Experimental and numerical results obtained for a scaled RPV and a full size aircraft

Cezary Galinski and Zdobyslaw Goraj

Nomenclature
a a1 a2 A AH CG Ca MAC CL CD Cm wing lift-curve slope, CLw/a tailplane lift-curve slope versus angle of attack, CLH/a tailplane lift-curve slope versus elevator deection, CLH/dH wing aspect ratio tailplane aspect ratio centre of gravity Mean Aerodynamic Chord lift coefcient drag coefcient pitching moment coefcient, around the mean quarter-chord point A pitching moment coefcient of the wing-body combination abouttheCG(foranarbitrary CL ) pitching moment coefcient of the wing-body combination about the CG for CL 0 induced drag lift, drag and pitching moment for whole aircraft weight of an aircraft or RPV moment of inertia about y axis aerodynamic pitching moment of the whole aircraft about the CG thrust pitching moment about the CG mass of the whole aircraft normal load coefcient dynamic pressure thrust pitch rate wing area tailplane area period of damped oscillation time to half amplitude speed components in manoeuvre speed components in steady ight small disturbances of U,W co-ordinates of aircraft position in the ground xed axis system angle of attack elevator deection trim tab deection downwash downwash when a 0 slope of downwash versus angle of attack pitch angle small disturbance of u dimensional stability derivatives

CmwB,C
The authors
Cezary Galinski and Zdobyslaw Goraj are based at the Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland.

CmwB,0

Keywords
Stability (control theory), Aircraft, Tests and testing, Flight dynamics

Di D, L, M G mg Jy MCy MT Cy m n nz q 0.5 rV2 Ps Q S SH T T1/2 U,W U0,W0 u,w x0,z0

Abstract
This paper describes a series of tests of remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) and full scale aircraft from which most of the performance information and selected dynamic characteristics normally required for aircraft operation can be obtained. The main goal of the paper is to compare corresponding characteristics of RPVs and full scale aircraft and establish if RPV testing can help and inuence an early stage design project in order to optimise its aerodynamic conguration and predict its static and dynamic characteristics. This paper presents basic similarity transformations, including mass scale, force scale, power scale, linear acceleration scale, Reynolds number scale etc. as functions of linear scale. It was found that tests in steady conditions are difcult to perform, time-consuming, and do not offer signicant advantages over the classical wind tunnel tests. RPV tests in unsteady conditions are much easier to perform and quite accurate.

Electronic access
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0002-2667.htm

a dH dT 1 10 d1/da u q Xu,Xw,Xq, Zu,Zw, . . .

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology Volume 76 Number 3 2004 pp. 305313 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN 0002-2667 DOI 10.1108/00022660410536041

This paper presents some results from the PhD thesis of Cezary Galinski.

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CDu,CDw, CDq,CLu, . . . dimensionless stability derivatives kH horizontal tail volume lL, ls, lN, lRe, lSt scale factors for linear dimension, area, power, Reynolds number, Strouhal number, respectively z damping ratio j, h real and imaginary part of eigenvalue vn undamped frequency indices A mean quarter-chord point C mass centre of the whole aircraft N neutral point of static stability H tailplane

Introduction
Research performed on scale models during the initial phases of new aircraft development provides substantial increase of the programmes protability. Traditionally, these kinds of experiment included only wind tunnel tests. These have provided sufcient information for assessing most of the ight characteristics. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in manoeuvrability and handling qualities. There are many constraints in classical wind tunnel experiments, which reduce their usefulness for this current area of research. However tests of scale models (remotely piloted vehicles RPVs) in real ight allow the detailed examination of all manoeuvres which are available for full scale aircraft. Therefore, these tests offer a very interesting research tool for aircraft during the early development phase (Bennet and Abel, 1982; DeAngelis, 1982; Edwards, 1983; Fair and Robinson, 1980; Gal-Or, 1995; Harris, 1997; Lindberg et al., 1997; Murrow and Eckstrom, 1979; Newsom and Pototzky, 1982; Trego, 1996; Yip et al., 1991, 1992). Over the last 30 years, numerous research programmes using RPVs were carried out by NASA (Bennet and Abel, 1982; Budd et al., 1993; Cohen and Le, 1991; DeAngelis, 1982; Deets and Edwards, 1974; Edwards, 1983; Edwards and Deets, 1975; Fisher and Meyer, 1988; Fair and Robinson, 1980; Harris, 1997; Holleman, 1974, 1976; Iliff and Maine, 1974; Iliff et al., 1975; Layton, 1974; Lindberg et al. 1997; Moes and Whitmore, n.d.; Murrow and Eckstrom, 1979; Newsom and Pototzky, 1982; Trego, 1996). These programmes explored the various and complex interactions of advanced technologies,

