Fluid 09

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 9 External Flow
Chapter 9 External Flow
Past Bodies
Past Bodies
Jyh
Jyh
-
-
Cherng
Cherng
Shieh
Shieh
Department of Bio Department of Bio- -Industrial Industrial Mechatronics Mechatronics Engineering Engineering
National Taiwan University National Taiwan University
12/22/2008 12/22/2008
2
MAIN TOPICS
MAIN TOPICS
General Characteristics of External Flow

General Characteristics of External Flow
Boundary Layer Characteristics

Drag
Drag
Lift
Lift
3
Introduction
Introduction
Objects are completely surrounded by the fluid and the

Objects are completely surrounded by the fluid and the
flows are termed
flows are termed
external flows
external flows
.
.
Examples include
Examples include
the flow of air around airplane,
the flow of air around airplane,
automobiles, and falling snowflakes, or the flow of water
automobiles, and falling snowflakes, or the flow of water
around submarines and fish.
around submarines and fish.
External flows involving air are often termed

External flows involving air are often termed
aerodynamics in response to the important external flows
aerodynamics in response to the important external flows
produced when an object such as an airplane flies through
produced when an object such as an airplane flies through
the atmosphere.
the atmosphere.
flowexternal flow
4
Application
Application
Design of cars and trucks

Design of cars and trucks
to decrease the fuel

to decrease the fuel
consumption and improve the handling characteristics.
consumption and improve the handling characteristics.
Improve ships, whether they are surface vessels

Improve ships, whether they are surface vessels
(surrounded by air and water) or submersible vessels.
(surrounded by air and water) or submersible vessels.
Design of building
Design of building
consider the various wind effects

consider the various wind effects
5
Approaches to External Flows
1/2 1/2
Two approaches are used to obtain information of external flows: Two approaches are used to obtain information of external flows:
Theoretical (analytical and numerical) approaches: Because of Theoretical (analytical and numerical) approaches: Because of
the complexities of the governing equations and the complexities the complexities of the governing equations and the complexities
of the geometry of the objects involved, the amount of of the geometry of the objects involved, the amount of
information obtained from purely theoretical methods is limited. information obtained from purely theoretical methods is limited.
With current and anticipated advancements in the area of With current and anticipated advancements in the area of
computational fluid mechanics, computer predication of forces computational fluid mechanics, computer predication of forces
and complicated flow patterns will become more readily and complicated flow patterns will become more readily
available. available.
Experimental approaches:Much information is obtained Experimental approaches:Much information is obtained. .
governing equationcomputer
6
2/2 2/2
( (a a) ) Flow past a full Flow past a full- -sized streamlined sized streamlined
vehicle in the GM aerodynamics vehicle in the GM aerodynamics
laboratory wind tunnel, and 18 laboratory wind tunnel, and 18- -ft ft
by 34 by 34- -ft test section facility driven ft test section facility driven
by a 4000 by a 4000- -hp, 43 hp, 43- -ft ft- -diameter fan. diameter fan.
( (b b) Surface flow on a model vehicle as ) Surface flow on a model vehicle as
indicated by tufts attached to the indicated by tufts attached to the
surface. surface.
GMFAN4000hp43ft
7
General Characteristics
General Characteristics
A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a resultant force A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a resultant force
due to the interacting between the body and the fluid surroundin due to the interacting between the body and the fluid surrounding: g:
The body is stationary and the fluid flows past the body with The body is stationary and the fluid flows past the body with
velocity U. velocity U.
The fluid far from the body is stationary and the body moves The fluid far from the body is stationary and the body moves
through the fluid with velocity U. through the fluid with velocity U.
For a given For a given- -shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend
very strongly on various parameters such as very strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, speed, size, orientation, speed,
and fluid properties. and fluid properties.
FORCE
8
Categories of Bodies
Categories of Bodies
The structure of an external flow and the ease with which the fl The structure of an external flow and the ease with which the flow ow
can be described and analyzed often depend on can be described and analyzed often depend on the nature of the the nature of the
body in the flow. body in the flow.
Three general categories Three general categories of bodies include (a) two of bodies include (a) two- -dimensional dimensional
objects, (b) objects, (b) axisymmetric axisymmetric bodies, and (c) three bodies, and (c) three- -dimensional bodies. dimensional bodies.
Another classification of body shape can be made depending on Another classification of body shape can be made depending on
whether the body is whether the body is streamlined or blunt streamlined or blunt. .
9
Lift and Drag Concepts
1/3 1/3
The interaction between the body and the The interaction between the body and the
fluid: fluid:
Stresses Stresses- -wall shear stresses, wall shear stresses,
w w
,due to ,due to
viscous effects. viscous effects.
Normal stresses, due to the pressure p. Normal stresses, due to the pressure p.
Both Both
w w
and p vary in magnitude and and p vary in magnitude and
direction along the surface. direction along the surface.
The detailed distribution of The detailed distribution of
w w
and p is and p is
difficult difficult to obtain. to obtain.
However, only the integrated or resultant However, only the integrated or resultant
effects of these distributions are needed. effects of these distributions are needed.
10
2/3 2/3
The resultant force in the direction of the upstream velocity is The resultant force in the direction of the upstream velocity is
termed the termed the DRAG DRAG, and the resultant force normal to the upstream , and the resultant force normal to the upstream
velocity is termed the velocity is termed the LIFT LIFT. .
+ =
= = dA sin dA cos p dF D Drag

