SPWLA 42 nd Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

D E T E C T I N G THIN GAS BEDS IN F O R M A T I O N S U S I N G STONELEY WAVE REFLECTION AND HIGH-RESOLUTION SLOWNESS MEASUREMENTS
X. M. Tang and D. Patterson, Baker Atlas, Houston, Texas, U.S.A ABSTRACT Detecting gas in formations is an important task of formation evaluation. Oftentimes, gas saturation is in small pockets or in thin/laminated beds of the formation, which tend to be overlooked by conventional methods that have a lower vertical resolution. Nevertheless, finding such thin gas intervals is quite significant, especially for enhancing production in heavy oil reservoirs. This paper describes the acoustic determination of thin gas intervals using Stoneley wave reflection and high-resolution slowness measurements. A gas-saturated interval has drastically different fluid mobility and compressibility compared to those of the surrounding formation. During acoustic logging across the interval, the significant fluid mobility/compressibility contrast will generate a measurable Stoneley wave reflection and increase the travel time/slowness of compressional waves. Theoretical modeling shows that the Stoneley-wave reflectance is primarily controlled by the fluid property contrast and is sensitive, to a lesser extent, to the interval thickness. Thus the Stoneley reflection measurement can be used for thin gas bed detection. The slowness measurement, however, is controlled by the thickness of the gas bed. With a recently developed thin bed slowness analysis, formation compressional and shear slowness profiles can be determined with a measurement aperture down to 0.5 ft, allowing for the detection of thin gas intervals. Combining the Stoneley and slowness measurements can provide mutual verification of the result and enhance the reliability of the detection. Field examples will be used to demonstrate the application results. INTRODUCTION In formation evaluation, the thin gas-bed detection is important for hydrocarbon identification, especially in fight formations. It is also important for enhancing recovery from heavy-oil reservoirs. Acoustic logging and interpretation techniques are often used for this purpose. The presence of gas in formations affects the elastic wave velocity of a porous rock. For instance, a porous rock saturated with gas will have a considerably lower compressional (P)-wave velocity than the same rock saturated with water, while the shear (S)-wave velocity is relatively insensitive to the gas saturation. Actually, this change of P-wave velocity with hydrocarbon property is often used as an effective indication of hydrocarbon saturation of reservoir rocks (e.g., Williams, 1990; Brie et al., 1995). For thin gas beds, however, the response will be difficult to detect if the bed thickness is small compared to the aperture of the acoustic receiver array on the acoustic logging tool (typically 3.5 ft). In other words, the acoustic signature of the thin gas bed will be obscured, or smeared, if acoustic wave slowness, or velocity, is obtained using conventional array processing techniques. The main focus of this study is to investigate how to use acoustic logging to detect thin gas beds in formations. Figure 1 illustrates the scenario of the logging of an acoustic array tool across a thin gas bed. Two acoustic wave phenomena occur at the gas bed. The first is the acoustic wave reflection caused by the high acoustic impedance contrast between the gas bed and the surrounding formation. The second is the increase of compressional-wave slowness across the gas bed. We describe two acoustic techniques that can capture the acoustic response of the thin gas bed and combine the two results to enhance the reliability of the detection. One such technique is the recently developed acoustic thin-bed slowness analysis (Zhang et al., 2000). This technique obtains the acoustic wave slowness over the inter-receiver spacing (0.5 ft) of the acoustic array, greatly enhancing the resolution of the resulting slowness profile. Another technique is the Stoneley-wave reflection analysis (Tang, 1996). This technique processes the low-frequency Stoneley wave and separates the wave into transmitted and reflected wave data. By tracing the origin of the reflection events present in the latter data, a formation reflector adjacent to the borehole can be located. A thin gas bed has a high fluid mobility and compressibility that are different from the surrounding formation. A passing Stoneley wave will therefore interact with the gas content in the thin bed, producing a reflected wave that can be

