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CARNEGIE

Policy
Brief

July 2007
Endowment FOR International PEACE 53
U.S. Living Standards Summary
U.S. wages have stagnated for

in an Era of Globalization the past three decades, while the


workforce has also faced an
erosion of job security, health care,
and pension plans. This increasing
Sandra Polaski
economic insecurity has coincided
Senior Associate and Director, Trade, Equity, and Development Project, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
with rapid globalization. Is there a

T
causal relationship between the
he U.S. workforce has experienced underlying cause-and-effect relationships in two?
downward pressure on wages and ben- order to find solutions that can reverse or This policy brief probes domestic
efits over recent decades. Median and mitigate the unwanted consequences. It is and international economic
average wages have stagnated for thirty years, also important because, left unaddressed, changes over the past half century
while the availability and quality of health economic anxiety will corrode support for to argue that the main causes of
insurance and pension benefits have substan- U.S. global engagement and could lead to eroding U.S. living standards have
tially eroded (figure 1). By contrast, the con- other undesirable political behaviors as well. been “made in the USA,” as the
centration of wealth at the top of U.S. society The rupture between the fortunes of the postwar consensus in favor of
has skyrocketed, to levels unseen since the U.S. economic elite and the rest of the coun- egalitarian economic policy has
1920s. try has drawn attention at the highest policy broken down.

Meanwhile, the world economy has also levels. Federal Reserve Board chairman Ben Creating a more promising
changed, with globalization weaving the S. Bernanke, officials of the International economic future for the U.S.
United States and other countries into an in- Monetary Fund, and others have grappled workforce will require the reform
creasingly close interdependency. Because with the issues and causes. This policy brief of domestic labor laws and the tax
system—among the most difficult
the downward pressure on wages at home has agrees in part with their analyses, which point
political debates in any country.
partly coincided with the period of globaliza- to technological and global forces as causal
Reforms of international economic
tion, many have blamed the latter for the for- factors, but it argues that domestic policy
policy are also needed. However,
mer. Some see this in nationalistic terms, as a choices have also been a critical cause of stag- blaming foreigners or attempting
rivalry between the United States and other nating incomes for most of the workforce to disengage the country from the
countries, particularly China. Others see the and have interacted with technology and glo- global economy are not part of
problem as policies that favor the wealthy at balization in ways that make Americans more the answer. Instead, international
home and abroad, noting that globalization vulnerable to the harsher effects of globaliza- economic policy should be
has been very kind to U.S. billionaires. Still tion. The paper proposes an integrated set of reoriented to stimulate better
others believe that global market forces make policies to create a more promising economic worldwide growth and a more
declining living standards for most U.S. future in the new global context. equitable distribution of the gains
households inevitable. from globalization. These changes
Is there a causal link between globaliza- The Collapse of the Old Order would provide a more favorable
global environment for U.S.
tion and U.S. wage stagnation or are rising The golden age of broad-based economic ex-
livelihoods over the medium to
inequality and eroding incomes driven by pansion and opportunity for Americans was
long term, after short-term
other causes? The question has enormous the quarter century after World War II. Large
solutions are found in the realm of
importance: It is essential to understand the parts of the industrial capacity of Europe and domestic policy.
2 POLICY BRIEF