such as aeroelastic tailoring, close-coupled canard congurations and relaxed static stability. Many programmes were devoted to dening the design techniques appropriate for advanced ghter technologies, including high manoeuvrability and dynamics at high angles of attack. The high quality of ight-measured data and their close correlation with the analytical design modelling proved that RPVs create a viable and cost-effective tool for developing aerodynamic, structure and control law requirements for modern aircraft (Deets and Brown, 1986). To obtain strictly the similar results of measurement it is necessary to match all four (Katz and Plotkin, 1991) numbers of similarity (sometimes even more if heat transfer is included into analysis): . Re LV 0 =n Reynolds number, representing the ratio between the inertial and viscous forces; . St L=TV Lv=V Strouhal number, representing the ratio between a characteristic speed (frequency of a periodic occurrence over a characteristic distance) to the undisturbed q speed;
.
0 Fr gL Froude number, representing the ratio of inertial force to gravitational force; q 0 0 V M kp0 a Mach number, representing the ratio of the velocity (local or undisturbed) to the speed of sound.

V2

r V2

Usually, it is impossible to match all of these numbers in experiments on scaled RPV (Galinski, 1997). Experiments described in this paper were undertaken to establish if it is possible to predict the dynamic behaviour of the full-scale aircraft when some numbers of similarity criteria are not matched. To reach this goal a scaled RPV was built (Galinski, 1996; Galinski et al., 1997) equipped and tested in ight (Plate 1). This was a copy of the J-5 Marco motorglider (certied in 1986). The theoretical part of the experiment involved separate calculations for the RPV and the full size aircraft.
Plate 1 Author with J-5 Marco RPV (Galinski, 1997)

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.

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Finally, the results of these calculations were compared with ight test results. In the case of the full size aircraft the selected experimental data taken from the certication report were compared to the numerical results obtained on the basis of a mathematical model. It was assumed that these data corresponded to that of the nal conguration. Unfortunately, because of nancial limitations it was not possible to execute test ights on the RPV and the full-scale aircraft simultaneously.

scale of the atmosphere density

lr

rm 1 r0

where rm is the density of the atmosphere corresponding to the test conditions of scaled model; and r0 the density of the atmosphere corresponding to the test conditions of the full scale aircraft. With these conditions fullled it was possible to develop the transformation presented in Table I.

Similarity transformation
Strouhal number is the most important in case of dynamic behaviour similarity, so it was assumed that it should be comparable in the model and the full size aircraft. Froude and Reynolds numbers were assumed to be less important. Froude numbers are important when hydrodynamic effects are considered (for example waves on the water). Reynolds numbers describe the ow in steady conditions so it is crucial in wind tunnel tests. It would be too difcult to match this number in the experiments described here, so it was decided to ignore it. However, the effects of changes in Reynolds number were investigated. Experiments were constrained to low Mach numbers M , 0:3: However, it is believed that it would be possible to match the Mach number in future experiments by careful selection of the test conditions. In these conditions, the effect of differences in Re number would also be decreased. Finally it was decided to match the Strouhal number only. A similarity transformation frequently used for the design of ying replicas satises this condition (Gal-Or, 1994; Stinton, 1983). Matching the Strouhal number was achieved fullling the following assumptions: . scale of the gravity acceleration was equal to unity:

Aircraft selection
The J-5 Marco motorglider was selected for testing because of its predictable, mild dynamic characteristics including laminar ow over the wing airfoil, characteristic soft stall and a very good spin behaviour (Pamadi, 1998). It was assumed that if these features transfer to the scaled RPV that it would be very good proof of the concept that dynamic characteristics can be evaluated at early design stage by use of scaled model. An important factor was that the geometry of the J-5 Marco was quite simple and it facilitates the fabrication of a scale model. Good access to the design gures with geometry details and ight test results was also an important factor in this choice. Finally, the Marco Mini (RPV) was expected to be relatively easy to control compared to other aircraft being considered (Galinski, 1996).

Linear scale selection

A linear scale equal to 1/3 was chosen. The Reynolds number for the RPV on this scale corresponds to Re . 2; 00; 000 for an angle of
Table I Linear scale Area scale Volume scale Mass scale Force scale Force momentum scale Inertia momentum scale Velocity scale Time scale Rotation velocity scale Power scale Linear acceleration scale Reynolds number scale Strouhal number scale

lg

gm 1 g0

where gm is the gravity acceleration of scaledmodel, and g0 the gravity acceleration of fullscale aircraft; scale of the aircraft density was equal to unity:

lra

rma 1 roa

where rma is the density of the scaled model; and roa the density of the full scale object;

ll lS l2 l lvol l3 l lm l3 l lF l3 l lM l4 l lJ l5 l p lV ll p lt ll p lv 1= ll :5 lN l3 l la 1 :5 lRe l1 l lSt 1

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attack close to stall. An Re 2; 00; 000 was expected to be the critical Reynolds number. Below this limit value the changes of aerodynamic coefcients are expected to be unacceptably large. On the other hand, the scale equal to 1/3 reduced the cost of the RPV and made it easy to manufacture and operate (11 kg mass and 3 m wing span).

