to a voyage while a newandfar complete stronger vessel is overwhelmed byenvironmental forces. Recentferry disasters showthat vessels in either condition can also be lostas a result ofhuman error, irrespective oftheir suitability for a particular task. It is therefore incorrect togeneralize that theships that sink arethelesssuccessful designs. The scaleof

Adams 294 Jonathan

against tendto militate of failure and theconsequences thelevelofinvestment effort, change. sudden radical, oftheSwedish famously causedloss,most haveon occasions faults design Admittedly was design theinitial case,however, in 1628.In this voyage Vasaon itsmaiden warship toalter II Adolph Gustav byKing compelled were thebuilders theway rather notatfault, casesboatsor (Soop 1992:15). In other had started construction after thespecifications less seabecoming life,progressively their throughout modified shipsare repeatedly orintended. couldnothaveforeseen andbuilders designers inways theoriginal worthy and in 1509-11 Rose,built theMary inthis category: falls warship famous royal Another life long relatively of a repairs routine The voyages. early in her successful undoubtedly relatedto and perhapsongoingmodification rebuilding in substantial culminated tragic with stability affected adversely allofwhich 1536, around from armament increased consequences. and ofwreckings a minority comprise theseandcaseslikethem that remains The fact error. One can human including offorces, ofa combination occur as theresult that most to with respect ormisjudgement ofmisfortune wrecks as theresult most regard therefore use andofthe interms extended oftheir ofsuccess butas a measure final their voyage, werecreated. which they within traditions building andabandonment Ritual deposition thearchaeological boatsand shipsalso enter accidental losses, to countless In addition is theuse of The most obvious ofsocialaction. ofother forms record as a consequence andas a symbolic component goods, fora bodyandgrave inburials, as containers ships at in Gokstad Norway, and at Oseberg such as those finds It is offunerary ritual. grave that haveprovided ofCheops, andin thetomb Egypt, Hoo in Suffolk, England, Sutton wereusedin that The fact ships 'type-sites'. with someofitsfinest archaeology nautical in their significance symbolic thattheyhad considerable waysimplies suchelaborate this aspect, however, Until recently, 1995). Ellmers 1992; societies (Varenius respective less rather has been considered ofthosepersons buried, thesignificance with together 1995; entities 1992;Ingstad as technological (Dommasnes thanthe shipsthemselves small boatswerealsoused burials, high-status patently 1995).As wellas these Warmind funclimited topurely use was their which The extent to as coffins. societies inmany other thedeceased's todeath, occupation tosocialattitudes torelating as opposed tional utility, discussion considerable 1995;Crumlin-Pederto generate (Carver hasbegun orethnicity 1995). 1995;Skaarup sen1995;MUller-Wille at as those such bestcharacterized areperhaps byfinds ofritual forms Other deposition In all in and at Kvalsund inDenmark, Norway. andVimose Illerup Nydam, Hjortspring, offerlakesas votive inbogsorsmall swampy seemtohavebeenplaced casesvessels these inpeat ofthem alloverScandinavia, occur ofboatsorboatelements many Bog finds ings. as variedas thetheories are probably deposition (Rieck 1995).The reasonsfortheir for as primarily areinterpreted example functional, them. Somedeposits toexplain offered or for better water boats in preservation orpartly ofboatelements completed thestorage powerful Thoughone couldpostulate blockages. theuse of old boatsas navigational