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SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

measured by an acoustic logging tool (see Figure 1). Unfortunately, an ambiguity in the Stoneley-wave reflection analysis is that many other factors, such as borehole changes (washouts), formation lithology changes, fractures, etc. can also produce measurable Stoneley wave reflections (Tang, 1996; Gelinsky and Tang, 1997). Identifying the sources of the reflection events is a formidable task. Combining the acoustic thin-bed analysis with the Stoneley-wave reflection method reduces the ambiguity in either stand-alone analysis and enhances the robustness and reliability of the interpretation. In the following, we will theoretically analyze the Stoneley wave reflection due to a thin gas bed and give some numerical examples. We will then describe the method of acoustic thin-bed slowness analysis. The applications of the two methods to thin gas-bed detection will be described and demonstrated with field data examples. T H E S T O N E L E Y WAVE M E T H O D

At the interface between two formations (one with, and another without, gas saturation, as denoted by subscripts, g and O, respectively), the reflection of a low-frequency Stoneley wave is given by (White, 1983)
r-2 , (1)

kg +k o
where r is the reflection coefficient and IIIIdenotes taking the modulus value of a complex expression or quantity; k is the Stoneley wavenumber, which, in a permeable formation, is a complex quantity given by O) O)
k = ~ + i , (2)

Vsr (co)
where

2O(co)

Vsr (co)

Vsr(W) andQ(co)are the Stoneley-wave

Theoretical foundation- Borehole Stoneley waves in a porous formation can be modeled using Biot's poroelastic wave theory (Rosenbaum, 1974; Schmitt et al, 1988; Winkler, 1989; Tang et al., 1991). Norris (1989) demonstrated that, for a porous rock of given permeability and porosity, the Stoneley wave attenuation and dispersion depend critically on the pore fluid (or saturant) properties, i.e., viscosity and compressibility. (The viscosity effect can be expressed using fluid mobility, defined as 'permeability/viscosity'.) The effects of pore fluid are demonstrated in Figure 2, where the Stoneley wave attenuation (Figure 2a) and velocity dispersion (Figure 2b) in a porous formation (see parameters in Table I) are calculated for water- and gas-saturation cases. (The borehole has a radius of 0.1 m and is filled with water.) The attenuation is expressed in terms of the inverse quality factor Q, and the velocity is normalized to borehole fluid acoustic velocity (1500 m/s). For this moderately low permeability formation, the water-saturation case produces a minimal effect on the Stoneley attenuation and dispersion, as compared to the nonpermeable case (zero attenuation in Figure 2a and dashed curve in Figure 2b). In contrast, the gas saturation results in a significant drop in Stoneley velocity and dramatic increase in attenuation. The drastically different Stoneley wave characteristics between the two saturant fluids can cause significant Stoneley wave reflection at the gas-water contact or at a thin gas bed in a formation.

phase velocity and quality factor as a function of frequency (see examples in Figures 2a and b), which are controlled by formation permeability, porosity, and pore fluid property. The significantly different velocity and Q values between gas and water saturation situations result in the difference between kg and k 0 in equation (1), giving rise to Stoneley wave reflection at the interface. Figure 2c shows the reflection coefficient (dashed curve) for the interface at the gas-water contact. In the case of a thin, gas-saturated formation layer, reflection occurs at the lower and upper layer interfaces. The total reflection caused by the layer is given by (Tang and Cheng, 1993):

I"=

2i(k 2 -k~)sin(kgL)
(kg + ko)2e -ik`L -(kg -ko)2e ik~L '
(3)

where L is the layer thickness. It can be shown that the Tang and Cheng (1993) result in equation (3) reduces to the White (1983)result in equation (2) in the limit as L ---> ~ . Figure 2c shows the reflection coefficient curve (solid curve) for a gas-saturated layer of 0.1524 m (0.5 ft) thickness. The thin-layer curve oscillates around the single-interface curve, indicating the interference between the reflections from the upper and lower layer interfaces. When the layer thickness is about a quarter wavelength of the Stoneley wave, the two reflections tend to add constructively, producing a higher reflection amplitude (e.g., the maximum around 1.2 kHz). When the layer thickness is about half of the wavelength, the two reflections tend to cancel, resulting in a smaller reflection amplitude (see the