w x
+ =
= = dA cos dA psn dF L Lift

w y
+ =
+ =
cos ) dA ( sin ) pdA ( dF
sin ) dA ( cos ) pdA ( dF
w y
w x
11
3/3 3/3
Without detailed information concerning the Without detailed information concerning the
shear stress and pressure distributions on a shear stress and pressure distributions on a
body, the drag and the lift are difficult to body, the drag and the lift are difficult to
obtain by integration. obtain by integration.
A widely used alternative is to define A widely used alternative is to define
dimensionless lift and drag coefficients and dimensionless lift and drag coefficients and
determine their approximate values by means determine their approximate values by means
of either a simplified analysis, some of either a simplified analysis, some
numerical technique, or an appropriate numerical technique, or an appropriate
experiment. experiment.
A U
2
1
L
C
2
L
=
A U
2
1
D
C
2
D
= Lift coefficient Lift coefficient

Drag coefficient Drag coefficient
12
Example 9.1 Drag from Pressure and
Example 9.1 Drag from Pressure and
Shear Stress Distributions
Shear Stress Distributions
Air at standard conditions flows past a flat plate as is indicat Air at standard conditions flows past a flat plate as is indicated in ed in
Figure E9.1. In case (a) the plate is parallel to the upstream f Figure E9.1. In case (a) the plate is parallel to the upstream flow, low,
and in case (b) it is perpendicular to the upstream flow. If the and in case (b) it is perpendicular to the upstream flow. If the
pressure and shear stress distributions on the surface are as in pressure and shear stress distributions on the surface are as indicated dicated
(obtained either by experiment or theory), determine the lift an (obtained either by experiment or theory), determine the lift and d
drag on the plate. drag on the plate.
13
Example 9.1
Example 9.1
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
= =

+
= =
top
w
bottom
w
top
w
bottom top
dA 2 dA dA D Drag
pdA pdA L Lift
With the plate parallel to the upstream flow we have =90on the
top surface and =270on the bottom surface so that the lift and
drag are given by
lb 0991 . 0 dx ) ft 10 ( ft / lb
x
10 24 . 1
2 dA 2 D
4
0
2
2 / 1
3
top
w
=
|
|
\
|
= =

14
Example 9.1
Example 9.1
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
lb 6 . 55 dy ) ft 10 ( ft / lb ) 893 . 0 ( ft / lb
4
y
1 744 . 0
pdA pdA D Drag
0 dA dA L Lift
2
2 y
2 2
2
back front
back
w
front
w
=
(

