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SULPHURIC ACID Uses and manufacture of sulphuric acid 1. Figure 9.

1 summaries the uses of sulphuric acid

Uses of sulphuric acid


Fertilisers Other uses Paints and pigments Detergenet Synthehtic fibres as an electrolyte Dyes Metal cleaning As an acid

2. The manufacture of sulphuric acid is carried out using the contavt process. 3. There are three essential stages in the manufacture of sulphuric acid : a) Combustion of sulphur b) Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide c) Formation of sulphuric acid

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE 1. Fossil fuels such as petrol and manufactured products of sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , contain sulphur , S. 2. Burning of three products will oxidize sulphur , S to form sulphur dioxide , SO2. S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) Sulphur dioxide

3. Sulphur dioxide , SO2 is an acidic gas. When it dissolves in rainwater,it forms sulphurous acid , H2SO3 and causes acid rain. SO2 (g) + H2O (I) H2SO3 (aq) Sulphurous acid

4. Suphur trioxide , SO3 will also form when sulphur dioxide , SO2 reacts with oxygen , O2 gas in air. 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g) Sulphur trioxide

5. Sulphur trioxide , SO3 , dissolves in rainwater , sulphuric acid , H2SO4 is also formed causing acid rain. SO3 (g) + H2O (I) H2SO4 Sulpuric acid

6. Acid rain causes many environmental problems. a) Acid rain corrodes buildings,monuments and statues made from sandstone,limestone or marble. Both marbles and limestones contain calcium carbonate,which reacts with sulphuric acid to form calcium carbonate. CaCO2 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (I)

b) Acid rain corrodes metallic structure. Sulphuric acid dissolves steel according to the following reaction. H2SO4 (aq) + Fe (s) FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

c) Acid rain increase the acidity of soils. Plants do not grow well in very acidic soil. High acidity can destroy the roots of plants. d) Acid rain increase the acidity of water in lakes or rivers. Fish cannot live and breeds in lakes or rivers where the water is very acidic. e) Acid rain leaches minerals and nutrients from the land. It dissolves the minerals to form soluble salts such as potassium,calcium and magnesium salts. The dissolved salts are carried out by the rainwater,to lakes,streams and ribvers. Deprived of essential nutrients and its nutritional cycle interrupted,vast tracks of forest are destroyed. 7. Ways to control and reduce the effects of acid rain. a) Uses sulphur fuels to reduce emission of sulphur dioxide gas. b) Control the combustion temperature in the purnace to reduce emission of nitrogen monoxide gas , NO. Less nitrogen monoxides means less nitrogen dioxide to catalyse sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide. c) Reduce the acidity of soil and lakes by adding bases to neutralize the acids in acid rain. Calcium oxide,calcium hydroxide and limestones can remove the acidity in acid rain. CaO (s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) CaCO3 + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) Ca2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

d) Remove sulphur dioxide from the waste gases before it is emitted into the atmosphere. Powdered limestone ( CaCO3 ) is blown into the combustion chamber where it decomposes to form lime ( CaO ). CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

The lime then combines with the sulphur dioxide to form calcium sulphate. CaO (s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3 (s)

Calcium sulphate can be oxidized to form calcium sulphate ( plaster of paris ) for use in the building industry.

AMMONIA AND ITS SALT Uses of ammonia in daily life. 1. The main uses of ammonia: a) To manufacture nitrogenous fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,ammonium nitrate and urea. b) Cooling agent c) The manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwald process d) To prevent the coagulation of latex e) To produce ammonium chloride 2. The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers a) Ammonium sulphate 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 Ammonium sulphate

b) Ammonium nitrate NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3 Ammonium nitrate

c) Urea 2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O Urea

3. In the Ostwald process,ammonia is converted into nitric acid by the following steps : a) Ammonia is oxidized to nitrogen monoxide gas in the presence of platinum as the catalyst. platinum 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O b) Nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to nitrogen dioxide. 2NO + O2 2NO2

c) Nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water to produce nitric acid. 2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2 Nitric acid nitrous acid

