Isothermal Transformation Diagrams

Valid only for eutectoid steels, and constant temperature transformations Two solid lines: start and end of transformation Dashed line: 50% transformation Eutectoid temperature a horizontal line (above which is austenite) Transformation rate increases with decreasing temperature

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Isothermal Heat Treatment Example

Rapid cooling from austenite along AB Isothermal heat treatment along BCD Transformation from austenite to pearlite begins at C, and is complete at D

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Isothermal Transformation

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Isothermal Transformation

Austenite

5.8 min.

19.2 min.

22.0 min.

24.2 min.

66.7 min.

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Isothermal Transformation Diagram of Eutectoid Carbon Steel

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

More practical than isothermal transformation (which require constant temp.) With continuous cooling, time required for reaction to begin and end is delayed Start and end of transformation depends on cooling curve Experimentally determined phase diagram with parameter of time introduced

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Microstructure of Eutectoid Steel

Pearlite heated just below eutectoid temperature and held Cementite lamellae transform to spherical shaps (reduced stress concentration)

Increasing cementite fraction results in harder, stronger material

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Austenite Transformations

Slow cooling, coarse pearlite formed with thick ferrite and cementite layers Increased cooling rate, lamellar thickness decreases Increased cooling rate still allows formation of bainite Faster cooling rates allow formation of martensite
William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Thickness of ferrite and cementite phases in pearlite depend on heat treatment fine pearlite if rapidly cooled (short diffusion distance) coarse pearlite if slower cool

The faster the cooling rate, the finer the layers

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Transformation of Austenite to Bainite

Plain carbon eutectoid steel quenched from austenitic region to intermediate temperature (250 C to 550 C) then isothermally transformed (higher cooling rates than for Pearlite) Mixture of ferrite and cementite phases Very fine microstructure Stronger and more ductile than Pearlitic steel of the same hardness Isothermal transformation diagram for an eutectoid steel, indicating the cooling path for the formation of bainite.

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Upper Bainite
Formed from 350 C to 550 C Cementite in form of rods

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Lower Bainite
Formed from 250 C to 350 C Low diffusion rates produce iron carbide precipitates within ferrite plates -- predominantly along single orientation (55 to longitudinal axis of ferrite)

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Transformation of Austenite to Martensite Plain carbon eutectoid steel (Fe - 0.8% C) cooled rapidly from austenitic region (miss nose of IT curve) martensite formed below 220 C supersaturated solid solution of carbon in alpha ferrite

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Characteristics of Martensitic Transformation in Plain Carbon Steels 1. Various microstructures occur depending on Carbon content of steel ~0.2 wt% C well-defined laths of martensite ~0.6 wt% C plates of martensite form, mixed with laths ~1.2 wt% C well-defined plates of martensite 2. Martensitic transformation is diffusionless (no time for atoms to intermix) 3. No compositional change to parent phase (relative position of carbon atoms with respect to iron atoms identical to austenite parent) 4. Crystal structure changes from BCC to body centered tetragonal as carbon content increases (solid solubility difference of C in FCC austenite and BCC ferrite) 5. Martensitic transformation begins at definite temperature 6. In higher carbon steels, martensitic plates are formed by displacive shearlike transformation which causes a shape deformation on a flat surface
William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Martensitic Transformation Temperature

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Microstructure of Martensitic Transformation in Plain Carbon Steels

~0.6%C ~0.2%C ~1.2%C

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Microstructure of Martensite

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Martensitic Transformation
Diffusionless, and independent of time Critical cooling rate is minimum rate of quench to produce 100% martensite Alloy elements (chromium, nickel, molybdenum, manganese, silicon and tungsten) reduce critical cooling rate by retarding formation of pearlite

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Microstructure Determination Example

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Microstructure Determination Example

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Tempered Martensite
As quenched, martensite is brittle with significant internal stresses Ductility and toughness of martensite enhanced by tempering (heating to temperature below eutectoid for a specified time) Produces extremely small, uniformly dispersed cementite in uniform ferrite(similar to spheroidite, but much smaller) Nearly as strong as martensite, with much better ductility and toughness Increased cementite particle size results in softer more ductile material (larger particles produced at higher tempering temperature)
William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Hardness Varies With Tempering Time

Hardness of tempered martensite decreases, corresponding to the growth and coalescence of cementite particles As temperature approaches eutectoid (700 C) and after several hours, microstructure will be spheroiditic with large cementite spheroids. Thus overtempering will produce soft and ductile material
William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Microstructure of Tempered Martensite

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Annealing:
Material exposed to elevated temperature for extended period of time, and then slowly cooled. Used to relieve stresses, increase softness, ductility and toughness, or to produce specific microstructure

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Normalizing:
Used to refine grains and produce more uniform distribution in steels which have been plastically deformed (e.g. rolling) resulting in tougher steel. Complete transformation to austenite, then air cooled to a fine pearlite

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Full Annealing:
Transformation to austenite, then furnace cooled to coarse pearlite (relatively soft and ductile material)

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Spheroidizing:
Material heated just below eutectoid, allowing cementite to form in spheroid particles (maximum softness and ductility)

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Microstructure Variations due to Cooling Rates

A: Slow cooling in furnace -- lamellar coarse pearlite B: Cooling in still air -- fine pearlite C: Split transformation -- fine pearlite and martensite D: Rapid cooling -- martensite E: Critical cooling rate -- slowest rate to produce no pearlite (full martensite)

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Hardenability: ability of alloy to form martensite

Jominy end quench test: measure hardenability, or depth to which hardness penetrates (material in standard shape and size austenized at given temperature for given time, then cooled to room temperature from one end only to produce differential cooling)

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Typical Hardenability Jominy Test Data

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Hardness can be related to cooling rate, rather than to location from quenched end in Jominy test.

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Precipitation Hardening:
Nonferrous alloys, stainless steels Strength and hardness improved due to small particles of new phase formed within original phase Solution Heat Treating: solute atoms dissolved to form single phase, then rapidly cooled to nonequilibrium position of supersaturation Precipitation Heat Treating: intermediate temperature allows diffusion of supersaturated atoms, forming fine dispersed particles of second phase

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Mechanism of Hardening

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Mechanism of Hardening

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Typical Mechanical Properties of Precipitation Hardened Alloys

Strengthening process accelerated as temperature increases

Increase in strength corresponds to reduced ductility

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1985

Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for Surface Hardening

See Table 4.1 in text (Serope Kalpakjian. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 3rd Edition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. 1995) Case Hardening: (alteration of surface properties) - heat treatment in alloying element rich environment

Case Hardening
The outer layer of this steel gear was selectively hardened by a high temperature heat treatment during which carbon from the surrounding atmosphere diffused into the surface. The case appears as the dark outer rim of the sectioned segment.
(Surface Division Midland-Ross)

Martempering (Marquenching)
Modified quench to minimize distortion of heat treated steel 1) austenitize steel 2) quench in hot oil or molten salt just above martensite start temperature 3) hold in quenching medium until uniform temperature in steel (but before austenite to bainite transformation begins) 4) cool at moderate rate to prevent thermal gradients ====> usually, parts are later tempered to toughen steel
Reduced thermal gradients Reduced residual stresses

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981

Austempering
1) Austenitize steel 2) Quench in hot salt bath just above martensitic temperature 3) Isothermal hold Isothermal heat treatment 4) Cooled to room temperature in air process to produce Bainite Alternative to quenching and tempering Improved ductility and impact strength for particular hardness Decreased cracking and distortion quenching Particularly advantageous for thin sections (<3/8") {thicker sections have nonuniform properties due to different cooling rates}

William F. Smith. Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. 1981