|
|
\
|
=
= =
= = =

=
With the plate perpendicular to the upstream flow we have =0
on the front surface and =180on the back so that the lift and drag
are given by
15
Characteristics of Flow Past an Object
1/2 1/2
For a given For a given- -shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend
very strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, s very strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, speed, peed,
and fluid properties. and fluid properties.
According to dimensional analysis arguments, the character of f According to dimensional analysis arguments, the character of flow low
should depend on the various dimensionless parameters. For typic should depend on the various dimensionless parameters. For typical al
external flows the most important of these parameters are the external flows the most important of these parameters are the
Reynolds number, the Mach number, and for the flow with a free Reynolds number, the Mach number, and for the flow with a free
surface, the Froude number. surface, the Froude number.
Reynolds
numberexternal flow
Reynolds numberMach number Froude number
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2/2 2/2
For the present, we consider how the external flow and its For the present, we consider how the external flow and its
associated lift and drag vary as a function of Reynolds number associated lift and drag vary as a function of Reynolds number
For most external flows, the For most external flows, the characteristic length of objects are on characteristic length of objects are on
the order of 0.10m~10m the order of 0.10m~10m. Typical upstream velocities are on the . Typical upstream velocities are on the
order of order of 0.01m/s~100m/s 0.01m/s~100m/s. The resulting Reynolds number range is . The resulting Reynolds number range is
approximately 10~10 approximately 10~10
9 9
. .
Re>100. The flows are dominated by inertial effects. Re>100. The flows are dominated by inertial effects.
Re<1. The flows are dominated by viscous effects. Re<1. The flows are dominated by viscous effects.
external flow
0.1m~10m0.01~100 m/s
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Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number
1/2 1/2
In honor of Osborne Reynolds (1842~1912), the British engineer In honor of Osborne Reynolds (1842~1912), the British engineer
who first demonstrated that this combination of variables could who first demonstrated that this combination of variables could be be
used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow. flow.
The Reynolds number is a measure of the ration of the inertia fo The Reynolds number is a measure of the ration of the inertia forces rces
to viscous forces. to viscous forces.
If the Reynolds number is small (Re<1), this is an indication th If the Reynolds number is small (Re<1), this is an indication that the at the
viscous forces are dominant in the problem, and it may be possib viscous forces are dominant in the problem, and it may be possible le
to neglect the inertial effects; that is, the density of the flu to neglect the inertial effects; that is, the density of the fluid will no id will no
be an important variable. be an important variable.
=
l l V V
Re
Osborne Reynolds
inertial force / viscous force
Re < 1viscous forcesinertial force
18
Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number
2/2 2/2
Flows with very small Reynolds numbers are commonly referred to Flows with very small Reynolds numbers are commonly referred to
as as creeping flows creeping flows . .
For large Reynolds number flow, the viscous effects are small For large Reynolds number flow, the viscous effects are small
relative to inertial effects and for these cases it may be possi relative to inertial effects and for these cases it may be possible to ble to
neglect the effect of viscosity and consider the problem as one neglect the effect of viscosity and consider the problem as one
involving a involving a nonviscous nonviscous fluid. fluid.
Flows with Flows with large large Reynolds number generally are turbulent. Flows Reynolds number generally are turbulent. Flows
in which the inertia forces are in which the inertia forces are small small compared with the viscous compared with the viscous
forces are characteristically laminar flows forces are characteristically laminar flows. .
Reynolds numberflowcreeping flows
Re>100inertial forceviscous forceviscous
effect
inertial force / viscous force
Reynolds numberturbulent flow
inertial force<viscous forcelaminar flow
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Flow Past an Flat Plate
1/4 1/4
With Re With Re 0.1, the viscous effects are relatively strong and the 0.1, the viscous effects are relatively strong and the
plate affects the uniform upstream flow far ahead, above, below, plate affects the uniform upstream flow far ahead, above, below, and and
behind the plate. In low Reynolds number flows the viscous effec behind the plate. In low Reynolds number flows the viscous effects ts
are felt far from the object in all directions. are felt far from the object in all directions.
Viscous effects
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2/4 2/4
With Re = 10, the region in which With Re = 10, the region in which
viscous effects are important become viscous effects are important become
smaller an all directions except smaller an all directions except
downstream. One does not need to downstream. One does not need to
travel very far ahead, above, or below travel very far ahead, above, or below
the plate to reach areas in which the the plate to reach areas in which the
viscous effects of the plate are not felt. viscous effects of the plate are not felt.
The streamlines are displaced from The streamlines are displaced from
their original uniform upstream their original uniform upstream
conditions, but the displacement is not conditions, but the displacement is not
as great as for the Re=0.1 situation. as great as for the Re=0.1 situation.
Re
viscous effect
21
3/4 3/4
With Re = 10 With Re = 10
7 7
, the flow is dominated by inertial effects and the , the flow is dominated by inertial effects and the
viscous effects are negligible everywhere except in a region ver viscous effects are negligible everywhere except in a region very y
close to the plate and in the relatively thin close to the plate and in the relatively thin wake region wake region behind the behind the
plate. plate.
Since the fluid must stick to the solid surface, there is a thin Since the fluid must stick to the solid surface, there is a thin
boundary layer region of thickness boundary layer region of thickness << << l l next to the plate in which next to the plate in which
the fluid velocity changes from U to zero on the plate. the fluid velocity changes from U to zero on the plate.
The thickness of boundary layer increases in the direction of fl The thickness of boundary layer increases in the direction of flow, ow,
starting from zero at the forward or leading edge of the plate. starting from zero at the forward or leading edge of the plate.
inertial effectviscous effect
0U
leading edge0
22
4/4 4/4
The flow within the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent The flow within the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent
depending on various parameters involved. depending on various parameters involved.
The streamline of the flow outside of the boundary layer are nea The streamline of the flow outside of the boundary layer are nearly rly
parallel to the plate. parallel to the plate.
The existence of the plate has very litter effect on the streaml The existence of the plate has very litter effect on the streamline ine
outside of the boundary layer outside of the boundary layer either ahead, above, and below the either ahead, above, and below the
plate. plate.
LaminarturbulentLaminarTurbulent

