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Time management as a moderator of relations between stressors and employee strain

STEVE M. JEX*
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh, WI 54901, USA

TINA C. ELACQUA
American Institutes of Research, 3333 K Street NW, Washington, DC 20007, USA Keywords : Time management ; Coping ; Stress management.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether time management behaviours moderated relations between stressors (role con ict, role overload, work-family con ict, and family- work con ict) and strain, as measured by scores on the General Health Questionnaire. It was predicted that use of time management behaviours would be negatively associated with strain. These relations, however, were expected to be mediated by feelings of control over time. It was further predicted that the use of time management behaviours would attenuate stressor-strain relations. Data collected from 525 employed men and women indicated, as predicted, that use of time management behaviours was negatively associated with strain. These relations were partially mediated by feelings of control over time. Moderator tests failed to provide support for time management behaviour as a moderator of stressorstrain relations. Implications of ndings are discussed and future directions for time management research are suggested.

1 . Introduction More than 20 years of occupational stress research has shown that stressful working conditions are associated with poor mental and physical health (Ganster, and Schaubroeck, 1991; Jex, and Beehr, 1991). Such eVects may serve to increase organizational healthcare costs (Matteson, and Ivancevich, 1987), impair employees performance (Motowidlo, Packard, and Manning, 1986; Jex, 1998), and generally make for a poorer quality of worklife (Ivancevich, and Matteson, 1980). Given these deleterious eVects, occupational stress researchers and organizations have sought to identify ways to reduce the eVects of work-related stressors. Such interventions have included worksite wellness and tness programmes (Harrison, and Liska, 1994) and even training programmes designed to alter the work environment to make it less stressful (Schaubroeck, Ganster, Sime, and Ditman, 1993). A much simpler and less costly way to potentially lessen the impact of stressors is through the use of time management behaviours. According to Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, and Phillips (1990),time management behaviour can be broken down into the following three dimensions : (1) Goal setting and prioritization ; (2) Mechanics of time management ; and (3) Preference for organization. Goal setting and prioritization simply involves deciding what one wants to accomplish each day and, by implication, what is most important. The
* Author for correspondence. e-mail : jex! vaxa.cis.uwosh. edu

Work & Stress ISSN 0267-8373 print } ISSN 1464-5335 online 1999 Taylor & Francis Ltd http :} } www.tandf.co.uk } JNLS } wst.htm http :} } www.taylorandfr ancis.com} JNLS } wst.htm

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mechanics of time management dimension involves the use of behaviours that are typically advocated in time management training programmes and books (Lakein, 1973). These include things such as making `to do lists, and laying out ones clothes at night. Finally, the preference for organization dimension involves having an organized, methodical approach to work. A behaviour consistent with this dimension would be organizing ones desk before beginning work each day. Given the relative ease of teaching time management behaviours, many organizations have oVered time management training as a stress management intervention (see Richards, 1987, for a review). Unfortunately, very little empirical research has examined the eV ectiveness of time management training programmes, or the relationship between time management behaviours and stress-related outcomes. This is unfortunate, given the widespread use and acceptance of the value of time management behaviours. Recently, however, three relatively rigorous empirical studies examining time management have been conducted. Lang (1992), for example, found that the use of time management behaviours (labelled `time management coping ) was associated with lower levels of subsequent depression, anxiety and physical symptoms. This study also examined whether time management behaviours moderated relations between role overload and strains. No support was found for moderator eVects, although this may have been due to low statistical power since the sample size was rather low (n 5 96; Aguinis, and StoneRomero,1997).Another problem with this study was that the time management scale may have lacked construct validity since some items were not actual time management behaviours (e.g. `Tried to analyze the situation and understand it better ). Macan (1994) also found that engaging in time management behaviours (goal setting } prioritization, mechanics of time management, and preference for organization) was associated with lower levels of job-related tension, somatic tension, and higher levels of job satisfaction. These relations, however, were fully mediated by feelings of control over time. Speci cally, engaging in time management behaviours led to a reduction in strain only when it enhanced feelings of control over time. Interestingly, participation in a time management training programme was unrelated to the use of time management behaviours. No moderator analyses were performed in this study. Most recently, Barling, Kelloway, and Cheung (1996) examined the relationship between two forms of time management behaviour (long-range planning and short-range planning) and job performance among automotive salespeople. They also examined whether time management behaviours interacted with the achievement strivings component of the Type A behaviour pattern to in uence performance. Their ndings indicated that time management behaviours were unrelated to performance. It was also found that short-term planning was most strongly related to performance among those reporting high levels of achievement strivings. Taken as a whole, empirical research examining the impact of time management behaviours on work-related outcomes is sparse. Furthermore, most studies have only examined zero-order correlations between time management behaviours and stress-related outcomes. As Macan (1994)showed, however, time management behaviours are related to stress-related outcomes because they enhance employees feelings of control over time. It is also possible that engaging in time management behaviour moderates the relation between stressors and strains, although only Langs (1992)study has examined this possibility. Many work stressors lead to an increase in time demands on employees. For example, if an employee is faced with many job demands, or if job demands are con icting, this will likely lead to increased time pressure. Time management behaviour is essentially a form of active coping (Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub, 1989; Leiter, 1991) that may buVer employees