4. Nitric acid is used to make explosive such as TNT when nitric acid reacts with organic substances such as methylbenzene (common name:toluene) 5. Ammonia can neutralize the organic acids that produced by microorganisms in latex. 6. Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to produce ammonium chloride which is used as the electrolyte in dry cells. The properties of ammonia. 1. Ammonia is : (a) A colourless and pungent gas (b) Changes damp red litmus paper to blue (c) An alkaline gas (d) Very soluble in water (e) Dissolves in water to produce a weak alkali. A 0.1 mol dm-3 ammonia solution has pH value of about 10. NH3 + H2O <-----------------> NH4+ + OH(f) Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form white fumes of ammonium chloride. (This is used as a test for ammonia gas) NH3 + HCI NH4CI

(g) Ammonia gas burns in oxygen to produce nitrogen monoxide gas. But ammonia does not burn in air. 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

(h) Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in neutralisation to produce salts. For example: 2NH3 + H2SO4 NH3 + HNO3 (NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3

(i) Aqueous solutions of ammonia react with metal ions ( except Na+ ion , K+ ion and Ca+ ion ) to produce precipitate of metal hydroxides. Fe3+ + 3NH3 + 3H2O Mg2+ + 2NH3 + 2H2O Fe (OH)3 + 3NH4+ brown precipitate Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4+ white precipitate

(j) Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide dissolve in excess aqueous ammonia to form complexes. For examples: Zn (OH)2 + 4NH3 Cu (OH)2 + 4NH3 [ Zn (NH3)4 ]2+ + 2OH[ Cu (NH3)4 ]2+ + 2OH-

The industrial process in the manufacture of ammonia.


1. The haber process is the industrial method used to prepare ammonia gas on large scale

using nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. 2. In the haber process: (a) A mixture consisting of one volume of nitrogen gas and three volumes of pure and dry hydrogen gas is compressed to a pressure between 200 500 atmospheres.

(b) The gas mixture passed through a catalyst of powdered iron at a temperature of 450 550 C. (c) At this optimum temperature and pressure , ammonia gas is produced. N2 + 3H2 2NH3

3. The gas micture produced consists of about 17% ammonia gas. The ammonia gas is liquefied when then gas mixture is cooled. The unreacted nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are pumped back to the catalytic column to be reacted again.

Ammonium fertilisers 1. Plants need various nutrient for healthy growth. One of essential nutrients is nitrogen. 2. Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of nitrates , NO-3 which are soluble in water. 3. Ammonium fertilisers are chemical fertilisers added to the soil to replace the elements in soil used up by plants. 4. Ammonium fertilisers contains ammonium ion, NH4+ , that can be converted into nitrate ions by bacteria living in the soil. 5. The effectiveness of ammonium fertilisers is determined by the percentage of nitrogen by weight in them. The fertiliser with a higher percentage of nitrogen is more effective. 6. The percentage of nitrogen by weight can be calculated using the following formula: Percentage of nitrogen by weight mass of nitrogen relative molecular mass of fertiliser 100 %

ALLOYS.
Physical properties of pure metals. 1. Pure metals: (a) Ductile (b) Malleable (c) High melting and boiling points (d) High density (e) Good conductors of electricity 2. Pure metals are weak and soft because the arrangement of atoms in pure metals make them ductile and malleable. 3. Metals are composed of identical atoms. The atoms in a metal are packed together as close as possible and arranged in an orderly manner. 4. Metal atoms are arranged orderly from one layer to another to form a three-dimensional crystal lattice. 5. When a force is applied,the layers of atoms start to slide or slip over each other. After slipping,the atoms settle into new positions and the metal structure is restored. 6. The ability of the layers of atoms to slip easily over each other makes metals malleable and ductile. Thus ,a metal can be hammered into different shapes or pulled into a wire. 7. Metallurgists can increase the strength of metals by alloying. Alloys. 1. An alloys is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition. 2. Most alloys are mixtures of metals. For example,brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. 3. Alloys may contain mixtures of metal and non-metals such as carbon steels. These alloys are formed by mixing iron with carbon. 4. Alloys have properties which are more useful than those of the pure metals alone. 5. The presence of small quantities of a second element in the metal increase its strength. For example,the alloy brass is much stronger than either pure copper or pure zinc. 6. Atoms of the second element can be of a different size to those of the original metal. The diffently-sized atoms disrupt the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal lattice. This will make it more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide across one another when a force is applied,making alloys stronger and harder than pure metals.