23
Flow Past an Circular Cylinder
1/4 1/4
When Re When Re 0.1, the viscous effects are important several diameters in 0.1, the viscous effects are important several diameters in
any direction from the cylinder. A somewhat surprising character any direction from the cylinder. A somewhat surprising characteristic istic
of this flow is that the streamlines are essentially symmetric a of this flow is that the streamlines are essentially symmetric about the bout the
center of the cylinder center of the cylinder- -the streamline pattern is the same in front of the the streamline pattern is the same in front of the
cylinder as it is behind the cylinder. cylinder as it is behind the cylinder.
Re=0.1viscous effect
Flow pattern
24
2/4 2/4
As Reynolds number is increased (Re =50), the region ahead of th As Reynolds number is increased (Re =50), the region ahead of the e
cylinder in which viscous effect are important becomes smaller, cylinder in which viscous effect are important becomes smaller,
with the viscous region extending only a short distance ahead of with the viscous region extending only a short distance ahead of the the
cylinder. cylinder.
The flow separates from the body at the separation point. The flow separates from the body at the separation point.
With the increase in Reynolds number, the fluid inertia becomes With the increase in Reynolds number, the fluid inertia becomes
more important and at the some on the body, denoted the separati more important and at the some on the body, denoted the separation on
location, the fluid location, the fluid s inertia is such that it cannot follow the curved s inertia is such that it cannot follow the curved
path around to the rear of the body. path around to the rear of the body.
viscous effect
inertiafollow
say good-bye
25
3/4 3/4
Some of the fluid is actually flowing Some of the fluid is actually flowing
upstream, against the direction of the upstream, against the direction of the
upstream flow. upstream flow.
Re=50
26
4/4 4/4
With larger Reynolds numbers (Re=10 With larger Reynolds numbers (Re=10
5 5
), the area affected by the ), the area affected by the
viscous forces is forced farther downstream until it involve onl viscous forces is forced farther downstream until it involve only a y a
then ( then ( <<D) boundary layer on the front portion of the cylinder <<D) boundary layer on the front portion of the cylinder
and an irregular, unsteady wake region that extends far downstre and an irregular, unsteady wake region that extends far downstream am
of the cylinder. of the cylinder.
The velocity gradients within the boundary layer and wake region The velocity gradients within the boundary layer and wake regions s
are much larger than those in the remainder of the flow field. are much larger than those in the remainder of the flow field.
Reviscous effect
wake region
27
Example 9.2
Example 9.2
It is desired to determine the various characteristics of flow p It is desired to determine the various characteristics of flow past a ast a
car. The following tests could be carried out: (a) U=20 mm/s flo car. The following tests could be carried out: (a) U=20 mm/s flow of w of
glycerin past a scale mode that is 34 glycerin past a scale mode that is 34- -mm tall, 100 mm tall, 100- -mm long and 40 mm long and 40- -
mm wide, (b) U=20mm/s air flow past the scale model, or (c) mm wide, (b) U=20mm/s air flow past the scale model, or (c)
U=25m/s air flow past the actual car, which is 1.7 U=25m/s air flow past the actual car, which is 1.7- -m tall, 5 m tall, 5- -m long, m long,
and 2 and 2- -m wide. Would the flow characteristics for these three m wide. Would the flow characteristics for these three
situations be similar? Explain. situations be similar? Explain.
28
Example 9.2
Example 9.2
Solution
Solution
The characteristics of flow past an object depend on the Reynolds
number. For this instance we could pick the characteristic length to
be the height, h, width, b, or length, l l , of the car to obtain three
possible Reynolds numbers.
=
l
l
U
Re
Ub
Re
Uh
Re
b h
s / m 10 19 . 1
s / m 10 46 . 1
2 3
glycerin
2 5
air
=
=
29
Prior to
Prior to
Prandtl
Prandtl
Theoretical hydrodynamics evolved from Euler Theoretical hydrodynamics evolved from Euler s equation of s equation of
motion for a motion for a nonviscous nonviscous fluid. (published by Leonhard Euler in fluid. (published by Leonhard Euler in
1755) 1755)
Contradicted many experimental observations. Contradicted many experimental observations.
Practicing engineers developed their own empirical art of Practicing engineers developed their own empirical art of
hydraulics. hydraulics.
Mathematical description of a viscous fluid by Mathematical description of a viscous fluid by Navier Navier- -Stokes Stokes
equations, developed by Navier,1827, and equations, developed by Navier,1827, and independently (extended) independently (extended)
by Stokes, 1845. by Stokes, 1845.
Mathematical difficulties in solving these equations. Mathematical difficulties in solving these equations.
Eulers equation
Navier Stokes equation