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001 minimum around 3.8 kHz). However, the cancellation will not be complete because the amplitude of the upper reflection is attenuated (see attenuation in Figure 2a) from traveling through the layer. Based on the above elaboration, it can be concluded that a thin gas bed in the formation can produce a significant Stoneley wave reflection because of its high fluid mobility and compressibility contrast to the surrounding formation. The reflection is further enhanced when the bed thickness is on the order of a quarter of the Stoneley wavelength. (For a typical Stoneley velocity of about 3 5 0 0 - 5000 ft/s and a center frequency of 1 kHz, the quarter wavelength is about 0.8 - 1.25 ft, which can be related to the resolution of the thin-bed slowness analysis to be described later.) data. Examples of the latter two reflected wave data will be shown respectively in Figures 5 and 6. After the wave separation, various reflection events in the data can be clearly traced to their origin at the borehole. The merit of the wave-separation method is that it picks up almost all reflection events, large and small, in the data. However, interpreting the cause of the reflection events is a formidable task because many other factors, such as borehole changes (e.g., washouts/rugosity) and lithological boundaries, etc., also cause the Stoneley-wave reflection. Numerical modeling is used to reduce the ambiguity in the interpretation (Gelinsky and Tang, 1997). The modeling can realistically simulate the Stoneley wave propagation to account for the borehole and formation changes along the wave path, provided that these changes, as input from the log data (e.g., borehole caliper, shear and compressional slowness, and density logs), are accurate. In practice, however, because of the resolution limitation of the log data, sharp borehole and formation changes are often smeared and the modeled reflection magnitude tends to be underestimated. In this regard, combining information from other measurements provides a useful tool for reducing the ambiguity and enhancing the reliability of the interpretation. The thin-bed slowness analysis, to be described below, is a method that can be combined with the Stoneleywave reflection method for the thin gas bed detection problem.
T H E THIN-BED SLOWNESS M E T H O D

Synthetic waveform examples- To demonstrate the

influence of a thin gas bed on Stoneley waveform characteristics, Figure 3 shows the synthetic Stoneley waveforms across a thin bed interval (L=0.1524m, or 0.5ft). The calculations are made for water (Figure 3a) and gas (Figure 3b) saturation cases, respectively. The waveforms are calculated for a fixed source-to-receiver offset of 12.5 ft on an acoustic tool. The waveform center frequency is 1.5 kHz. Acoustic logging is simulated by moving the tool from 25 ft below, to 35 ft above, the bed interval. Because water saturation produces only minimal changes on Stoneley wave attenuation and velocity for this moderately low permeability formation (see Figures 2a and b), no measurable reflections can be observed in Figure 3a. In contrast, replacing water with gas for the same bed interval produces quite significant Stoneley wave reflection events. The reflection events are designated as a down-going wave, generated when the tool is below the bed, and an up-going wave, generated when the tool is above, the bed interval. The down- and upgoing reflection waves form a "chevron" pattern, as is commonly observed in field acoustic logging waveform data. It can also be seen that the origin of the down-going reflection is at the bed location. The origin of the up-going wave is offset from the bed location by the source-to-receiver distance. This modeling example shows that Stoneley-wave reflection data can be used to detect/characterize thin gas beds in formations.

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Effect of gas saturation on slowness- Formation gas

saturation can significantly change the P-wave slowness and can thus be detected using the slowness measurement. The slowness change can be predicted by Gassmann' s equation ( 1 - K a / K~)2

K-Ka4

O/Ky +(1-0)/K

~-Kd/K

2'

(4)

where K is the rock bulk modulus, Ks is the modulus of the rock grain, Ka is the bulk modulus of the dry rock, 0 is the porosity, and Ki is the modulus of the pore fluid. The effect of pore-fluid saturation on Pwave velocity is calculated by Ve - ~ / ( K + 4 # / 3) / p , (5)

Stoneley-wave data processing- Field Stoneley wave

data are processed using a wavefield separation procedure (Tang, 1996) in order to analyze the reflection events present in the data. This procedure separates the Stoneley-wave data into transmitted, down-going reflected, and up-going reflected, wave

where p is the rock density; and /z is the shear modulus that is assumed unaffected by pore fluid. For the acoustic parameters used to calculate Figures 2 and 3 (see Table I), replacing the Ki value of water

SPWLA 42 "a Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001 with that of gas can produce a 10% decrease in the P-wave velocity (or increase in slowness). This gasinduced change will be more pronounced for highporosity rocks. Although the presence of gas in formations can significantly increase the P-wave slowness value, detecting this effect in thin gas beds poses a problem. The problem is that, if the layer thickness is small compared to the receiver array aperture (see Figure 1), it is difficult to detect the slowness change from the slowness log obtained using a conventional array technique (i.e., semblance, see Kimball and Marzzeta, 1986). The thin-bed slowness analysis offers a solution to this problem. waveforms to maximize the redundancy of information for estimating the slowness over the processing aperture. This method substantially enhances the resolution of the slowness profile as compared to the conventional array processing.