source material 295 Shipsandboatsas archaeological other suchas thoseat Hjortspring for bothactivities, and symbolic significance deposits ritualistic withcomplex to warfare and social Nydamare undoubtedly relationships Rieck1994: organization (Randsborg 1995; 45,1995:127). ofmaterial culture are discarded whenbroken or worn other Just as many types out, At one extreme this was simply theabandonment ofaged so too wereboatsand ships. and rotten a practice evident the estuaries and creeks craft, todaythroughout where hulked vessels slowly decayin themud(e.g. Milneet al. 1998).One ofthebestknown of some twenty-five of thistypewere the remains medievaland postassemblages inSweden intheformer medieval at Kalmar medieval found harbour vessels (Akerlund ofreveals a great deal about thewayinwhich old vessels are disposed 1951).Of course to them and themechanisms ofwhich werepart.Whereare they socialattitudes they is left To what extent removed Whatequipment on them? arematerials for abandoned? Arethey more involved? In somesocieties recycling? oris there simply dumped, usually boatsareunderstood to possess soulsandare afforded rites at theendoftheir mortuary themoreutilitarian end ofthespecuse lives(e.g. Layard1942:470-2).Even towards burnt or intentionally sunkas partofa trum, boatsmaybe methodically dismembered, A medieval in shallow wateroffthe islandof decommissioning ceremony. cog found in Sweden cutthrough with Bossholmen an axe.This (Cederlund 1990)haditskeelhalf beenabandoned anda possible vesselhad clearly is that sea-going explanation severing to makeituneconomic thekeelwasintended to repair thus itsuse byanyone precluding a symbolic else.Alternatively, itmayhavebeenas much as a functional decommissionIfthis seems onehasonly tolookattheefforts ofourownsociety to avoid far-fetched, ofold ships that areperceived tohavehistorical disposing The motto significance. ofthe World is 'never an oathtaken ShipTrust again', byitsfounder Frank Carrafter witnessoftheImplacable in 1949.Indeedthewayin which ingthescuttling theImplacable was of demonstrates disposed howhighly suchevents charged can be. Captured from the Frenchat the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805,the Implacablehad remained afloatin Portsmouth Harbour fornearly a century and a half. too rotten to be keptany Judged inthepenurious longer, especially conditions ofpost-war theshipwastowed Britain, out intothechannel tobe sunk. weredetonated inthebilges Black-powder charges butafter twoand a halfhoursthey had failedto sinkherand tugstried to finish thejob. The reluctance oftheship tosink served seeming toheighten only emotions among those who watched. Thatshewent tohergrave theWhite flying Ensign andtheFrench Tricolour, to thesoundsof a gunnery saluteand a bugler playing the 'lastpost',demonstrates the oftheship, thehistorical symbolic significance events inwhich ithadbeeninvolved, and notleast, theritual nature ofitsdisposal. The fateoftheImplacable led directly to the for the means Sark a saving Cutty from similar end. Contexts andmeanings A sloganthathas been inscribed by students on thelavatory wallsof morethanone university archaeology department states that'archaeology is rubbish!', referring to the factthaton many landsites, muchof thematerial we excavate has been intentionally
ing.

Adams 296 Jonathan

is not this upon.Ofcourse re-used orbuilt robbed out,discarded, destroyed, abandoned, that burials Buteveninthose ortombs. being graves exceptions always thecase,obvious and bodiesweretreated attentions, thewaysin which haveescapedthetomb-robber's from that society's derives which in turn funerary ritual reflect goodsselected anygrave forms ofritual toother andso on.Thisalsoapplies ancestors afterlife, ideasaboutdeath, locamaterials, people, to specific they willrelate in that discard andre-use, deposition, (Hill 1995). oroccasions tions, procedures there are distinct shipwrecks, which is one wayof categorizing In catastrophe sites, land found on most with those compared assemblages of their in the character differences ofinsurance phenomenon until therecent that basedon thefact sites. Thisis primarily itsvery few eveninthecase offraud, setoutintentionally tobe shipwrecked; very fraud, incharacteristics being reflected intention theultimate against would tend tocount nature twoprincipal accidental nature, generally from this Derived oftheshipanditscontents. selection ofpurposeful andtheabsence contemporaneity havebeenhighlighted: qualities at facevaluecanlead as their acceptance 1990:377).Bothneedto be qualified (Gibbins views to overly aboutwrecks. simplistic Timecapsules? sites, underwater ofthepastprovided bywell-preserved Thetantalizingly images graphic use oftheterm 'time capsule', in particular, has led to therepeated andbyshipwrecks How apt a description term 'closedfind'. ofthearchaeological thepopular equivalent oflossandthe on thecircumstances is foranyparticular sitepartly depends this really siteformation processes. and the subsequent the siteenvironment wrecking process, is valid, at leastto a degree, ofwreck where theappellation sites thenumber However, referred Binford's tothem term, Gibbins (1990:377),using bymany. hasbeenrecognized contextual havevastly more'relative thatthey as 'fine-grained' meaning assemblages, us a high-resolution cangive words image 1981: they 20). In other (Binford complexities' butin their relationships objects well-preserved notonlyin individual ofpastactivity, ofuse,wehavea much ina context survives Iftheobject 'invisible' attributes. andother between individual between objects, ofbeing ableto discern relationships chance better were which within theseand thestructures they of objectsand between assemblages status'. These 'inferential havea higher orused.As Gibbins stored putit(1990:377),they achieved to a degree attributes andmeanings revealsymbolic rarely often relationships elsewhere. ofassemblages canbe andintegrity thecoherence thecasewhere this is only Ofcourse of Thecontemporaneity ofthematter. andthis is thecrux demonstrated archaeologically carried toallassemblages event andnotnecessarily tothewrecking refers a wreck strictly ofthevessel materials in timeand space,all constituent aboard.The wrecking locates, wereall in that butit doesnotfollow ofthat in thecontext they anditscontents event, relationships. Manyvessels strong use at thesametimeor are associated byuniformly wereoften abandoned sankorwere a considerable and,as noted, they reached agebefore somemayhavebeenon at thewrecking, rebuilt. Of thematerials present substantially of assemblages somefordecades.Muchwillbe in theform of hours, boarda matter butother items theshipandthepeopleon board, to eachother, invarious related ways