Euler equation
No slip
30
Boundary Layer Concepts
Boundary Layer Concepts
Introduced by Ludwig Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl Prandtl, a German aerodynamicist, in 1904. , a German aerodynamicist, in 1904.
Many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into Many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into
two regions, one close to solid boundaries, the other covering t two regions, one close to solid boundaries, the other covering the he
rest of flow. rest of flow.
Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary (the Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary (the
boundary layer) is the effect of viscosity important. boundary layer) is the effect of viscosity important.
In the region outside of the boundary layer, the effect of visco In the region outside of the boundary layer, the effect of viscosity sity
is negligible and the fluid may be treated as is negligible and the fluid may be treated as inviscid inviscid. .
The boundary layer concept permitted the solution of viscous flo The boundary layer concept permitted the solution of viscous flow w
problems that would have been impossible through application of problems that would have been impossible through application of
the the Navier Navier- -Stokes to the complete flow field. Stokes to the complete flow field.
flows
viscous effect
Navier-Stoke equation
31
The flow past an object can be treated as a combination of visco The flow past an object can be treated as a combination of viscous us
flow in the boundary layer and flow in the boundary layer and inviscid inviscid flow elsewhere. flow elsewhere.
Inside the boundary layer Inside the boundary layer the the friction is significant and across the friction is significant and across the
width of which the velocity increases rapidly from zero (at the width of which the velocity increases rapidly from zero (at the
surface) to the value surface) to the value inviscid inviscid flow theory predicts. flow theory predicts.
Outside the boundary layer Outside the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to the flow the velocity gradients normal to the flow
are relatively small, and the fluids acts as if it were are relatively small, and the fluids acts as if it were inviscid inviscid, even , even
though the viscosity is not zero. though the viscosity is not zero.
Boundary layer
frictionzerofree-stream
inviscid fluidviscosity
Boundary layer
32
Boundary Layer on Solid Surface
1/4 1/4
Inviscid Inviscid flow >> No drag >> Unrealistic flow >> No drag >> Unrealistic
By By Pradtl Pradtl in 1904: in 1904:
The no The no- -slip condition requires that the velocity everywhere on slip condition requires that the velocity everywhere on
the surface of the object be zero. the surface of the object be zero.
There will always be a thin boundary layer, in which friction is There will always be a thin boundary layer, in which friction is
significant and across the width of which the velocity increases significant and across the width of which the velocity increases
rapidly from zero (at the surface) to the value rapidly from zero (at the surface) to the value inviscid inviscid flow flow
theory predicts. theory predicts.
Outside of the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to Outside of the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to
the flow are relative small, and the fluid acts as if it were the flow are relative small, and the fluid acts as if it were inviscid inviscid, ,
even though the viscosity is not zero. even though the viscosity is not zero.
No slip condition0
friction0
1904
33
2/4 2/4
Consider the flow over a flat plate as shown, the boundary layer Consider the flow over a flat plate as shown, the boundary layer is is
laminar for a short distance downstream from the leading edge; laminar for a short distance downstream from the leading edge;
transition occurs transition occurs over a region over a region of the plate rather than at a single line of the plate rather than at a single line
across the plate. across the plate.
ReNext page
Laminar Turbulent
34
3/4 3/4
The transition region extends downstream to the location where t The transition region extends downstream to the location where the he
boundary layer flow becomes completely turbulent. boundary layer flow becomes completely turbulent.
For For a finite length plate a finite length plate, it is clear that the plate length, , it is clear that the plate length, l l, , can be can be
used as the characteristic length, with the Reynolds number as used as the characteristic length, with the Reynolds number as
Re=U Re=U l l / / . .
For For the infinitely long flat plate the infinitely long flat plate extending from x=0 to x extending from x=0 to x , it is , it is
not obvious how to define the Reynolds number because there is n not obvious how to define the Reynolds number because there is no o
characteristic length. characteristic length.
Re
Re
Reynolds number Rex
35
4/4 4/4
For the infinitely long flat plate we use x, the coordinate dist For the infinitely long flat plate we use x, the coordinate distance ance
along the plate from the leading edge, as the characteristic len along the plate from the leading edge, as the characteristic length gth
and define the Reynolds number as and define the Reynolds number as Re Re
x x
= =Ux/ Ux/ . .
For any fluid or upstream velocity the Reynolds number will be For any fluid or upstream velocity the Reynolds number will be
sufficiently large for boundary layer type flow if the plate is sufficiently large for boundary layer type flow if the plate is long long
enough. enough.
RexRe
Laminar Laminar Laminar Laminar Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent
Re
36
Boundary Layer Thickness
Boundary Layer Thickness
Standard Boundary layer thickness