Enhancing

slowness resolution- Enhancing resolution of slowness estimates from an array acoustic tool is to utilize overlapping subarrays across the same depth interval whose thickness is equal to the subarray aperture. At some particular depth during logging, the acoustic source on the tool is activated and an array (typically eight receivers) of waveform data is recorded. This procedure is repeated while the tool is pulled up a distance equal to one inter-receiver spacing (typically 0.5 ft). Consequently, the receiver arrays at successive source locations are overlapped. The thin-bed slowness analysis (Zhang et al., 2000) uses redundant information in overlapping arrays to improve both the vertical resolution and the accuracy of the formation acoustic slowness estimation. Figure 4 shows two commonly used data-gathering configurations for an eight-receiver array-acoustic tool, where the subarray receivers used in the data gather are highlighted. The configuration in Figure 4a has the highest resolution with the processing aperture equal to the interreceiver spacing (0.5 ft) in the receiver array. The configuration in Figure 4b has a processing aperture of 1 ft. Whether to use the 0.5- or 1-ft aperture depends on a validity condition, as will be described later.
A pair-wise waveform inversion scheme is used to optimize the match between the waveform pairs across the common depth interval. For the 0.5-ftaperture configuration (two-receiver subarray), each waveform is matched twice, once by shifting the waveform itself and another by shifting the other waveform, across the same depth interval. Altogether there are 14 waveform pairs and 28 times of repeated waveform usage for the 0.5-ft-aperture configuration. Similarly, there are total 36 waveform pairs and 54 times of repeated waveform usage for the 1-ft-aperture configuration. This technique therefore utilizes the maximum possible number of

Validity condition- The validity of the thin-bed slowness has been verified by various examples (Zhang et al., 2000) with excellent results. However, there must be a limit beyond which the thin-bed method will become invalid. (Obviously, this method can not be applied to waves with very long wavelengths.) The validity condition for this method is that the processing aperture (i.e., 0.5 ft or 1 ft, as in Figure 4) should be no less than a quarter of the wavelength for the acoustic wave used (e.g., compressional or (dipole) shear waves). A physical explanation for this condition is that, for the wave to be still recognizable as an oscillating wave across an observation interval (i.e., the processing aperture), the interval must be greater than a quarter of the wavelength. For the 0.5-ft-aperture, this condition is satisfied for most of the logging situations, especially for P-wave data. (For example, for a 10 kHz P-wave with a velocity of 10,000 ft/s, its quarter wavelength is 0.25 ft, which is smaller than 0.5 ft.) This condition may occasionally be violated with low-frequency dipole waves when using the 0.5-ft-aperture configuration. In this case, the 1-ftaperture configuration, as in Figure 4b, should be used.
The thin-bed slowness method can detect slowness changes over a thin gas-bed interval. The gas saturation within the bed can also cause a substantial Stoneley-wave reflection. The combination of the two methods, therefore, provides a better and more reliable approach for the acoustic detection of thin gas beds in formations. This will be demonstrated in the following field data examples. F I E L D APPLICATION EXAMPLES

High porosity gas beds- The thin-bed slowness

analysis and the Stoneley wave reflection processing methods were used to evaluate a high porosity, laminated gas reservoir. Figure 5 shows the analysis results, together with other log data to support the results. Track 1 of this figure shows the gamma-ray curve, which exhibits the laminated features of the formation. The compressional-wave data used for the slowness analysis are shown in track 4. (The presence of gas can be seen by the strong amplitude attenuation in the waveform data.) The data was first processed using the conventional array technique, giving the dashed slowness curve in track 2.