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from the eV ects of multiple or con icting job demands by enhancing their preparedness. If employees manage their time well by prioritizing tasks, setting goals, and organizing their work environment they may be more likely to cope with stressors without experiencing adverse psychological and physical consequences.

1.1. The current study The current study was designed to add to the recent empirical time management literature by investigating the relationship between time management behaviour and employee strain. Based on Macans (1994) study, it was hypothesized that employees who engage in all forms of time management behaviours would report lower levels of strain than employees who do not. It was further hypothesized that these relations would be mediated by feelings of control over time. Another purpose of this study was to investigate whether time management behaviours moderate the relationship between stressors and strain. To be consistent with Lang (1992), role overload was included as a stressor. As an extension of her work, three other stressors were included : role con ict, work-family con ict, and family- work con ict. An explanation of how time management may moderate the eVect of each of these stressors is presented below. Role con ict is a common organizational stressor that occurs when performing one aspect of an employees role makes it more diYcult to perform other aspects (Jackson, and Schuler, 1985; King, and King, 1990). Using each of the three forms of time management behaviours described by Macan et al . (1990)may buVer the eV ects of role con ict. By setting goals and prioritizing, it is likely that an employee will clarify which aspects of his or her role are most important. Thus, if con icting role demands were to occur, such an employee would be able to decide which of the con icting demands needed the most attention. As a result, the employee would be less likely to feel `pulled in several directions compared to someone with unclear goals or priorities, and would be less impacted by role con ict. The behaviours associated with mechanics of time management and preference for organization may buVer the eVects of role con ict simply because competing role demands often translate into increased time demands. Using these time management behaviours enhances the probability that an employee can successfully respond to competing role demands, thus reducing the impact of this stressor. Therefore, it was hypothesized that relations between role con ict and strain would be weakest among those who engage in time management behaviours. Work -family con ict occurs when the demands of work interfere with family responsibilities, while family -work con ict occurs when family demands interfere with the workplace. Both conditions have been shown to be stressful (Frone, Russell,and Cooper, 1991; Adams, King, and King, 1996). One reason that both forms of con ict are stressful is that each person only has a nite amount of time to devote to either work or family roles (Greenhaus, and Buetell, 1985). Thus, one way to reduce the impact of both forms of con ict is to manage ones time more eVectively. As with role con ict, the authors contend that each form of time management behaviour may buV er the eV ect of work-family or family- work con ict for diVerent reasons. By setting goals and prioritizing an individual is essentially making a value judgement, and deciding that some things are more important than others. If an employee decides that family- related tasks take priority over work-related tasks, there is potentially less impact when the demands of these two domains are competing. In this case, the family- related tasks would be given priority.

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Behaviours associated with mechanics of time management and preference for organization may simply increase the chances that the demands of both work and family domains can be met. A person who is well organized may be able to successfully meet the demands of both work and family, thus reducing the impact of these stressors. Therefore, it was hypothesized in the current study that the relationship between both forms of workfamily con ict would be weakest among those employees who engage in time management behaviours. 2 . Method 2.1. Respondents The respondents were 525 employees of a variety of organizations, of whom 184 (35%) were male and 341 (65%) were female. All of these individuals were employed full-time, and were seeking either undergraduate or graduate degrees on a part-time basis at one of three universities in the midwestern USA. A variety of job types were represented in the sample but most respondents were professional-level employees. Average age of this sample was 36 years (SD 5 8.6 years). Approximately one-half (49%) of the respondents indicated that that they had participated in a formal time management training programme.