Standard Boundary layer thickness
Boundary layer displacement thickness

Boundary layer displacement thickness
Boundary layer momentum thickness

Boundary layer momentum thickness
37
Standard Boundary Layer Thickness
Standard Boundary Layer Thickness
The standard boundary layer thickness is the distance from the p The standard boundary layer thickness is the distance from the plate late
at which the fluid velocity is within some arbitrary value of th at which the fluid velocity is within some arbitrary value of the e
upstream velocity. upstream velocity.
y =
y =

where u=0.99 U
where u=0.99 U
free stream99%
38
Boundary Layer Displacement
Boundary Layer Displacement
Thickness
Thickness
The boundary layer retards the fluid, so that the mass flux and The boundary layer retards the fluid, so that the mass flux and
momentum flux are both less than they would be in the absence of momentum flux are both less than they would be in the absence of
the boundary layer. the boundary layer.
The displacement distance is the distance the plate would be mov The displacement distance is the distance the plate would be moved ed
so that the loss of mass flux (due to reduction in uniform flow so that the loss of mass flux (due to reduction in uniform flow area) area)
is equivalent to the loss the boundary layer causes. is equivalent to the loss the boundary layer causes.
The loss due to the boundary layer The loss due to the boundary layer
dy
U
u
1 *
wdy ) u U ( Uw *
0
0
|
\
|
=
=
mass fluxmomentum
flux
Mass flux ..
Displacement thickness
39
Boundary Layer Momentum
Boundary Layer Momentum
Thickness
Thickness
The momentum thickness is the distance the plate would

The momentum thickness is the distance the plate would
be moved so that the loss of momentum flux is equivalent
be moved so that the loss of momentum flux is equivalent
to the loss the boundary layer actually causes.
to the loss the boundary layer actually causes.
The loss of momentum due to the boundary layer
The loss of momentum due to the boundary layer
dy
U
u
1
U
u
dy ) u U ( wu wU
0
0
2
|
\
|
=
=
Momentum flux..
Momentum flux
Momentum thickness
40
Example 9.3 Boundary Layer
Displacement Thickness
Displacement Thickness
Air flowing into a 2 Air flowing into a 2- -ft ft- -square duct with a uniform velocity of 10 ft/s square duct with a uniform velocity of 10 ft/s
forms a boundary layer on the walls as shown in Figure E9.3. The forms a boundary layer on the walls as shown in Figure E9.3. The
fluid within the core region (outside the boundary layers) flows fluid within the core region (outside the boundary layers) flows as if as if
it were it were inviscid inviscid. From advanced calculations it is determined that for . From advanced calculations it is determined that for
this flow the boundary layer displacement thickness is given by this flow the boundary layer displacement thickness is given by
2 / 1 *
x 0070 . 0 =
Where Where * and x are in * and x are in
feet. Determine the feet. Determine the
velocity U=U(x) of the air velocity U=U(x) of the air
within the duct bout within the duct bout
outside of the boundary outside of the boundary
layer. layer.
41
Example 9.3
Example 9.3
Solution
Solution
The volume flow rate across any section of the duct is equal to The volume flow rate across any section of the duct is equal to that at that at
the entrance (i.e., Q the entrance (i.e., Q
1 1
=Q =Q
2 2
). That is ). That is
= = =
) 2 (
3 2
1 1
udA /s 40ft ) 10ft/s(2ft A U
According to the definition of the displacement thickness, the According to the definition of the displacement thickness, the
flowrate flowrate across section (2) is the same as that for a uniform flow with across section (2) is the same as that for a uniform flow with
velocity U through a duct whose walls have been moved inward by velocity U through a duct whose walls have been moved inward by
* *
s / ft
) x 0070 1 (
10
U
) x 0070 . 0 1 ( U 2 ) 2 ft 2 U( udA /s 40ft
2 2 / 1
2 2 / 1 2 *
) 2 (
3
=
= = =
42
How to Solve Boundary Layer
How to Solve Boundary Layer
How To Solve Boundary Layer
How To Solve Boundary Layer
By
By
Blasius
Blasius
(called
(called
Blasius
Blasius
solution)
solution)
Limited to
Limited to
laminar
laminar
boundary layer only, and for a flat
boundary layer only, and for a flat
plate only ( no pressure variations).
plate only ( no pressure variations).
Momentum integral equation