Ships and boats as archaeological sourcematerial 297

or materials mayhaveno direct to that barthat ofphysical relationships voyage association, in other words to be on board. bysimply happening In effect, a shiparrives at itsplaceofwrecking with an onboard for units stratigraphy, ofarchaeological include structural elements as wellas deposited stratigraphy sediments with together features ofuse that havesequential andcontextual anyassociated relationships (Harris Thehull itsballast, theresidues 1979, passim). ofprevious structure, cargoes, fixtures andfittings, allother with inuse constitute together a stratiassemblages actually graphic that in some cases sequence backa century ormorefrom thewreck mayextend a shiphaveconsiderably event. So notonlymight moretime-depth thanis commonly butinterms ofitsbiography as a socialandtechnological thought, itsuse lifecan entity be positively While somecraft wereconstructed kaleidoscopic. for specific the purposes, usestowhich a vessel wasputcouldandoften didchange. alsochange Ownership might through saleorgift orbyforce. As Murphy out(1983:74),this pointed alsoinvolve might transfer between ethnic ornationalities. Nordoesitendthere, groups on for, depending where it sinks, a wreck maybe exploited societies thantheones thatusedit. byother Evidence oftheir ofsalvage activities orfishing willalso enter thearchaeological record. Hencethesimplistic notion that a wreck is a 'single-event is a dangerous phenomenon' one that can blind theinvestigator to many ofthevessel's aspects these past.Of course provisos do notdetract from the'closedfind' valueofthoseassemblages that arerelated use at thetime ofsinking. through On thecontrary itcanbe argued that extend the they general contextual benefit of thewreckas an archaeological it up to entity, opening diachronic rather than analysis a synchronic 'freeze-frame' approach. Selection It wasnoted that thedegree towhich a siteis regarded as a closedfind is often related to thewrecking andformation where a well-preserved processes, 'coherent' wreck is a 'timecapsule'and a scattered 'discontinuous' wreck siteis not.However, many oftheinterlinked component processes ofsiteformation are natural (the'n-transforms' ofSchiffer 1987: 7) andcanbe modelled anddeciphered. Evenhuman activities suchas salvage that onthewreck impact ontheseabedmay leavetraces that canbe recognized through stratiexcavation graphic justas other events are.Of course notall ofthese activities are 'readable'. As Ferrari (1995)has shown, evenwellpreserved wrecks maybetray no evidence of cultural behaviour thathas selectively removed material from theassemblage, and which was integral to itsfunction. However, thefact remains that thedegree to which a ship's contents arereorganized bythese processes doesnotinitself change their status as a related assemblage, onlyour ability to read and understand themas such.Through of formation analysis processes, therelationships between component objects, assemblagesandstructures andtheir varying qualities ofcontemporaneity andselection canbe thuspreserving recovered, 'closedfind' advantages on eventhemostdynamic of sites et al. 2000). (e.g.Tomalin Muckelroy (1978:157)described a shipwreck as 'theevent bywhich a highly organized anddynamic assemblage ofartefacts aretransformed into a static anddisorganized state'. Thisdefinition implies a short-term and dramatic event, anditis true that themaintype ofsocially structured selection wouldbe jettisoning objects in an attempt to stayafloat.

298 Jonathan Adams But the process wherebythe organizationof the vessel breaks down, culminating in wrecking, maybeginhoursifnotdaysbeforethevessel actually sinks.The crewofa vessel in troublewill make strenuousefforts to avertdisasterand these activities can radically alterthe ship as a machine,what it carriesaboard and the way it is organizedand used. In violentweather,rigmay be substantially alteredor cut away,and cargo,equipment, fixtures and fittings maybe jettisonedin additionto anyitemslostinvoluntarily. Stowage of materialscarried aboard may be reorganizedand various emergency alterationsor repairsmade to the vessel. In these cases the assemblagedepositedon the seabed in the event of wrecking is not the same as it would have been had the vessel unexpectedly or sunk as a resultof naval actionor piracy. foundered A good example of thisis the Sea Venture, an Englishcolonial vessel thatwreckedoff Bermuda in 1609 (Plate 1). The artefact assemblage reflects both the ship's nationality and its colonial purpose,as well as the factthatthe shiphad been caughtin a hurricane. For fourdays the ship's company,crew and passengersalike, laboured in shifts to stay alive. By thetimetheymiraculously foundland,thestructure, contents, arrangement and, at least, the social hierarchy, temporarily had all been affected in the waysnoted above. Their extraordinary redemption on a hauntedislandprovidedShakespearewithmaterial forThe Tempest (1611) (Wingood 1982; Adams 1985).