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001 Because of the lack of resolution in this slowness curve, the increase of the P-wave slowness across the reservoir was overlooked. The acoustic waveform data were reprocessed using the thin-bed analysis method with the 0.5ft-processing aperture (Figure 4a). The result (solid slowness curve in track 2) drastically enhances the resolution of the slowness profile, revealing the laminated features of the reservoir. The drastic increase of the P-wave slowness over a thin depth interval indicates the presence of a gas-saturated thin bed. Despite the drastic variations on the thin-bed slowness curve, its derived travel time curve tracks the waveform data quite well (track 4), giving quality control and validation for the high-resolution slowness curve. The validation is also confirmed by the density curve shown in track 2 (left curve). The density in this high porosity reservoir clearly shows the presence of gas, a drop in density corresponding to gas in place. Because the density measurement has a comparable depth resolution (on the order of 1 ft), the density features can be directly correlated with those on the thin-bed slowness curve. Indeed, a sharp decrease in density is generally corresponded to a sharp increase in slowness, indicating the presence of a thin gas bed in formation. The monopole data were filtered to obtain Stoneley wave data around 1 kHz. The wave separation processing was applied to separate the data into transmitted, down-going reflected and up-going reflected, waves. Displayed in track 3 are the upgoing reflected Stoneley wave data, which is shifted down by a distance equal to the source-to-receiver spacing (see Figure 319) to correspond to the location of formation/borehole reflectors. Many reflection events can be identified across the reservoir interval, as indicated by arrows in track 3. The bottom reservoir section shows the borehole washout (X780-X840 m, as can be seen from the caliper curve versus bit size). This causes some ambiguity in relating the reflection events to thin gas beds. The upper section, where the borehole is in good shape, shows many reflection events that are evidently related to the thin bed locations identified from the thin-bed slowness profile. The result shown in Figure 5 clearly demonstrates that gas saturation in thin beds increases the P-wave slowness and generates Stoneley-wave reflection, giving a good confirmation of the above theoretical analyses. A drawback of this example is that the Stoneley-wave reflections seem unable to resolve each individual thin bed, as identified by the thinbed slowness analysis. This is in part due to the poor Stoneley data quality caused by the strong attenuation in the gas formation, and in part due to the fact that the beds are closely spaced. The following example shows a better correspondence between the Stoneley and thin-bed slowness results.

Gas-saturated sand-shale sequence- When the gasinduced slowess change is strong, the P-wave slowness alone suffices to indicate the gas effect, as is the case for the high porosity gas example shown in Figure 5. However, in many situations, such as sand-shale sequences, the gas-induced changes are coupled with lithology changes. In this case, the use of the Vp/Vs ratio, instead of P-wave slowness, in combination with the Stoneley-wave analysis, may provide a better gas indication. This is because, a porous rock saturated with gas will have a considerably lower P-wave velocity than the same rock saturated with water, while the S-wave velocity is relatively insensitive to the gas saturation. By taking the Vp/Vs ratio, the gas effect stands out relative to the lithological variation. As a result, a change in the Vp/Vs ratio will be more indicative of the pore fluid effect than the lithological effect.
The example in Figure 6 is from a formation containing gas-saturated, laminated gas-shale sequences. Track 1 shows the gamma ray and caliper curves. The Stoneley-wave reflection (down-going) data are displayed as a variable density image in track 2. The Stoneley reflection data are of good quality with discernable individual reflection events. The Vp/Vs ratio in the same track is scaled from 1.2 to 2, right to left, to approximately overlay the curve with the origins of the reflection events. Track 3 shows modeled Stoneley-wave reflection data and the P- and S-wave slowness curves. The slowness curves were obtained by processing, respectively, the monopole and dipole acoustic array data using the thin-bed method with the 0.5-ft-aperture (see Figure 4a). The P- and Swave slowness curves are displayed from 80 to 360 kts/ft, left to fight, to allow for the display of the modeled Stoneley wave data. The Stoneley-wave modeling uses the method described in Gelinsky and Tang (1997), using the slowness curves and the caliper curve (track 1) as the input. This modeling can help identify Stoneley-wave reflections that are caused by lithology and borehole changes. The results shown in Figure 6 can now be interpreted. The Vp/Vs ratio curve in track 2 shows many locally low and high values. Since gas saturation causes the Vp/Vs ratio to drop, the location with a low Vp/Vs ratio value may potentially be a gas bed. However, one can not exclude that these low values are not caused by