Used to obtain approximate information on boundary
Used to obtain approximate information on boundary
layer growth for the general case (
layer growth for the general case (
laminar or turbulent
laminar or turbulent
boundary layers, with or without a pressure gradient
boundary layers, with or without a pressure gradient
).
).
boundary layer
laminar
laminarturbulent
43
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
Prandtle Prandtle used boundary layer concept and imposed used boundary layer concept and imposed
approximation (valid for large Reynolds number flows) approximation (valid for large Reynolds number flows)
to simplify the governing to simplify the governing Navier Navier- -Stokes equations. H. Stokes equations. H.
Blasius Blasius (1883 (1883- -1970), one of 1970), one of Prandtl Prandtl s s students, solved students, solved
these simplified equations. these simplified equations.
PrandtleNavier Stokes
equationsPrandtleBlasius
44
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
1/10 1/10
The details of viscous incompressible flow past any object can b The details of viscous incompressible flow past any object can be e
obtained by solving the governing obtained by solving the governing Navier Navier- -Stokes equation. Stokes equation.
For For steady steady, , two dimensional two dimensional laminar flow with laminar flow with negligible negligible
gravitational effects gravitational effects, these equations reduce to the following , these equations reduce to the following
In addition, the conservation of mass In addition, the conservation of mass
No analytical solution
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
v
x
v
y
p 1
y
v
v
x
v
u
y
u
x
u
x
p 1
y
u
v
x
u
u
0
y
v
x
u
=
2D
=constant steady
45
The
The
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes Equations
Stokes Equations
3/5 3/5
Under
Under
incompressible flow with constant viscosity
incompressible flow with constant viscosity
conditions
conditions
,
,
the
the
Navier
Navier
-
-
Stokes equations are reduced to:
Stokes equations are reduced to:
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
|
|
\
|
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
2
2
2
2
2
2
y
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
z
w
y
w
x
w
g
z
p
z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
g
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
g
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
Navier-Stokes equations
constant
Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6
46
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
2/10 2/10
Simplification Simplification . .
Since the boundary layer is thin, it is expected that the co Since the boundary layer is thin, it is expected that the component of mponent of
velocity normal to the plate is much smaller than the parallel t velocity normal to the plate is much smaller than the parallel to the o the
plate and that the rate of change of any parameter across the plate and that the rate of change of any parameter across the
boundary layer should be much greater than that along the flow boundary layer should be much greater than that along the flow
direction. That is direction. That is
v v <<u and <<u and
y x
<<
0
y
v
x
u
=
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
2y
x

no pressure variations no pressure variations
47
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
3/10 3/10
Governing equations
Governing equations
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions
Solution ?
Solution ?
are extremely difficult to obtain.

are extremely difficult to obtain.
Second order partial Second order partial
differential equations differential equations
0
y
u
, U u , y
0 v , 0 u , 0 y
=
= =
= = =
0
y
v
x
u
=
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
+ =
48
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
4/10 4/10
Blasius reduced the partial differential equations to an
ordinary differential equation
The velocity profile, u/U, should be similar for all values of x. Thus
the velocity profile is of the dimensionless form
The boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and
inversely proportional to the square root of U. That is
where
Is an unknown function to be determined. Is an unknown function to be determined.