Plate1 ThehulloftheSea Venture excavation Boththelocations ofvarious classes (1609)during ofmaterial andtheabsence ofothers thelastfour as well result from desperate daysofthevoyage as from The lastdocumented elevenyears subsequent salvageactivity salvageepisodeoccurred after theloss(photoJ Adams)

Ships and boats as archaeological sourcematerial 299

sensethevery fact In quiteanother ofputting tosea constitutes an exercise incultural It notonly theconstruction selection. ofan appropriate butactivities requires of vessel, trade or warfare and so on will involve a of materials subsistence, industry, and variety artefacts which are specific to theenterprise andwhich maybe moreor lessspecialized maritime for use.Ofcourse this couldbe a reason toquestion theusefulness ofshipboard material to inform aboutaspects of widersociety, butall material culture is variously 'specialized' to the reasons for its andcontexts ofuse.The nature relating production of thatspecialization is one of thecentral concerns of archaeology. Even where material culture is specialized forshipboard can revealunsuspected use,assemblages of aspects with thevery society, choseto organize and execute beginning their waythey maritime andwater activities. The degree ofspecialization transport is also variable. Muchofthe material culture used on boatsin prehistoric was farless specialized periods thanin historical inpost-medieval times, particularly Eventhen, a part Europe. ofshipboard only is specific assemblages to shipboard lifeand enterprise. In bothmercantile and naval would everyday possessions someoftheobjects activity, found comprise on board, and this is evenmorethecase for ofdiscovery or colonization. voyages Aggregate value In spite ofthemanifest valueofshipfinds, there is an important which is related proviso tositeformation andwhich therefore affects what be inferred might from various classes ofevidence found on board. Thereis ofcourse no necessary direct relationship between thewrecking location and thevessel's homeportor intended in destination. Certainly, evidence from many cases, combination ofhull any andthecontents, structure, rig, fittings can at leastindicate especially cargo, where theshipcamefrom and often where itwas thus to a knowledge going, contributing ofthepatterns ofcommunication or details of ancient trade andexchange networks inwhich itwasinvolved. Evenso,inference on the basisofanyonewreck's location canbe problematic, evenwhen therelationship between thevessel's location anditsfunction wrecking seemintuitively obvious. Ofcourse thelack ofa direct, evidential connection between theshipandthelocalewhere itwrecks willnot detract from other archaeological qualities oftheassemblage. Thereis also thechance that this canbe combined with information from other sites anditisjustthis sort ofaggregatedatafrom wrecks overtime occurring that canreliably demonstrate trends. The benefits ofsuchan approach are exemplified byParker's 1992study ofMediterranean trade, oftheRomanperiod. particularly The patterns that emerged indicate the of various transport commodities alongcertain routesand between specific locations, with together thefluctuations in theintensity ofthattraffic overtime. The clarity with which this canbe demonstrated exceeds anything that couldbe achieved on thebasisof material from landsites alone.Similar benefits canbe gained from theanalysis ofmaterial inharbours accumulated overtime. Although individual finds may be unstratified andare to relateto specific usually impossible events, thewholeassemblage, in effect, logsthe changing ofactivity intensity atthat placeover time, indicating thenature ofitsrolewithin wider networks. While these points usefully temper assumptions ofpristine time-capsules inwhich the

Adams 300 Jonathan

assemblages in shipwreck that be maintained itcan still andself-evident, pastis perfect related. contextually that is culture ofmaterial cross-section a broader we often observe and relationships withtheirmultiple assemblages Whatare thesecontemporaneous what culture, Whatshipsare as material society. us about?In a word: meanings telling bothofthe in terms ofsociety, aspects areused,reveals areusedforandhowthey they area part. they ofwhich society peopleon boardandalso ofthewider as things Ships palaeofrom theupper society, 'In anypre-industrial that (1978:3) observed Muckelroy and most AD, a boat or (later)a shipwas thelargest century to thenineteenth lithic inthespaceage,for still holdstrue this claim In someways machine produced.' complex ships andmachines, vehicles made.As both objects moving byfar thelargest arestill ships been a has therefore Shipbuilding in resources. investment an enormous represented in thelong and investment co-operation involving organization, socialactivity complex werepart, they ofwhich mechanisms socialand political theeconomic, Through term. ways, in suchcomplex to society Beinglinked society. pervaded havethusdeeply ships from unavailable perspectives from can revealaspects ofsociety their material remains classesofevidence. landsitesor other a useful basisfor analyarestill inthree which ways Muckelroy (1978:216)sawtheship and as a closed system; or economic as an element in a military sis: as a machine; ina similar way Amsterdam theVOC ship (1991:83) rationalized Gawronski community. funconegoesbeyond To ensure that to five. three categories butextended Muckelroy's andthe as ideology afloat add 'theshipas symbol', we might andsystems tional analyses is the craft which within thoseof the tradition of social ideas,including expression madeintheprocess ofthechoices that influence many Foritis these aspects constructed. and eachofMuckelroy's ofcourse as wellas initsmodesofuse.In reality ofproduction an or rather as as well as, meaning symbolic incorporate necessarily Gawronski's aspects functions andconfigurations. inherent partof,various functo their with ofships, wide-ranging regard As wellas analysing aspects specific of the socialimplications, shipscan be viewedas a manifestation tionsand associated are ofconstraints that within a series ofsociety, needsandaspirations produced maritime 1. inFigure as represented andmetaphysical, bothphysical modelas follows. inthis shown constraints thevarious Wemayconsider tosociety's anddirectly relates ofthevessel refers totheintended function(s) Purpose subsistand trade, ofcommunication various forms whether maritime providing needs, intenvessels were leisure. or suchas fishing, Many enceor industry military purposes features and construction use and so maynot exhibit design builtforgeneral tionally andthis ofspecialization a high exhibit vessels Other degree functions. related tospecific ofspecialanduse.The degree adornment on thesize,form, constraints layout, imposes of thewater thecomplexity vesselcan also indicate transport ization of an individual forms include simple which itoperates, very may within systems complex though system suchas rafts. If thevessel. forconstructing meansavailable refers to thetechnological Technology