Why make alloys? 1. The properties of a pure metal are thus improved by making them into alloys. There are three aims of alloying a pure metal: (a) To increase the hardness and strength of a metal (b) To prevent corrosion or rusting (c) To improve the appearance of the metal surfaces 2. To increase the hardness and strength of a metal Alloying improves the hardness and strength of a metal. (a) The addition of a little carbon to iron metal produces steel which is a very hard alloy of iron. (b) The addition of magnesium to aluminium metal produces an alloy called Magnalium. Magnalium is harder than aluminium but still retains the low density of aluminium metal. (c) The addition of tin to copper metal to produces bronze. Bronze is an alloy harder than both tin and copper. 3. To prevent corrosion Pure metals such as tin and iron are easily corroded in damp,polluted or acidic air. (a) The addition of carbon,nickel and chromium to iron metal produce stainless steel. Stainless steel is an alloy which can resist rusting. The chromium and nickel form chromium (III) oxide and nickel (IV) oxidewhich prevents the iron from rusting. (b) The addition of phosphorus and tin to copper produces phosphor bronze which is able to resist corrosion and tarnish. 4. To impove the appearance Metals are easily tarnished because of the formation of metal oxides on the metal surfaces. The process of alloying can maintain the lustre on the surface of the metal. (a) Stainless steel is more shiny than pure iron. (b) Adding a little copper and antimony to tin produces the alloy pewter which is harder and shinier and not so easily tarnished.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS. 1. Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller and identical repeating units joined together by convalent bonds are called monomers. 2. Polymerisation is the chemical process by which the monomers are joined together to form big molecule known as the polymer.

3. Polymers can be divided into 2 types: (a) Natural polymers (b) Synthetic polymers Natural polymers 1. Exist in plants or animals 2. Examples: protein (in muscles,skin,hairs,wool) , carbohydrates (starch and cellulose) and natural rubber (in latex) 3. Protein formed by the joining of monomers known as amino acid.

4. Carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose consist of monomers known as glucose.

5. Natural rubber in latex consist of monomers known as isoprene (2-methybuta-1,3diene) joined together.

Synthetic polymers 1. Polymers made in industry from chemical substances 2. The types of synthetic polymers : plastics , fibres and elastomers. 3. Plastics : (a) Properties of plastic : light,strong,inert to chemicals(ex:acids and alkali) and insulators of electricity and heat. (b) Examples of plastics are : (i) Polythene (polyethylene) (ii) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) (iii) Polypropene (polypropylene) (iv) Polystyrene (v) Perspex (vi) Bakelite 4. Synthetic fibres (a) Long chained polymers that withstand stretching. (b) Examples : (i) Nylon (ii) Terylene (c) Nylon is used to make ropes,fishing lines,stocking,clothing and parachutes. (d) Terylene is used to make clothing,sleeping bags and fishing nets. Clothes made from terylene do not crease easily. 5. Elastomer (a) A polymer that can regain its original shape after being strectched or pressed. (b) Examples : natural rubber and synthetic rubber (c) Examples of synthetic rubber : neoprene and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR is used to make car tyres) 6. There are two types of polymerisation processes: (a) Addition polymerisation (b) Condensation polymerisation

Importance of polymers. 1. In facts,thousands of products we use are made from polymers. 2. Polymers have replaced many natural materials for several reasons, (a) They are relatively cheap (b) They are strong (c) They last for a long time (d) Easy to be moulded or shaped (e) They are very stable and do not corrode 3. There are the ways to solve the disposal of synthetic polymers (a) Burn (b) Bury (c) Pyrolysis (d) Recycle (e) Using biodegrodoable plastics

GLASS AND CERAMICS. 1. The main component of both glass and ceramics is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO2. 2. Glass and ceramics have the same properties: (a) Hard but brittle (b) Inert to chemicals (c) Insulators r bad conductors of heat and electricity (d) Withstand compression but not tension(strectching) (e) Can be easily cleaned 3. They are used widely in our daily life to replace metals because their low cost of production.