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SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001 lithological changes. Confirmation from Stoneley wave analysis can help reduce this uncertainty. The measured Stoneley reflection data in track 2 shows more, and stronger, events than the modeled data in track 3, suggesting that the reflections are more related to gas-saturation than to lithological effects. More interesting, most Stoneley reflection events originate from depths where the Vp/Vs ratio curve shows 0ocally) low values (-- 1.6-1.7). Since gas saturation causes the Vp/Vs ratio to drop, the low Vp/Vs-ratio depth interval with a reflection event is most likely the location of gas zones. Therefore, it can be concluded that the gas production for the depth range shown in Figure 6 comes mostly from the locations indicated by low Vp/Vs ratio and the Stoneley reflection. shown in tracks 1 and 2, for the modeled reflection amplitudes (not shown) are an order of magnitude smaller than those shown in track 3. These features/events, as seen from the slowness and Stoneley wave data, therefore, correspond to thin gas pockets in this heavy-oil sand compartment. They can be jointly located by the low Vp/Vs ratio (or high P-slowess) events and by tracing the origin of the Stoneley reflection events. CONCLUSIONS A thin gas-saturated layer in a formation can significantly increase the layer's compressionalwave slowness and produce a measurable Stoneleywave reflection. These acoustic responses are theoretically modeled and have been confirmed by field observations. The slowness change in the thin layer can be resolved using a thin-bed slowness analysis, and the Stoneley-wave reflection can be obtained using a wave separation method. Joint interpretation of the results of these two measurements offers a more reliable and robust approach to thin gas-layer detection. Specifically, a thin gas layer can be identified as a high-value (lowvalue) event on the high-resolution P-wave slowness (Vp/Vs ratio) profile. The layer can also be located by the origin of the Stoneley wave reflection. The agreement between the two results enhances the reliability of the detection. This approach has been successfully applied to detect thin gas layers in highporosity gas sand, sand-shale sequences, and heavyoil formations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Mette Munkholm and Massiel Rangel for their participation in the data analyses and handling. We also thank Baker Atlas for permission to publish this paper.

Gas-pockets in heavy-oil sand- Finding light hydrocarbons in heavy-oil reservoirs is important for recovery enhancement, because it provides information for reservoir engineering/treatment leading to production/recovery optimization. The light hydrocarbons often exist as gas pockets in heavy-oil formations. The contrast between gas and heavy oil generates acoustic responses that can be detected using the above-mentioned techniques.
Figure 7 is an example of detecting light hydrocarbons in a heavy-oil sand compartment. The formation is a high porosity (-30%) tar sand with a very heavy oil. Track 1 shows the gamma ray and caliper curves. The gamma-ray curve shows that the reservoir sand is fairly homogeneous, without significant lithological variations. The caliper curve shows that the borehole is in fairly good shape. Tack 2 shows the P- and S-wave slowness curves across the reservoir sand. The slowness curves were processed from the monopole and dipole acoustic array data using the thin-bed method with the 0.5-ft processing aperture. It is noted that the slowness curves in the upper portion of the sand exhibit more variations than the lower portion. It is also noted that the P-slowness curve, compared to the S-slowness curve, shows more high-value features. The Vp/Vs ratio curve computed using the P- and S-slowness curves in track 2, together with the Stoneley-wave reflection (down-going) image, is shown in track 3. The Vp/Vs ratio is scaled from 0.5 to 2.5, right to left, to allow for correlating the curve features with the origins of the reflection events. The low Vp/Vs ratio value features, as well as the high-slowness events on the P-slowness curve, exhibit a thin-layer behavior. Indeed, these thin-layer features/events correlate with the Stoneley-wave reflection events very well. These reflection events could not be caused by the caliper and shear velocity variations