sourcematerial 301 Ships and boats as archaeological

Environment

TrdiIon

and use of 1 Interrelated structural characteristics, appearance on theform, constraints Figure watercraft.

the thenthiswill constrain limitedto stone tools,fireand simplecordage forfastening, waterHowever,theuses to which ofthecraft thatcan be constructed. size and complexity In use, ships as technologicalcomplexity. craftwere put oftenrequired extraordinary the Therefore buildings. structures have to resist farmorecomplexforcesthanstationary simply cutting edge ofa society, thetechnological often represent methodsofshipbuilding visiblein shipsis therefore The technology is as demanding. because no othersituation of past and priorities needs the motivations, one of the mostpotentmeans of discerning societies. ofideas willembodya system The craft within whichthevessel is constructed tradition This about whatboats and ships are and how theyshould be designedand constructed. which various in and the ways in termsof design parameters will impose constraints are carried out. Obviously our perceptionof particularcraft aspects of construction products.In that of the past can onlybe based on the sum of theirsurviving traditions in physicalfeatures, and differences period incompletedatabase we observesimilarities

302 Jonathan Adams sense, as McGrail (1995:139)haspointed Hencein an important andgeographic region. system is which as a classification as a 'tradition' is 'our'construct, out,what we identify particular craft were pastpeoplewhobuilt reality'. In another sense, 'an abstraction from evenifonly at the governed their work, rulesandconventions that awareofthespecific response toinquissimple yet honest way'- that infuriatingly levelof'wealways do itthis motivated constituted social practice, itiveethnographers. Crafttraditions therefore oftheir practitioners too. andso wereconstructs intheminds action, of a tradition may Hencefrom bothends thetelescope, so to speak, oursand 'theirs', as an array ofmaterial, characteristics, aesthetic, andsymbolic be regarded technological, butwhich together individually, noneof which are necessarily diagnostic or exclusive there may andspace.How much correlation a coherent assemblage in time characterize ofthis itinthe andthat ofthepeoplewhoproduced be between ourperception material ofarchaeology. concerns andchallenges pastis one ofthecentral - thetypological characteristics traits To dateithasbeenthesignificance ofthephysical - that in havebeenthefocus Whileinevitable ofmostattention. ofbuilding traditions onlyone halfof thisapproach utilizes its database, research thatis stillfastbuilding what material means to us now.The significance this archaeology's doublehermeneutic: in thepasthas andmeanings andusedthem had forthosewhobuilt theseassemblages beenlessexplored. ingeneral. Thisis a dichotomy that an issuein archaeology is still very much Sorensen areviewed as arbitrary either intheir dilemma: justthis typologies (1997:181) addresses with past to thesocieties that them, or as having somecorrelation produced relationship aretheresult ofmotion thebasisthat theobserved similarities anddifferences meaning treated haveoperaction. In this sense'traditions', as complex typologies, vatedhuman of 'archaeological cultures' (where archaeologist's equivalent ated as a sortofnautical real 'peoples'). But were seen as representing artefact and distributions typologies and the concept of the archaeological has provedto be 'a complex whereas culture have more boat traditions edifice' 1989: 5), building (Shennan unsatisfactory explanatory than butthewaybuilding this is more andpotential. byaccident design, Perhaps validity - overbehave ismuch more akintothewayrealsocieties andinteract traditions develop medieval and post-medieval and interactive. Europeanshipbuilding Certainly lapping inwhich boatand Liketherealsocieties were notbounded traditions andsealedentities. anditis in this wereinterconnected andsynaptic, was practised, traditions shipbuilding It of changeare initiated. thatmany of ideas and technique cross-fertilization aspects ofmaritime dimension as an important that be argued traditions, couldtherefore building thepast. which to infiltrate as a means with havegreat potential archaeology, andideoboatandship As socialpractice symbolic inevitably incorporates production traditions In thissensebuilding to safeguard bestpractice. designed logicalconstructs and to suppress variation of'traditional' valuestends a paradox. The protection embody most somesocieties' whileat thesametimeboatsand shipsmayrepresent innovation both a dialectic is always is thatthere The explanation advanced interplay, technology. and widersociety. and between of traditional within thecorpus practitioners practice from bombardment and are underconstant are neverimpervious barriers Ideological Itisthis constant dialectorefine orinnovate. andthehuman external influences tendency tictension that leadsto change.