2.2. Measures Respondents completed a self-report questionnaire containing scales measuring role con ict, role overload, work-family con ict, family- work con ict, strain, feelings of control over time, and time management behaviours. Respondents were also asked questions regarding age (in years), gender, job title, and whether they had ever completed a time management training programme (Yes} No). Role con ict was measured with the 8-item scale developed by Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970). Reliability, as measured by coeYcient a , for the present study was .82. Role overload was measured by a 5-item scale developed by Caplan (1971), which asks respondents to assess their workload demands during the past 7 days. CoeYcient a for the present study was .70. Both work-family con ict and family- work con ict were measured with scales taken from Frone et al . (1991).Each scale consisted of two items. These scales were chosen because the items in each re ect what is termed `time-based con ict between work and family domains (Greenhaus, and Buetell, 1985). CoeYcient a for the work-family con ict scale was .44, while it was .83 for the family- work scale. Strain was measured with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ; Goldberg, 1972, 1978). The GHQ is a 10-item scale which asks respondents to indicate whether they have experienced a number of symptoms associated with poor mental and physical health over the past 6 weeks. Example of items include `Felt constantly under strain, and `Lost much sleep over worry . This scale has been used to assess job-related strain in several studies of occupational stress (Parkes, 1990; Heinisch, and Jex, 1998; Payne, Wall, Borrill, and Carter, 1999), and is considered to be a useful indicator of overall mental health and well-being. Information on the development and validation of the GHQ can be found in Goldberg (1972, 1978). CoeYcient a for the present study was .88. Time management behaviour was measured with the multi-dimensional 33-item scale developed by Macan et al . (1990). Three subscales correspond to the dimensions of time management behaviours proposed by Macan et al . : (1) Goal setting } prioritization (a 5 .90); (2) Mechanics of time management (a 5 .88); and (3) Preference for organization (a 5 .70). The dimensionality of this scale has been supported through both exploratory

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(Macan, 1994) and con rmatory factor analysis (Adams, and Jex, 1997). Macan (1994)also reported that self-ratings on this scale converged well with co-worker ratings, thus providing some evidence of construct validity of the measure.

2.3. Procedure Course instructors were asked to distribute questionnaires during class sessions. The only requirement for participation was that respondents had to be employed on a full-time basis. Instructors were asked to tell students to complete the questionnaires outside of class and return them during the next class period, which was typically the following week. Instructors then mailed completed questionnaires back to the senior author in pre-addressed envelopes. Approximately 1000 questionnaires were distributed to course instructors and 525 completed questionnaires were returned, giving a response rate of 53%. This underestimates the true response rate, however, because not all questionnaires distributed to course instructors were handed out to students due to a variety of reasons (e.g. absences, inaccurate estimates of class size, etc.).

3 . Results 3.1. Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics for all variables are presented in table 1. Included are means, standard deviations, observed ranges, possible ranges, and coeYcient a s. As can be seen, for the majority of variables, observed ranges correspond exactly to possible ranges. Thus, range restriction does not appear to be a problem. All reliability estimates (coeYcient a s) are at or above .70 except for work-family con ict (.44), and feelings of control over time (.55).

3.2. Correlations Intercorrelations among stressors, strain, feelings of control over time, and time management behaviours are presented in table 2. As expected, all four stressors (role overload, role con ict, work-family con ict, family- work con ict) were positively associated with strain, although these correlations were rather modest (range 5 .30 to .19). Stressors were more strongly and negatively related to feelings of control over time (range 5 2 .49 to 2 .21). Of the three dimensions of time management behaviour, stressors were only associated with preference for organization. This dimension of time management behaviour was also most strongly associated with feelings of control over time (.28)
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for all study variables (n 5 Variable Role con ict Role overload Work family con ict Family work con ict Strain Feelings of control Goal setting } prioritization Mechanics of time management Preference for organization Mean 3.03 3.13 3.22 2.11 2.46 3.02 3.69 3.46 3.92 SD .79 .83 1.02 .95 .52 .62 .72 .85 .73 Observed range 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.1 1.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 515 525). Possible range 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 CoeYcient a .82 .70 .44 .83 .88 .55 .90 .88 .70