Japan had been destroyed in the war. The U.S. benefited the working and middle classes, in-
manufacturing sector, scaled up for wartime cluding good roads, good schools, and subsi-
production, was left unscathed and ready to dies to higher education. The political consen-
satisfy demand in both domestic and hungry sus in favor of Keynesian demand management
world markets, with purchases in the latter fi- supported steadily rising minimum wages and
nanced in part by the Marshall Plan. In the Social Security benefits. In the 1960s, a health
context of the Cold War, countries in the de- care safety net was added in the form of Medi-
veloping world were courted by both the care and Medicaid. The civil rights and wom-
United States and the then-USSR; they re- en’s movements and antipoverty programs fur-
Sandra Polaski directs the Trade,
ceived economic support from the competing ther expanded the circle of inclusion in U.S.
Equity, and Development Project superpowers without constraints on their own prosperity. Governments of both parties—and
at the Carnegie Endowment for economic policy space. Overall, it was a period the success of the U.S. economy—were mea-
International Peace. She served of strong economic growth in most of the sured in terms of gains in living standards and
as the U.S. Secretary of State’s world. a growing middle class.
Special Representative for
On the home front, U.S. policies such as This golden age began to tarnish in the
International Labor Affairs from
1999-2002, dealing with
active macroeconomic demand management mid-1970s. Macroeconomic shocks (energy
employment issues in U.S. trade and generous veterans’ benefits for housing market disruptions, exchange rate misalign-
and foreign policy. Previously she and education stimulated a thriving domestic ments, Vietnam War spending) played a role,
served as director of research at economy. Equally important, the New Deal but a more fundamental long-term factor was
the secretariat of the North legacy 115.00
was still vibrant. A host of government the gradual collapse of the domestic U.S. po-
American Commission for Labor
policies balanced the interests of labor and litical consensus in favor of inclusive growth.
Cooperation, a NAFTA-related 110.00
intergovernmental organization.
capital, rich and poor. Employees had the Europe and Japan, having rebuilt their indus-
105.00 by the government, to organize
right, favored trial bases, began to compete with U.S. manu-
At the Carnegie Endowment,
Polaski’s research has focused on into unions
100.00and bargain collectively. This en- factures. As U.S. firms faced growing compe-
the income, employment, and sured that rising productivity and profit levels tition from abroad, they tried to roll back the
distributional consequences of 95.00
were shared with the workforce in the form of wages and benefits that had been won by
trade, published in reports such
higher wages,
90.00 health insurance plans, and pen- strong unions in the preceding decades. In
as Winners and Losers: Impact of
the Doha Round on Developing
sions. Progressive
85.00 taxation policies redistrib- 1981, employers got a major strategic boost
Countries (Carnegie 2006) and uted income from corporations and high earn- from the Reagan administration, which per-
80.00
NAFTA’s Promise and Reality: ers to policies and public investments that manently replaced striking air traffic control-
1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006
Lessons from Mexico for the
Hemisphere (Carnegie 2004). Figure 1
She has written extensively on
the politics and economics of Index of Average Weekly Earnings of Non-supervisory Employees
trade and development, in essays Figures for January 1 of each year, adjusted for inflation
such as The Future of the WTO
(Carnegie 2006) and Breaking the
115
Doha Deadlock (Carnegie 2007).
110

105

100

95

90

85

80
1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006
Source: United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Survey
U.S. Living Standards in an Era of Globalization 

lers and gradually weakened judicial protec- in the supply of labor created heightened com-
tions for union organizing, bargaining, and petition for jobs, downward pressure on wages,
the right to strike. Employers used their in- and stronger bargaining power for capital. The
creased bargaining power to capture greater IMF study finds that labor’s share of gross do-
shares of productivity increases and profits mestic product has declined in the United
that had previously been shared more equally States and other advanced economies over the
with workers. Other legislated protections for past quarter century, while capital’s share has
employees, such as pension guarantees and increased.
minimum-wage levels, also became targets. Technological change is often cited as the
Ideological conservatives argued for the unfet- main cause of increasing inequality and down-
tered functioning of markets, while business ward pressure on the wages of less-skilled
lobbies justified the erosion on grounds of for-
eign competition or stock market expecta-
Globalization revealed and exacerbated, rather than
tions. Reductions in welfare programs for low-
income households put pressure on them to created, the basic problems with the U.S. system.
accept low-wage jobs, adding to the down-
ward pressure on wages. Cutbacks in private workers. Computer-based changes in work
pensions and health insurance shifted risk processes undoubtedly increased rewards to
from firms to households. higher education and eliminated some less-
Compounding these trends, tax policy was skilled jobs. However, recent research by econ-
gradually turned from progressive to regressive, omists Frank Levy and Peter Temin of the
with corporations and high-income groups fa- Massachusetts Institute of Technology shows
vored with tax reductions and the burden of that workers with college degrees are also cap-
supporting government increasingly shifted to turing a smaller share of productivity increases
middle-income households (figure 2). than in earlier decades. This is particularly
Cumulatively, these changes in government true for men with bachelor’s degrees but re-
policy and corporate attitudes were major cently appears to be affecting female college
causes of wage stagnation and increasingly graduates as well. The expansion of global Box 1
precarious employment, health coverage, and electronic transmission networks in the 1990s
pensions for middle-class households in the made it inexpensive to transmit massive How Do U.S. Households
United States, despite ongoing productivity amounts of electronic data internationally. Maintain Consumption?