Ships and boatsas archaeological sourcematerial 303

are thenatural or manufactured materials Materials available forconstruction. Their influence willobviously havea strong on thevessels that canbe constructed. availability limit thechoice. In more In somesituations will bountiful theenvironment choice regions, andpreferences or be related to thetechnological attitudes cultural mayindicate capato exploit them. bility interms oflabour toproduce totheresources and/or wealth Economics refers required theability economies to invest time andlabour, thevessel. At thelevelofsubsistence for ofsuitable them to produce in thecutting would treesand reducing example logboats, on a subsistence to create time. havedepended successful therequired strategy enough wereconcerned thiswas routinely achieved societies Wherelogboats in by mesolithic andexchange whowerethus abletotransport commodities over EuropeandScandinavia via coastsandriver Danishfinds demonstrate that longdistances their systems. producofassociated with that andpaddles andother tion, together fishing equipment necessities, oftheir constituted a major material and contributed proportion culture to a successful subsistence ofremarkable strategy sophistication (Andersen 1987b). In complex societies resources areoften related topolitical andmilitary directly policy as wellas depending oneconomic Theeconomics ofshipbuilding ona large capacity. scale required accesstomaterials, often andprotected acquired as wellas a considermilitarily, ablelabour thus force, infrastructures a number ofsatellite creating large indusinvolving tries In modern and crafts. wealth has also created societies, surplus a massive leisure intheuse ofboats. market is theintended Environment ofthevessel. environment ifa boat operating Obviously is built foruse in sheltered coastalwaters or lakesit does notneedthesamecharacteristics ofstability androbust as a vessel construction intended for theopensea.Thecharacoftheoperating teristics environment therefore exert andmechanical powerful practical constraints on thepossible waysin which a vesselcan be constructed. Wherecultural or stretch requirements override theseparameters, forexample in theconstruction of ceremonial craft notintended for therigours oflong-distance theresulting voyaging, craft willoften be severely initsuse.The nature restricted ofthis relationship is often seenin localeswhere haveoccurred intheregional changes environment, for example as a result of agriculture or urbandevelopment, and wherethesechanges are thensubsequently inthechanged reflected ofwatercraft. design Reading ships It willbe seen thatrelationships have been postulated between all of thefactors that constrain theproduction ofa vessel. What will vary ineachcaseis thebalanceandamplitudeofeach interconnection depending on type, function, socialcontext and so on. In at shipsin their looking widest sense,one can define each vesselas theproduct of a tension on theone hand, dynamic between, thestimuli forbuilding, expressed as need, andontheother thevarious hand, constraints considered above, whether environmental, or economic. ideological, technical Each shipis a resolution ofthis dialectic relationship between variable infinitely factors. Every vessel therefore hasthepotential toreveal these itscreation, aspects andthrough underpinning them therelated aspects ofthesociety that

Adams 304 Jonathan one ofthebestwaysto ofshipsoffers usedit.It is forthisreasonthatthecomplexity accessthepast. change. isinexplicating inwhich itcando this ways important Perhaps oneofthemost the process of influence these constraints ways in which and interrelated The dynamic overtime nature may change for howtheir a rationale watercraft alsoprovide producing begins to ofthese constraints ifone ormore must occur orin different contexts. Change in different amplitude. Thatwe can,at leastto an extent, waysor at a different operate technoobserved allowsus to relate ofwatercraft in themateriality readthesechanges changeusually and social causes.Environmental logicalchangeto its environmental boatbuilding of all but the longest-lived occursoverlonger cyclesthanthe duration explanafind mutually we maymoreoften socialchange that henceitis with traditions, in themodel represented thefinal constraint this reason that It is for tory relationships. ideoitis often poweroftheothers, in spiteoftheapparent until lastfor, has beenleft are produced, howwatercraft votein influencing thathave thecasting logicalfactors andused. adorned what ships concepts that govern refers tothesumofideational andideological Ideology theideasof they maybe put.Thisincludes are understood to be and theusesto which thisis as wellas theideas of thebuilders; purposes, thosewhoneed shipsforvarious on the impose constraints above.Bothmay related totheconcept of'tradition' discussed constraints. andfunctional ofvessels are as proscriptive as anyofthematerial that form enough, it substantial is orbecomes ofcourse, conflict andifthecontradiction Theymay, ofships as also includes thewholesymbolic Thiscategory profile change. maygenerate and usersbutbysociety at large notjustbytheir owners builders, are perceived, they ofappearance whom oftheexternal aspects many ofcourse, for competitors, including, oflife theproduction It is inthesocialaspects surrounding be specifically designed. may visible. are playedoutand becomemost thattheseideologies Specific and use ofships relationandtheir inthecontext ofshipboard communities arenowconsidered examples with wider society. ships Shipsociety are 'closed communities', Muckelroy's societies, It can be acceptedthatshipboard fundamental a more ofthevoyage, buthisterm theduration implies closedfor certainly differences noted that there were often distinct from wider society. Muckelroy segregation associated in the differences and correlative communities land and seafaring between andshipboard ofseafaring hisassumptions aboutthenature material culture. However, to havebeen we believe constants basedon what various seemto presume communities Western from a predominantly andthat, inhistorical common inevitably, times, practice hierhad a rigid communities most itis truethat In that context shipboard perspective. male. were crews that most in command, and one person with predominantly It is archy hasarisen ofseafaring andmale-dominated a highly alsothecase that system specialized of societies theisland forexample at different oftheworld in other among times, parts that to suggest is no evidence ofIndia,butthere or thecoastalcommunities Polynesia these areuniversals.