Time management and strain

Table 2. Intercorrelations among all study variables (n 5 Variable 1. Role con ict 2. Role overload 3. Work family con ict 4. Family work con ict 5. Strain 6. Feelings of control 7. Goal setting } prioritization 8. Mechanics of time management 9. Preference for organization 2 2 .57 .17 .18 .30 .46 .02 .08 .16 2 2 .42 .20 .29 .49 .09 .08 .25 2 2 .12 .29 .27 .02 .02 .23 2 2 2 2 .19 .21 .08 .07 .10 2 2 2 2 .42 .25 .15 .22 .16 .05 .28 .60 .34 1 2 3 4 515 525). 5 6 7

187

.32

Correlations above 2 .09 and below 2 .11 are signi cant beyond the 2 correlations above 2 .11 are signi cant beyond the .01 level, two-tailed.

.05 level, two-tailed ;

Table 3. Summary of regression test examining feelings of control over time as a mediator of the relation between time management behaviour and strain. Time management behaviours 1. Goal setting } prioritization 2. Mechanics of time management 3. Preference for organization 2 2 2 b prior to mediator .17** .02 .20** 2 2 b after entry of mediator 2 .13* .06 .09*

*p ! .05, two-tailed ; ** p ! .01, two-tailed. b 5 standardized regression weight.

Feelings of control over time was strongly and negatively associated with strain (2 .42), suggesting that employees who feel that they have control over their time report lower levels of strain. All three dimensions of time management behaviour were also negatively associated with strain, although these correlations were weaker ( 2 .25 to 2 .15) than the correlation between strain and feelings of control over time.

3.3. Regression analyses To test whether the relationships between the three dimensions of time management behaviour and strain were mediated by perceptions of control over time, strain was regressed onto the three dimensions of time management behaviour. Once these variables were entered, feelings of control over time was entered on the next step. Evidence of a mediated relationship would be shown if (a) the three dimensions of time management are correlated with feelings of control over time, (b) the three dimensions of time management behaviour predicted strain when entered into the regression equation alone, and (c) these eV ects were eliminated after the mediator, in the case of feelings of control over time, was entered into the equation (Baron, and Kenny, 1986) The results of the mediator test revealed that management behaviours predicted a signi cant portion of the variance in strain (D R# 5 .10, p ! .01), as did feelings of control over time (D R# 5 .12, p ! .01). Table 3 presents the regression weights for each of the three time management behaviours both before and after feelings of control over time was entered into the equation. A comparison of these regression weights reveals no evidence of mediation for mechanics of time management since this dimension did not predict strain

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even before feelings of control was entered into the equation. For both goal setting } prioritization and preference for organization, feelings of control partially mediated the eV ects of these two forms of time management. Speci cally, both of these dimensions were correlated with feelings of control over time (table 2). Furthermore, the regression weights for both of these were reduced from Step 2 to Step 3, but still remained statistically signi cant. Moderator tests were performed using regression procedures recommended by Cohen, and Cohen (1983). In Step 1 of the regression analysis, three control variables were entered into the equation. Based on past time management research (Macan, 1994; Barling et al ., 1996),these included age, gender, and participation in time management training. Feelings of control over time were also controlled for since this partially explains the relation between two of the dimensions of time management and strain. In Step 2, one stressor and one dimension of time management behaviour were entered, followed by the crossproduct term in Step 3. This resulted in 12 separate moderator tests. Given the low power associated with moderated multiple regression (Aguinis, and Stone-Romero, 1997), moderator eVects that were signi cant beyond the .10 level were interpreted. Regression results examining the moderating eVect of goal setting } prioritization indicated that this dimension of time management moderated only the impact of workfamily con ict (D R# 5 .01, p ! .10). To further explore this eVect, the relation between work-family con ict and strain was plotted separately for those reporting low (1 SD below the mean) and high (1 SD above the mean) goal setting and prioritization. This showed that the relation between work-family con ict and strain was actually stronger for those reporting high levels of goal setting and prioritization. The actual diVerence in the slopes of these two regression lines, however, was very small. Regression results examining the moderating eVect of mechanics of time management indicated that this dimension of time management also moderated only the relation between work-family con ict and strain (D R# 5 .01, p ! .05). The follow-up test indicated that the relationship between work-family con ict and strain was stronger for those who reported engaging in more behaviours associated with mechanics of time management. As with the previous moderator eV ect, this diVerence was quite small. Regression results examining the moderating eV ect of preference for organization indicated once again that this dimension of time management moderated only the relation between work-family con ict and strain (D R# 5 .01, p ! .10). When plotted, this eV ect was essentially identical to those previously described. That is, a very slight trend toward the relation between work-family con ict and strain being stronger for those reporting more behaviours associated with preference for organization.