Moreover, some qualitative features were tested including visualisation of ow around the wing.

Mathematical model
STB 9702 package (Goraj, 1997) was applied for dynamic analysis. This package permits the computation of selected characteristics of dynamic stability in steady horizontal ight. In the case under consideration the following assumptions have been introduced: . aircraft has a plane of symmetry; . angles of sideslip, bank and path are equal to zero; . Mach number and the angle of attack are small. Under these assumptions the differential equations of motion together with kinematic relationships have the following form: M dx=dt Bx; where matrices of mass, generalised stiffness and vector of state are as follows: 3 2 m 0 0 0 2mz 0 0 0 7 6 m 0 mz 0 2mz 0 0 7 6 0 7 6 7 6 0 m 2 Zw 0 mx 0 0 07 6 0 _ 7 6 6 0 0 2J xz 0 0 7 mz 0 Jx 7 6 7; M 6 6 2mz 0 0 Jy 0 0 07 2M w _ 7 6 7 6 7 6 0 2mx 0 J 0 0 0 2 J xz z 7 6 7 6 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 B 2 Xu 0 Xw 0 Yv 0 Yp 0 Zw 0 Lv 0 Lp Xq 0 Z q mV 0 0 Y r 2 mV 0 Lr 2 mzV 0 N r mxV 0 0 2G 0 0 0 Gz 0 0 0 0 3 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 Zu 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 0 6 4 0 7 7 G 7 7 7 7 0 7 7 7 2Gz 7 7 7 7; 0 7 7 7 7 2Gx 7 7 7 7 0 7 7 5 0

Flight test equipment

Serial manufactured radio control system Multiplex Pro mc 4000 with Multiplex PCM9DS receiver and Multiplex Royal MC servos were used. Graupner NEJ-120 gyrostabilisers were utilised for experiments in steady conditions. Data acquisition system based on telemetry was considered rst, but problems with quality of radio data transmission and higher costs determined that the system should be based on an on-board data recorder. The system used consisted of the following. (1) Eight channel programmable microprocessor data logger (2) set of transducers: . differential pressure transducer for velocity measurements; . absolute pressure transducer for barometric height measurements; . differential pressure transducer for accurate relative height measurements; . linear accelerometer; . servopotentiometers for angle indication of controls. (3) software for the following tasks: . to congure the data logger; . to supervise the data collection process; . to communicate between logger and PC; . to archive the data; . to present the data; . to convert the data to ASCII format; A Micro TV system was also installed on-board. It was used mainly for visualisation experiments.

Flight test programme

The following features of the RPV were used for experimental data determination: . velocity hodograph for power-off ight (Smith, 2002); . lift to drag polar; . elevator deection as speed function; . phugoid oscillations with free stick; . maximum available normal acceleration versus speed.

0 M w 0 M q mxV Nv 0 Np 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

X T u; v; w; p; q; r ; d; f:

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Symbols x; y; z denote co-ordinates of the aircraft mass centre in the stability frame of reference Axyz (Ax axis is originated in 25 per cent of MAC and directed back of the aircraft along the undisturbed ow velocity), and Xu, Xw , N p ; ... stand for the dimensional stability derivatives computed in the stability frame of reference. The eigenvalues corresponding to matrix equation are

Figure 1 Balanced polars

li ji ihi ;
where an imaginary part hi can be in particular equal to zero for aperiodic motion. Various combinations of h and j are useful in stability analysis as (Nelson, 1989): . damping ratio 2j 6 p j 2 h2
.

undamped frequency p vn j 2 h2 period of damped oscillation T 2p h

time to half (or time to double) T 1=2 ln 2 2j

and so on. Stability derivatives were calculated based on Engineering Sciences Data Unit, (ESDU, n.d.) Data Sheets.