Ships and boatsas archaeological sourcematerial 305

aremixed crews there havebeeninvarious so may However, justas there cultures now, inthepast.Evenon ships intheheyday ofsailthere werewomen as male masquerading their sex was sailors true concealed butin (Dugaw 1996).Very occasionally successfully where their was tolerated becausethey others it was moreofan opensecret, presence norm ofseafaring as itwaspractised inthat to conform to thegendered time agreed and andNorling to becomemen.In other place(Creighton situ1996).In effect they agreed ations a female was official, this varied to thetradeor the presence although according oftheship. Thisranged from thewives codified circumstances inwhich nationality rigidly ormates would toinland ofcaptains, masters travel with their husbands craft where whole families livedaboard(Weibust 1969: 421;vanHolk 1997). Of course where itis evident that as a male-dominated has developed seafaring practice, as in post-medieval this invites ofwider that Europe, questions haverarely society beenaddressed in thearchaeological IndeedMuckelroy's literature. (1978)observation that little ofanysort hadbeencarried outofshipboard is an imbalanalysis communities nowbeing anceonly andthat somewhat Where itis done,someaddressed, sporadically. whatsimplistic or analogiestendto be drawn. comparisons are societies Shipboard referred to as 'mirror at largeor 'micro-societies', images'of society whereas in most cases,as Muckelroy areliableto be radically recognized, they different. Evenwhere all thecomponents ofwider are apparently suchas on Dutchinland society present, shipvanHolk (1997:254-9)hasdetected ping, ofshipboard differentiation families according to class,influenced from c. AD 550. In themanyother by Dutchsocialdevelopments Western contexts where crews wereall male,shipboard weretherefore societies atypical bydefinition. In rigidly hierarchical systems suchas thoseofpost-medieval navalships, thetiered is more system ofrank oftheideology a realization ofthose inpower than a direct reflectionofwider society. Rdnnby andAdams(1994:67-8)havepointed outthat rather than reflecting wider as itwas,many society shipcommunities indicated howthoseinpower thought 'should' be. An explicit society oftheideology example ofstate being expressed themetaphor oftheshipis found through in thewords oftheSwedish nobleman Axel In propounding Oxenstierna. hisviewoftheSwedish state andsociety, he likened itto a shipupontheocean,steered bythefirm handoftheking. Society wasseenas a pyramidal hierarchy with theking at thetop.The warship was organized on similar lines, with thenobleAdmiral at thetop,thenofficers, other ranks and crewbelow.The internal ofspacereflected arrangement this division ofsocialrank very clearly, a characteristic of navalships intothemodern age. In summarizing thesignificance ofthewreck oftheRiksdpplet (1667),itis notjustthe ofan English-designed remains warship from Sweden's 'great power period' lying on the itis also a seventeenth-century seabed, concept ofhowsociety should function (Rbnnby andAdams1994: 68).Thephysical counterpart ofthis construct reached itsapogeeinthe stern of vesselssuchas the Swedish carvings warship Vasa. Here theillustrious King II Adolph Gustav Vasais setabovegods, mythical heroes andbiblical leaders alike. Thus thewayinwhich theseships wereconstructed and operated embodied ideology in such wholesale fashion as to include all threetypes proposed by Giddens(1984). It firstly and represented promoted the interests of the vestedpower as universal. It also suppressed contradictions or tensionsbetweenthe different social elementsthat