Glass. 1. Types of glass: (a) Fused glass (high heat temperatures) (b) Soda-lime glass (cannot withstand high temperatures) (c) Borosilicate glass (can withstand high temperatures) (d) Lead glass (high refractive index) 2. Photochromic glass (a) The glasses that darken in response to very bright light. (b) This type of glass is made by adding tiny silver chloride crystals into molten glass. (c) The silver chloride crystals are trapped in the glass structure as the glass solidifies. Some silver bromide and copper (II) chloride are added too. (d) Silver chloride and silver bromide have the property of darkening when light passes through them. This happens when light dissociates the silver chloride or silver bromide into silver.

(e) If the light intensity decreases then the copper (II) chloride will restore back to the original colour. (f) Photochromic glass decreases bright light by about 20%. 3. Conducting glass (a) Glass is not a conductor of electric. But it will conduct electricity if it is coated with a film of conducting materials. (b) This conducting film can be made of indium stannum (IV) oxide. (c) This type of glass is called ITO glass and is commonly used in LCD display panels.

Ceramics. 1. Ceramics are made from clays such as kaolin. It contain silicates. 2. Composition of ceramics: (a) The main composition of kaolin is aluminosilicate ( Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O ) (b) This compound contains aluminium,silicon and oxygen. (c) Silicone is added into kaolin to harden it during the process of making porcelain. 3. General uses of ceramics: (a) Store food (b) Protect food from moisture (c) As insulatorsin light fixtures and in electric equipment 4. The differences between glass and ceramics. Glass Ceramics Transparent or transluscent Opaque Soften when heated No changes Non-porous Porous Can be melted and remelted as often as Once harden,it cannot be melted desired Homogeneous Heterogeneous Non-crystalline frozen liquid Minute crystals of silicates that are suspended in a glassy cement 5. The differences between ceramics and metal(iron) Ceramics Properties Very high Melting point Very hard Hardness Non-conductor Electric conduction Does not conduct heat Heat conduction Resistant to chemicals Reaction with chemicals

Metal(iron) High Ductile and malleable Conductor Conducts heat Reacts with chemicals

COMPOSITE MATERIALS. 1. A composite material is a structural material formed by combaining two or more materials with different physical properties,producing a complex mixture. 2. Composite materials can be made to produce advance materials to fulfill specific needs. 3. Composite materials are made up of high-strength fibres. These fibres could be form: (a) Glass (b) Graphics (c) Ceramics 4. These fibres are usually held together by thermosetting plastics. 5. The fibres provide the support. The surrounding plastic acts to protect the fibres from breaking. 6. Examples of composite materials and their components. Composite materials Components Uses Reinforced concrete Steel bars and concrete Used in the construction industry such as houses,bridges and offices. Superconductor Yttrium oxide Used in superconductors to (Y2O3),barium carbonate make magnets and (BaCO3),copper(II) oxide electronic chips. (CuO) Optic fibres (composite of Silica SiO2 , sodium Used in optic fibres for glass fibres) carbonate Na2(CO3)2 , communication. calcium oxide CaO Composite of glass fibres Polyester resin glass *sports equipment such as (fibre glass) tennis rackets *boat hulls *model chairs *car panels Photochromic glass Glass and silver chloride or Photochromic glass used to silver bromide make spectacles. 7. It is important to do research and development continuosly. The needs for new materials. 1. To supply the high demand for the new industries (a) Harder (b) Tougher (c) Last longer (d) Easier and more convenient to use (e) Able to withstand high temperatures and high pressures

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