4 . Discussion The results of this study are consistent with recent research suggesting that engaging in time management behaviours may have a positive impact on the mental health of employees (Lang, 1992; Macan, 1994).These eVects were rather modest, however, and suggest that the direct bene ts of time management behaviour may be rather marginal. It was also found, consistent with Macan (1994), that the relation between time management behaviour and strain may depend upon its eVect on feelings of control over time. Unlike Macan, the present results showed that feelings of control only partially mediated relations between two dimensions of time management behaviour and strain. The ndings regarding moderator eVects were largely consistent with Lang (1992),who found that time management behaviour did not moderate the impact of role overload. This

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suggests that it was unlikely that Langs failure to detect moderator eV ects was due to low statistical power. The present study did show that all three forms of time management behaviour moderated the relation between work-family con ict and strain. These eV ects, however, explained a very small portion of the variance in strain. Also, when the regression lines were plotted, the diV erences were very small and all indicated that relations between work-family con ict and health were strongest among respondents who reported engaging in more time management behaviours. It was thus concluded that these eV ects are probably not substantively meaningful.

4.1. Implications and limitations The present study adds to a small but growing empirical research base which has shown that time management has a positive impact on the mental health of employees, and that this may be due to enhanced feelings of control over time (Lang, 1992; Macan, 1994).Thus one implication of the present study is that employees should be encouraged to use time management behaviours. What is unclear, however, is how this should be done. Since past research has failed to establish a strong link between time management training and the reported use of time management behaviours (Macan, 1994), it is unclear whether organizations should invest in time management training programmes. In the present study, time management was weakly related to both goal setting } prioritization (2 .14) and mechanics of time management (2 .27), and unrelated to preference for organization (2 .02). Therefore, further research on the determinants of time management behaviour is needed. The major limitation of this study is that all variables were measured through selfreports. This, of course, raises the concern that relations among variables were due to common method variance. This concern is tempered somewhat by the fact that self-reports of both time management behaviours and work stressors have been shown to converge with non-self-report measures (Spector, Dwyer, and Jex, 1988; Macan, 1994).Nevertheless, it would have been useful to have included more objective measures of time management, stressors, and employee strain. Another possible limitation may have been the sample employed in the study. All respondents worked full-time and were pursuing graduate or undergraduate degrees on a part-time basis. Given the time commitments associated with such endeavours, these individuals may be diVerent to other employees who choose less demanding lifestyles. In fact, mean scores for all three time management behaviours were well above 3.0 on a scale of 1 to 5 suggesting that, as a group, the present sample may have engaged in many time management behaviours. Lang (1992) employed a similar sample (full-time employees attending evening classes) and also found time management scores to be rather high. In the future, it would be useful to study individuals with fewer time demands to see if this in uences the prevalence or impact of time management behaviours. A nal limitation is the low reliabilities associated with the measures of work-family con ict and feelings of control over time. While both of these scales have been used successfully in past research (Frone et al ., 1991; Macan, 1994), both of them were plagued by considerable measurement error in the present study. In the future, better measures of both of these constructs will lead to more meaningful tests of the eVects of time management behaviour. In summary, this study has shown that time management behaviours have a small but positive impact on employee strain. Given the widespread use of time management behaviours and training programmes, it is important to study the impact of these with some

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level of methodological rigour. As stated earlier, it would also be useful to examine the link between time management behaviours and the use of time management training programmes. If employees engage in time management behaviours without attending formal training programmes, how do they learn such behaviours ? It is possible that employees often seek out such training on their own, or perhaps some diV erences in the use of time management behaviours are simply due to stable individual diV erences. If either of these were the case, investing in time management training would have limited value.

Acknowledgements Funding for a portion of this study was provided by a Faculty Development Grant awarded to the rst author by the Graduate School, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. The authors would like to thank Brad Kruse, Matt Such, Tom Stetz and Greg Wypiszynski for their assistance with data collection. They also wish to thank Gary Adams and Deb Bohlman for their helpful suggestions during the preparation of this manuscript.

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