increases and overall economic growth. This allows firms to shift computer-based, U.S. households responded to the
While the U.S. social compact was dissolv- knowledge-intensive work abroad to take ad- thirty-year erosion of wages and
ing, the global environment was also chang- vantage of the expanded global labor force. benefits first by sending more workers,
ing. The most significant change was the end The overseas offshoring of service-sector jobs notably women, into the labor market.
of the Cold War and the integration of China, has now added to the overall downward pres- Two- and even three-income house-
Russia, India, and the socialist bloc into the sures on U.S. wages. holds replaced the postwar norm of a
capitalist production system (see Job Anxiety Is single breadwinner. More recently,

Real—And It’s Global, which is listed, along Understanding the Causal Relations households maintained living standards
by saving less and borrowing much
with the other publications mentioned here, The domestic consensus that supported a rela-
more, particularly from home equity, as
in the Related Resources section). This added tively egalitarian U.S. economy and good liv-
the housing bubble drove up prices of
enormous productive capacity and a hard- ing standards for a broad middle class had seri-
the main asset of most U.S. families.
working, low-paid labor force of almost 2 bil- ously eroded before the current phase of Each of these strategies helped to
lion people. In its recent World Economic Out- globalization began. Globalization revealed maintain living standards and consumer
look, the IMF estimates that the labor force and exacerbated, rather than created, the basic demand. However recent trends
effectively available to global producers qua- problems with the U.S. system. However, the suggest that these buffers are ap-
drupled from 1980 to 2005, with most of the collapse of the domestic social bargain left U.S. proaching their limits, as house prices
change occurring in recent years. This increase workers and households more vulnerable to decline and consumption weakens.
 POLICY BRIEF

the pressures from a globalized labor market quired to set a course that produces good jobs
than their counterparts in countries with stron- in sufficient quantities, rebalances the interests
ger social safety nets, better unemployment of employers and investors with those of em-
insurance and retraining schemes, universal ployees, and offers appropriate support to the
health insurance, and portable pensions. The increasingly large segment of the workforce at
recent IMF study shows that, while labor’s risk of job loss in a rapidly changing economy.
share of gross domestic product has declined in
all advanced economies during the past twenty- Domestic Policy Reforms
five years, European workers still enjoy a larger New domestic policies should aim at three tar-
share of their countries’ wealth than U.S. work- gets: changing labor laws to rebalance bargain-
ers. Europe is grappling with the same global ing power between employers and employees,
pressures, but social safety nets have been returning progressivity to tax policy, and miti-
strengthened in the Nordic countries. In France gating the increased level of economic risk fac-
and Germany, modest reductions have left ing workers and households. Labor law is
safety nets in place that would be the envy of badly in need of reform in two areas: the right
anxious U.S. employees. of employees to join unions and bargain col-
lectively; and systemic reform of minimum-
Policies for a New Global Context wage law. The right to organize at work has
Is a continued decline in U.S. living standards been profoundly weakened over recent de-
inevitable, or is there a policy course that could cades, as employers have grown increasingly
restore broad-based income growth and as- bold in using dismissals, intimidation, and
suage economic anxiety? Though relative U.S. lengthy delays to discourage unionization.
incomes will decline as other parts of the world The law must be reformed to fully protect the
grow at faster rates, a different policy mix could right of employees to organize, including by
lead to higher-quality job creation and miti- facilitating practices such as card-check recog-
gate insecurity. These policies would not re- nition of unions and requirements for em-
trace those of the postwar golden age. While ployer neutrality that allow employees to
the United States continues to be the only mil- choose union representation without submit-
itary superpower, the economic world has be- ting themselves to harsh and protracted anti-
come decidedly multipolar. This reconfigura- union campaigns by their employers. The
tion changes the range of options available to right to collective bargaining has been eroded
the United States. A new combination of by years of judicial interpretations of weak or
domestic and international policies will be re- ambiguous laws that favored rights of employ-
ers over rights of employees. For example, the
Box 2
right to strike has been seriously damaged by
White Collar Blues? decisions allowing employers to hire perma-
nent replacements for striking workers, thus
The U.S. economy has been reshaped by fundamental structural shifts since the golden effectively chilling the use of this bargaining
age. Eighty percent of U.S. jobs are now in the service sector. Unlike the decades after
tool. Laws must be strengthened and clarified
World War II, manufacturing now employs only 12 percent of the workforce. As manufac-
to give employees more influence on decisions
turers shed workers, unionized jobs with middle-class pay and benefits were replaced by
about their wages and benefits and the distri-
lower-paying positions, often with no benefits, in the service sector. However, the fact that
most service-sector jobs today are not adequate replacements for manufacturing jobs is
bution of gains from productivity.
not inevitable, but the result of policy choices by government and firms. There is no reason Also in need of reform is minimum-wage
why service-sector jobs at the high, medium, and low skill levels cannot provide remunera- law, which has been set in a piecemeal fashion.
tion comparable to similarly productive jobs in manufacturing. The difference is that the Instead, the minimum floor for wages should
manufacturing sector predominated at a time when union organizing was protected by initially be set with reference to the poverty
law and encouraged by the government, whereas the service sector has expanded under line, to allow a full-time worker to earn enough
weakened labor and minimum-wage laws and a more hostile employer environment. to lift his or her household out of poverty.
U.S. Living Standards in an Era of Globalization 