Comparison between numerical and experimental results

Not all results could be compared, because in many cases the certication report for the J-5 airplane did not contain numerical data corresponding to those received from the calculations and vice versa. Among comparable characteristics were: velocity hodograph, elevator deection versus speed and phugoid oscillations, damping and frequency coefcients. In Figure 1, the so-called balanced polars are presented. They were obtained from lift and drag measurements both for the airplane and the RPV. Two other polars were obtained from the wind tunnel tests and from theoretical calculations. Wind tunnel and free ight RPV experiments gave results comparable to full scale aircraft measurements. In this case characteristics found

either by use of wind tunnel tests or by use of RPV are less optimistic than that of the full scale aircraft. The relatively low accuracy of the wind tunnel tests for small CL values can be explained by the fact that a constant Reynolds number was kept during the test. This gave better accuracy for higher CL values and worse for small CL values. The lower values determined by calculation were probably caused by underestimation of the following drag components: landing gear, engine cowling, gaps between cockpit canopy and others. In numerical calculations of dynamic stability the polar of the full scale aircraft and the RPV were used because the calculated polars were too low (Figure 1) which could have a large inuence on aerodynamic damping. Figure 2 shows relationships between velocity and elevator deection, corresponding to the trimmed ight case. One can observe that the elevator must be more deected in the case of RPV than in the case of the full scale aircraft. This difference is higher (about 1.58) at small CL and decreases to lower value (about 0.58) at higher CL. Measurements of phugoid oscillations were performed by a hands off method (elevator free, with hinge moment equal to zero due to the deected trim tab). In the case of the RPV the elevator drive could be remotely connected and disconnected. During the preparation for measurements, the effect of trim tab on ight velocity was also tested by the hands off method. Application of the trim tab on the RPV gave very similar results to that for the full scale aircraft. The difference between the steady state ight airspeeds of the RPV and the full scale aircraft

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Figure 2 Elevators deection vs lift coefcient

Figure 4 Phugoid oscillations: period of oscillations

(rescaled for the RPV) was equal to 7.5 per cent (the worse case) if trim tab relative dimensions and deections were equal. Figures 3-4 shows time to half amplitude and the period of oscillations for the phugoid mode. In both cases quite good agreement of the measured and calculated values are observed. However, this consistency was obtained by the application of experimentally obtained drag polars. The results were not as consistent when the theoretical drag polars were used instead of full scale aircraft characteristics. Unfortunately, no stability data for the short period, Dutch Roll and spiral modes were available from the certication report of J-5 Marco. Only a qualitative description, written by the test pilot, was accessible.
Figure 3 Phugoid oscillations: time to half

Other results
Figure 5 shows the relationship between maximum load factor available in ight versus velocity. It is apparent that data for the full scale aircraft and the RPV are comparable. This is a very interesting observation. In steady ow conditions (easy obtained in a wind tunnel test) the maximum lift coefcient is usually much lower for lower Re numbers. In unsteady ow conditions, CLmax seems to be much less sensitive to the Re number. The full scale aircraft was tested at two ight conditions only. These corresponded to the following ight parameters: {V 95 km=h; n 3:9 and V 104 km=h; n 4: Other experiments were mainly of a qualitative nature. In all cases (i.e. in loop, roll and stall

Figure 5 Load factor available in ight

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behaviour) the pilot reported that the RPV and the full scale aircraft were dynamically similar and consistent. Also the visualisation tests showed that the ows around the wings both of the RPV and the full scale aircraft were similar (Plates 2-5 and Figure 6).

Plate 5 Departure from the loop. Loop angle , 2858, ow attached over the whole wing surface except fourth tuft in rows No. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 (Galinski, 1997)

Plate 2 Stall with aperons deected up (Galinski, 1997)

Accuracy of RPV measurements

It should be mentioned that all steady ight experiments were very difcult and time-consuming to perform. The lesson learnt from these measurements is that due to atmospheric turbulence it was very difcult to achieve calm conditions over a longer period of time. This explains why the results of the steadystate experiments are so highly scattered. In the dynamic experiments calm conditions were much easier to achieve because they were only required for a short period of time. Inconsistent data were also easier to detect and if necessary excluded because it was rare and deviated signicantly from the majority of the results.

Plate 3 Entrance to the loop. Loop angle , 358, ow attached over the whole wing surface (Galinski, 1997)

Conclusions
.

Plate 4 Loop angle , 1008, ow attached over the whole wing except fourth tuft in the eighth row (Galinski, 1997)
.

RPV tests in steady conditions are difcult to perform, time-consuming, and do not have signicant advantages over classical wind tunnel tests; RPV tests in unsteady conditions are much easier to perform and quite accurate. Reynolds number seems to have much less inuence on both the aerodynamic coefcients and stability derivatives in unsteady conditions compared to steady conditions; RPV tests can contribute to early design correction of an aircrafts aerodynamic characteristics; RPV tests can decrease the risk and help to predict the ight test behaviour of the full scale aircraft.

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Figure 6 Flow over the wing at the top of hammerhead stall (Galinski, 1997)

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