Adams 306 Jonathan

lifeand social shipboard and reified and it naturalized theship'scompany, comprised had the'whipelitewholiterally of a commanding Hence thehierarchy organization. of order was thenatural crew oflifeanddeathovera subordinate hand'andthepower classoverthe oftheruling control theday-to-day that exceeded to a degree often things, in As notedabove,thewayin which at large. society in contemporary populace general howsuccessful demonstrates norm to havebeen a universal assumed is still thissystem was. propaganda this a hiernecessitates ofseafaring nature thehazardous that Ofcourseitcanbe argued though thisis true, and to an extent to maximize safety chainof command archical basedinrural societies shipboard By contrast, contexts. moreso in navaland military could have a moreegaliobjectives of moremercantile and in pursuit communities hiercontemporary wasevenmorethecase than In somecasesthis organization. tarian or even thebondedagricultural on land,suchas feudalism archical social structure might status Europe.In suchcrews, ofmuchofpost-medieval typical laboursystems on theskill be dependent and to an extent accrueon thebasisofage and experience, thanon social class,wealthor rather personhad specialized, in whicha particular of thesefactors. a combination on boardmayaccruefrom Of coursestatus kinship. the means and ofoneperson vessels wasoften beyond ofsizeablemerchant Ownership shares in the case of largervessels,one-eighth thushalf,quarterand, particularly withit correnumber of sharesone ownedbrought The greater became common. of 1988on theownership on theuse oftheship(e.g. see Peterson influence sponding of sea-faring there are examples is concerned many Wherekinship theSea Venture). suchas in thesameactivity, forgenerations whohavenotonlybeen engaged families rolesin boatsand ships),butwhohave also had specific building fishing (or indeed, of common family One onlyhas to think or navigator. theiruse, such as coxswain an is not exclusively to realizethatthis or Carpenter namessuchas Mason,Shepherd characteristic. maritime on the lifeto thoseofwider ofshipboard society socialaspects ofrelating So in terms but in simplistic there analogies aredistinct dangers remains, basisofthearchaeological inthequalities Muchofitis embedded there is considerable potential. at thesametime The configuration ofequipment. anddisposition internal arrangement ofshipstructure, of divisions and social aspectsand therelated bothfunctional of thevesselindicates such towards attitudes ofspacealso reveals The organization labour, powerand status. are therelated activities in terms ofwhere andprivacy, as health, property death, things in these arerelated them. In turn, ofspaceafforded inthevessel andtheamount located - notas passive reflections ofwider andactivities society totheorganization various ways butas translations must havebeenlike, wider what society one can'readoff' from which underand needsthat aims in those of situation a to pursuit ofsocialattitudes shipboard ofthevesselinthefirst place. theconstruction pinned Prognosis and thewaysthey ofships and society, develop fortheanalysis Thereis clearpotential thewayin has beenusedto infer as funerary them. Just practice therelations between

Ships and boatsas archaeological sourcematerial 307

theconstruction, internal reveals evidence wasorganized, so wreck which society arrangeandboats. Whereas there anddecoration ofships ofmovement, ment, accessandpatterns inanyattempt to discern on thebasisofspecific mortuareknotty problems generalities the'finer ofships as structures and ary practices (Barrett 1988), perhaps grained' qualities remains from contexts their often extensively preserved aquatic mayoffer greater potential. the the limitations of attempting to understand Recentresearch has highlighted to rationalize ofwatercraft as technological complexities simply phenomena. Attempts a series that havecreated ofproblems their linear evolutionary development apparently theone that hasgenerated most discussion is thechange from defy explanation. Perhaps inthefifteenth innorthern clinker tocarvel construction EuropeandScandinavia century. ofwidespread inthecontext andfundamental Yetwhen viewed social, economic, politithemystery likeother of cal andreligious dissolves. reorganization, This, major episodes in shipping, ofa specific set ofinterrelated was themanifestation technological change thecontext Thesecomprise within which bothsocialand environmental. circumstances, change wasgenerated. The correlation between themanifestation invites ofchange and itssocialcontext its toother inthearchaeological A goodstart be record. would application apparent puzzles of theapparently lineardevelopment of Mediterranean a reappraisal shiptechnology, of newfinds in thelight thatdemonstrate is rather thatthesituation more especially Butafter ofsteadily nautical complicated. forty years maturing research, so often focused on thehistorical itis inprehistory that themaritime ofshipperiod, perhaps archaeology wrecks willfind someofitsmost fascinating challenges. inthearchaeological One ofthemost lacunae is theBritish boatrecord Iron tantalizing ofBronzeAge boatfinds rich Age. An increasingly corpus (McGrail1996)is separated centuries from thenextplank-based byseveral building tradition (McGrail1995).The IronAge is populated somevery intervening bylogboats, suchas thePoole,Brigg large, andHasholme finds andMcGrail butnoseagoing vessels (Millett 1987), havebeendiscovfrom ered.Everything climate change, agricultural innovation, invasions, socialcollapse and technological revolution has been proffered to explainthe transitions thattook theBronzeto theIronAge (Champion Europefrom et al. 1984;Harding 1994;Kristiansen1998). Yet although maritime communication was extensive throughout this theboatrecord, period, comprising a series ofthemost complex artefacts produced, has little inthediscussion. figured Notwithstanding thevagaries ofpreservation, what might intheuse ofwatercraft, fundamental changes whether trans-positions ordiscontinuities, be telling us aboutthis crucial phaseinprehistoric Europe?
Centre forMaritime Department ofArchaeology Archaeology, University of Southampton, S017 JBJ,UK

Adams 308 Jonathan

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