Currently, over 30 million workers—one-fifth globalization and rapid change in the domestic
of the U.S. workforce—earn less than the economy. It should include expanded unem-
$9.80 per hour that would be required for a ployment insurance, with wage insurance for
sole wage earner to lift a family of four out of older workers who lose their jobs and can find
poverty. The minimum wage should also be only lower-paid employment. Job-retraining
indexed to inflation and increases in worker programs must be much better funded and tar-
productivity. This productivity link would geted to future job opportunities. The safety
help to distribute the gains from productivity net should also encompass universal access to
more broadly across the economy and correct health insurance, funded by employer and em-
the disproportionate capture of gains by inves- ployee payroll taxes and general revenue sources.
tors and corporate executives. This would be Medicare funding and efficiency must be
good for both low-income households and strengthened. Private pension plans should be
domestic demand. If the minimum wage grew made fully portable, with strengthened legal
with average productivity gains, it would also requirements for adequate funding, equity, and
steer capital toward more productive firms security. Social security taxes must be increased
that succeeded by increasing the productivity to guarantee the soundness of the retirement
of minimum-wage workers rather than toward safety net and to underpin domestic demand
firms relying on sweatshop wages. This would as the population ages.
increase the overall efficiency of the economy. Such a safety net is not out of reach in the era
Rebalancing economic interests will also of globalization. As noted above, European
require major reforms to the tax code, which countries offer similar or better safety nets, al-
has been inverted from a progressive to a re- lowing their citizens to adjust to change with
gressive system. Corporate income taxes have less economic pain. Despite the taxes required
declined from 53 percent of government in- to maintain these programs, many European
come tax receipts in 1960 to 34 percent today, firms are more successful in competing in global
while the top marginal tax rate for the wealth- markets than their U.S. counterparts (box 3).
iest households has been reduced from 91 to
35 percent over the same period (figure 2). International Policy as if
Without a progressive tax code, the United Livelihoods Mattered
States cannot reclaim its historical character as At the international level, a new approach to
a society offering opportunity for all and can- trade policy should be adopted that prioritizes
not afford the improvements in education,
Figure 2
social safety nets, research, and infrastructure
that are required to achieve both security and
Tax Rates for Corporations and Highest Income Households
dynamism in the economy. As noted in box 1,
adjustment strategies such as sending more
household members into the workforce and
Top Marginal Tax Rate

drawing equity out of rising house prices have 85

allowed low- and middle-income households


to maintain spending in the face of stagnant 65
incomes. As those strategies reach their limits,
consumer demand will stagnate, as is already 45
becoming apparent. Tax reform will become
not only a political necessity but also an eco- 25
nomic necessity.
1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