SPWLA 42 nd Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

REFERENCES

Brie, A., Pumpuri, F., Marsala, A. F., and Meazza, O., 1995, Shear sonic interpretation in gas-bearing sands: 1995 SPE annual technical conference and exhibition, Paper 30595. Gelinsky, S., Tang, X. M., 1997, Fast forward modeling of Stoneley waves for irregular boreholes and heterogeneous formation: 67th Ann. Intern. Mtg., Soc. Explor. Geophys., Expanded Abstracts, Dallas, TX. Kimball, C. V., and Marzetta, T. L., 1986, Semblance processing of borehole acoustic array data: Geophysics, 49, 274-281. Norris, A. N., 1989, Stoneley-wave attenuation and dispersion in permeable formations: Geophysics, 54, 330-341. Rosenbaum, J. H., 1974, Synthetic microseismograms: logging in porous formations: Geophysics, 39, 14-32. Schmitt, D. P., and Bouchon, M., and Bonnet, G., 1988, Full-waveform synthetic acoustic logs, in radially semiinfmite saturated porous formations: Geophysics, 53, 807-823. Tang, X. M., Cheng, C. H., and Toksoz, M. N., 1991, Dynamic permeability and borehole Stoneley waves: A simplified Biot-Rosenbaum model: J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 90, 1632-1646. Tang, X. M., and Cheng, C. H., 1993, Borehole Stoneley wave propagation across permeable structures: Geophysical prospecting, 41, 165-187. Tang, X. M., 1996, Fracture hydraulic conductivity estimation from borehole Stoneley wave transmission and reflection data, paper HH, in 37th Annual Meeting Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts. White, J. E., 1983, Underground sound, Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc. Williams, D. M., 1990, The acoustic log hydrocarbon indicator: paper W, in 31th Annual Meeting Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts.

Winkler, K. W., Liu, H. L., and Johnson, D. L., 1989, Permeability and borehole Stoneley waves: Comparison between experiment and theory: Geophysics, 54, 66-75. Zhang, T., Tang, X. M., Patterson, D., 2000, Evaluation of laminated thin beds in formations using high-resolution acoustic slowness logs, paper XX, in 41st Annual Meeting Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, Dallas, Texas.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Xiaoming Tang is a senior staff scientist within the Houston Technology Center for Baker Atlas/INTEQ and is project leader for acoustic processing and interpretation development. He received his Doctor of Science degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1990, and then worked as a scientist at New England Research, Inc., from 1990 to 1994. He joined Baker Atlas in 1994. His current interests include borehole acoustics, petrophysics, and rock mechanics. He has authored or co-authored more than 50 technical publications and ten patents. He is member of SPWLA and SEG. Doug Patterson is the Acoustic Program Manager within the Houston Technology Center for Baker Atlas/INTEQ where he focuses on development of both wireline and LWD devices. Doug received his B.S.M.E. from Memphis University in 1978 and began his career with Schlumberger. His career continued with Gearhart in 1981, holding positions in both sales and technical marketing. More recently, Doug joined Acutec Logging Services in 1992, where he focused extensively on the development of downhole equipment, processing software, and interpretation methods. He was with Acutec until May of 1996 when the company was acquired by Western Atlas Logging Services (now Baker Atlas).

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SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

Vp (m/s)
Rock Water Gas 3000 1500 340

Vs (m/s)
1800 -

/9 (g/cc) 2.5 1 0.14

/7 (cp) 1 0.022

~b(pu) 0.1 -

K" (md) 10 -

Ks (GPa) 37.9 -

Table I. Formation and fluid parameters used in calculating Figures 2 and 3. The parameters are P- and S-wave velocities, density, viscosity, porosity, permeability, and rock grain modulus.

Increase in P-slowness

Gas bed
High fluid mobility and compressibilit,.

L_.
DTP

Figure 1. Acoustic logging across a thin gas-saturated depth interval. The presence of gas increases the compressional (P) wave slowness. The high fluid mobility and compressibility of the gas bed give rise to a Stoneley-wave reflection. The slowness of the gas bed is analyzed with a thin-bed method, when the bed thickness is smaller than the receiver array aperture. The Stoneley reflection is analyzed using a wave separation method.

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

0.5
A

O = o
=

0.4 0.3
0.2

gas saturation

<
0.1

water saturation
. . . . I . . . . I . . . . I'"'' ' ' I" "' ' ' ' I . . . . I . . . . I . . . .

non-permeable
-

o
>

0.9
0.8

. . . .

water saturation gas saturation

0.7

b
i-

~
N

~
L_

E
o

0.6

0.5

= i

0.8
i

m !