The third major sphere for domestic policy


year
YEAR
reform is the creation of a modern social safety
net that will hold even under conditions of Married couples (filing jointly) Corporations
 POLICY BRIEF

broad-based, sustainable growth and job cre- pressed by persistent, widespread poverty, es-
ation throughout the global economy. In re- pecially in the countryside, which prevents
cent years, the U.S. government has used its households from consuming the food, manu-
trade clout to wrest benefits from other coun- factured goods, and services they need.
tries for overseas U.S. investors and for politi- Any serious attempt to address the global
cally influential sectors, such as agriculture oversupply of labor must begin in the field of
and pharmaceuticals. These narrowly targeted agricultural trade. The United States and other
gains have not benefited the U.S. economy as wealthy countries offer agricultural subsidies
to their farmers that induce overproduction,
with the surpluses sold below cost to the rest
While the United States continues to be the of the world. This causes prices for farm goods
only military superpower, the economic world to fall in the developing world, lowering the
incomes of already poor farmers or forcing
has become decidedly multipolar.
them off the land. That in turn further reduces
their household demand and aggravates the
a whole and have drawn resistance from other oversupply of unskilled workers who are look-
countries, reducing cooperation on common ing for work in already crowded manufactur-
economic challenges such as the need for job ing industries or migrating abroad. This rein-
creation. We have recently seen the limits of forces downward pressure on national and
U.S. economic strategy in the stalled Doha global wages, completing a vicious cycle. The
negotiations of the World Trade Organization experience of Mexican corn farmers is a well-
and the unsuccessful efforts to force China to documented example.
revalue its currency. U.S. trade and farm subsidy policies should
A more appropriate international economic be revised to end the current perverse pattern
policy would emphasize the need to increase of agricultural trade, whereby high-income
global demand for labor (given the current farmers in developed countries displace low-
oversupply) and thereby increase the demand income farmers in developing countries. The
for goods and services, particularly in the de- United States should drop its insistence that
veloping world. The supply of goods and ser- countries with large numbers of poor farmers,
vices from developing countries has grown such as India and Kenya, must open their ag-
enormously, while their demand has increased ricultural markets to subsidized U.S. farm ex-
far too modestly, producing severe trade im- ports. These countries should instead be al-
balances. Demand in many countries is de- lowed time to create jobs in modern sectors in
sufficient numbers to absorb farmers before
Box 3
the latter are displaced by the forces of inter-
Does manufacturing have a future in the United States?
national competition.
A related U.S. trade policy that goes in the
It is not inevitable that U.S. manufacturers cannot compete with producers in other wrong direction is the strategy of “competitive
countries. Under current conditions of global competition and overcapacity, Germany is liberalization,” under which the United States
the world’s largest exporter of manufactured goods, ahead of China and the United
seeks trade agreements with small countries
States. German wages and benefits are higher than those in the United States and the
that have relatively little bargaining power and
safety net is considerably stronger. A combination of product quality and high productiv-
insists on terms that lopsidedly favor the politi-
ity (by motivated workers who have a seat on firms’ boards of directors) provides a strong
foundation for competitive exports. By contrast, in the United States, fragmented,
cally connected U.S. interests discussed above.
inefficient, and expensive health care and pension plans put disproportionate burdens on These pacts displace the poorer countries’ pro-
U.S. manufacturers. U.S. investment in research and development has declined as a share ducers in agriculture and other sectors, with a
of GDP, allowing U.S. product quality to erode. Inefficient energy use, both in production negative impact on employment and wages.
and product design, reflects a failure of national policy and a failure of U.S. firms to It should become accepted policy in all
voluntarily create energy efficient products that can compete abroad. trade negotiations to evaluate potential trade
U.S. Living Standards in an Era of Globalization 

pacts in advance for their net impact on over- mitigates the increased risks faced by working
all employment and on sectoral employment households.
in both the United States and its trading part- Some advocates for the U.S. workforce seek
ner countries, using modern modeling tech- to disengage the country from the global econ-
niques. In addition to determining whether omy, for example, through higher tariffs or pu-
an agreement would create or destroy more nitive actions toward perceived national rivals.
jobs, this approach would also allow estimates This is a mistake. Globalization has greatly
of the extent of structural adjustment that benefited many U.S. firms and investors while
would be induced and the costs in terms of dealing losses to many U.S. workers and house-
transitional unemployment. holds. However the unfair distribution of gains
A more constructive approach is also needed and losses can be traced largely to domestic la-
with respect to the link between trade and bor, social, and tax policies and to the priority
labor standards. Modern trade pacts address placed by the U.S. government on achieving
not just tariffs but also a broad range of issues
including the overseas rights of investors, as
mentioned above. In the 1990s, the United The creation of full employment and good
States began to insist on protecting the rights living standards is not the inevitable result
of workers in its trading partner countries,
of market forces.
with a view to distributing the gains from
trade to more workers and households in those
economies. This policy approach was scaled gains in international negotiations for a few
back by the George W. Bush administration. sectors and elites. Closing the U.S. economy
However, a recent pact between congressional would choke off important sources of growth
Democrats and the administration reestab- and destroy jobs in many industries.
lishes the goal of improving basic worker rights It is not possible to recreate the global and
as part of trade agreements and restoring some domestic conditions that so favored the U.S.
balance between the rights of workers and workforce in the postwar period. However it is
those of investors, a desirable step in the con- possible to create a new policy framework that
text of global labor oversupply. The effective supports and encourages job creation, good
monitoring, oversight, and enforcement of living standards, and political cohesion—at
such provisions would further enhance the home and abroad—under conditions of glo-
quality of employment and incomes abroad balization. Achieving these goals requires a
and increase global demand. clear analysis of the current global environ-
ment and the factors stressing U.S. living stan-
Conclusion dards and, above all, the political will to re-
The creation of full employment and good liv- store balance and equity to U.S. domestic and
ing standards is not the inevitable result of international policy. n
market forces. Egalitarian growth results only
when an appropriate framework of govern- The Carnegie Endowment normally does not
ment policies has been put in place to achieve take institutional positions on public policy is-
wide distribution of the fruits of economic ad- sues; the views presented here do not necessarily
vance. During the New Deal and the postwar reflect the views of the Endowment, its officers,
decades, the United States developed such a staff, or trustees.
framework, but it was subsequently disman-
tled. In the current globalized economy, with © 2007 Carnegie Endowment for International
a high and sustained pace of economic change, Peace. All rights reserved.
a new framework is required that creates op-
portunity, distributes rewards more fairly, and
Related Resources
Visit www.CarnegieEndowment.org/pubs for these and other publications.
www.CarnegieEndowment.org
The Level and Distribution of Economic Well-Being, Ben S. Bernanke, Remarks before the Greater
Omaha Chamber of Commerce, Omaha, February 6, 2007 (Federal Reserve Board), http://www.
federalreserve.gov/boardDocs/Speeches/2007/20070206/default.htm.
The Carnegie Endowment for
Will the Middle Class Hold? Two Problems of American Labor, Alan S. Blinder, Testimony to the
International Peace is a private,
Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress, January 31, 2007, http://www.jec.senate.gov/
nonprofit organization dedicated
to advancing cooperation between
Documents/Hearings/blindertestimony31jan2007.pdf.
nations and promoting active World Economic Outlook, chapter 5, “The Globalization of Labor” (International Monetary Fund,
international engagement by the April 2007), http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/01/index.htm.
United States. Founded in 1910,
Inequality and Institutions in 20th Century America, Frank S. Levy and Peter Temin (Department of
Carnegie is nonpartisan and
dedicated to achieving practical
Economics Working Paper 07-17, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, May 2007), http://papers.ssrn.
results. Building on the successful
com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=984330.
establishment of the Carnegie The Evolution of Top Incomes, Thomas Piketty and Emmanuel Saez (NBER Working Paper 11955,
Moscow Center, the Endowment National Bureau of Economic Research, 2006), p://www.jourdan.ens.fr/piketty/fichiers/public/Piketty-
has added operations in Beijing, Saez2006.pdf.
Beirut, and Brussels to its existing
offices in Washington and Combining Global and Local Forces: The Case of Labor Rights in Cambodia, Sandra Polaski (World
Moscow. The Carnegie Endowment Development 34, no. 5, May 2006), http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/WDCambodia1.pdf.
publishes Foreign Policy, one of Job Anxiety Is Real—and It’s Global, Sandra Polaski (Policy Brief 30, Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
the world’s leading magazines of tional Peace, April 2004), http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.
international politics and cfm?fa=view&id=1504.
economics, which reaches
readers in more than 120 Winners and Losers: Impact of the Doha Round on Developing Countries, Sandra Polaski (Carnegie
countries and several languages. Endowment for International Peace, 2006), www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.
cfm?fa=view&id=18083.

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