~" (D o 0 = O
= l

0.6 0.4

Thin layer . . . . . . . . . Interface

I
I I I

O0

N I

_~ 0.2
0 I I l ~ [ l I l I I l l l I I I l l l I l i J l I t i l I I I

I ~ ~ ~

Frequency (kHz)

Figure 2. Stoneley-wave attenuation (a) and velocity dispersion (b) in a porous formation for the water- and gas-saturation cases (see the labeling). (c) Stoneley-wave reflection coefficient for the interface at the gaswater contact (dashed curve) and for a 0.5 ft-thick gas layer (solid curve).

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

L/x-~

L/x, L/xF

ttD

Water bed:
K= lOmd

V"-, L/x., L/'v

=1o%

L/x.~
m ~

TIME (ms)

20

t~

=,,

Gas bed, 0.5'

K=IO md

-t~

-10%

TIME (ms)

20

Figure 3. Synthetic Stoneley waves across a thin bed of 0.5-ft thickness for the water-saturation (a) and gas saturation (b) cases. Note the significant reflection events in the gas-saturation case.

10

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001 a

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0

Receiver

0 0 .~ ......................... ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 Q 0 0 0

Array Positions

@ Q Q Q Q

Transmitter Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 O O g 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 Q 0 0 0

0 0 0 Q Q Q 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

lit
OO

0 0 Q Q 0

Figure 4. Data-gather configurations for the acoustic thin-bed slowness analysis: (a) 0.5-ft processing aperture, (b) 1-ft processing aperture.

11

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

GR

P-Slowness

Stoneley-Wave Reflection

P-wave Data

50 (API)

100

90 (l~slft) 240 [ 0
Density

(t~s) 6000[
CAL

Travel Time

2.1

(glcc) 1.616

(in)

11[ 1500 (t~s) 3500

Thin-bed Analysis

Bit

Array Analysis

Figure 5. Gas detection in a high-porosity, laminated formation using the thin-bed slowness (solid curve, track 2) and Stoneley reflection (track 3) analyses. Note the dramatic slowness increase (solid curve) across the thin gas beds, as accompanied by low-value events on the density curve (left curve, track 2) and numerous Stoneley-wave reflection events (track 3). Track 1 shows the gamma-ray curve and track 4 displays the P-wave data along with the travel time curve calculated from the thin-bed slowness curve.

12

SPWLA 42 "d Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

GR

I MeasuredStoneley Reflection

Modeled Stoneley Reflection

(in) --!
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vp/Vs Ratio
. . . . . . . .

t
1.2
: : . . . . : i

P-Slowness 360

" i :.

.:

..... = : . :.

J:7

~II?~::,I.....

>
. . . . . . .

.......... :i

:(:k

........

~ ...............

............ :.............. .... ~::;:~::~71::iiii171,~iii: I

>

....... :i{)/Z iii;i i:i:i:i: ~i:i,i:iii::~17~,~+:; .......

OO

::.

...

.....

.... . . . . . . . ... .

. .....

Figure 6. Gas detection in a formation with sand-shale sequences. Track 2 shows the results from Vp/Vs ratio and Stoneley wave reflection analyses. The Vp/Vs-ratio curve is computed using the P- and S-slowness curves in track 3. The Stoneley reflction data is shown using a variable density image display. Note the correspondence between low Vp/Vs-ratio events and the Stoneley reflection events, which indicates to the location of thin gas beds. Using the caliper (track 1) and slowness curves, the borehole and lithology changeinduced Stoneley reflection can be modeled, as is shown in track 3.

13

SPWLA 42 "~ Annual Logging Symposium, June 17-20, 2001

GR
0
me ==an ~

P-Slowness
200 50 (l~slft)
~ ~ ~ ~

Stoneley Reflection 0 (~ts) 10000

......................................

(gAPI)

150
~==== ~

CAL
l 1 m n ~

i
~=m ~

S-Slowness
180 (l~slft) 380 2.5

Vp/Vs Ratio
0.5

(in)

15

!
i

,g

";

>

Figure 7. Detecting light hydrocarbons (gas) in tar sands. Track 1 shows the gamma-ray and caliper curves. Track 3 shows the Vp/Vs ratio and Stoneley-wave reflection analysis results. The Vp/Vs-ratio curve is computed using the thin-bed P- and S-slowness curves in track 2. Note the correlation between the low Vp/Vs-ratio events and the Stoneley reflection events, which indicates the presence and locations of thin gas pockets in this heavy-oil reservoir.

14