y
) ( g
U
u
=
2 / 1
U
x
~
|
\
|

u/U
y/u/Uy/
Blasiuspage 54
49
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
5/10 5/10
Set a dimensionless similarity variable
Set a dimensionless similarity variable
The velocity component
The velocity component
Is an unknown function Is an unknown function
to be determined. to be determined.
and the stream function y
x
U
2 / 1
|
\
|
=
) f ' f (
x
U
2
1
] f
x
U
2
1
x
f
xU [
] f
x
U
2
1
x
f
xU [
x
v
2 / 1

|
\
|

=

=
) ( ' Uf ) ( ' f xU
y y
u
x
U
= =

=
) ( f U) x (
1/2
=
stream function
Page 47
50
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
6/10 6/10
2
2
y
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
+ =
0
y
v
x
u
=
0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2

d
f d
f
d
f d
2
2
2
3
3
= + =
2
2
d
f d
x 2
U
x
u
2
2
d
f d
x / U U
y
u
3
3 2
2
2
d
f d
x
U
y
u

=
uvfBlasius
51
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
7/10 7/10
With boundary conditions With boundary conditions
f = f = 0 at = 0
f 1 at
Nonlinear, third Nonlinear, third- -order order
ordinary differential equation ordinary differential equation
Solution ? No analytical solution !
Solution ? No analytical solution !
Easy to integrate to obtain numerical solution
Easy to integrate to obtain numerical solution
Blasius
Blasius
solved it using a power series expansion about
solved it using a power series expansion about

= 0
= 0
Blasius
Blasius
solution
solution
0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2
d
f d
f
d
f d
2
2
2
3
3
= + =
power series expansion
52
Power Series Expansion
Power Series Expansion
Example: Solving
=
=
0 n
n
n
a f

=
0 n
1 n
n
na ' f
Let
0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2
d
f d
f
d
f d
2
2
2
3
3
= + =
=
0 n
2 n
n
a ) 1 n ( n ' ' f
=
0 n
3 n
n
a ) 2 n )( 1 n ( n ' ' ' f
53
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
8/10 8/10
Numerical solution of Numerical solution of
0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2
d
f d
f
d
f d
2
2
2
3
3
= + =
54
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
9/10 9/10
Numerical solution of Numerical solution of
Blasius Blasius boundary layer profile: ( boundary layer profile: (a a) boundary layer profile in dimensionless ) boundary layer profile in dimensionless
form using the similarity variable form using the similarity variable . ( . (b b) similar boundary layer profiles at ) similar boundary layer profiles at
different locations along the flat plate. different locations along the flat plate.
0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2
d
f d
f
d
f d
2
2
2
3
3
= + =
u/U
Table 9.1
2 / 1
U
x
~
|
\
|

55
Prandtle/Blasius
Prandtle/Blasius
Solution
Solution
10/10 10/10
From Table 9.1. We see that at From Table 9.1. We see that at
= 5.0 , u/U=0.992. = 5.0 , u/U=0.992.
x
Re
664 . 0
x
=
Shear stress Shear stress

= / Ux Re
x
x
2
2 / 3
0 y w
Re
U 332 . 0
x
U 332 . 0 |
dy
du
=
= =
=
x x
Re
721 . 1
x
*
Re
0 . 5
/ Ux
0 . 5
x
=
table 9.1
Displacement thickness
Momentum thickness
56
Momentum Integral Equation
Used to obtain approximate
Used to obtain approximate
information on boundary layer growth
information on boundary layer growth
57
1/12 1/12
Consider
Consider
incompressible, steady, two
incompressible, steady, two
-
-
dimensional flow
dimensional flow
over a solid surface.
over a solid surface.
? ) x (
CV
58
2/12 2/12
Assume that the Assume that the pressure is constant pressure is constant throughout the flow field. throughout the flow field.
X X- -component of the momentum equation to the steady flow of fluid component of the momentum equation to the steady flow of fluid
within this control volume within this control volume
For a plate of width b For a plate of width b
dA n V u dA n V u F
) 2 ( ) 1 (
x

+ =
r
r
r
r

= = =
plate
w
plate
w x
dx b dA D F
Where D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid. Where D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid.
pressure = constant
Momentum equation
Steady, 2D
CV
CVPRESSURE = CONSTANT
59
The Linear Momentum Equations
The Linear Momentum Equations
4/4 4/4
For a
For a
fixed and
fixed and
nondeforming
nondeforming
control volume,
control volume, the control the control
volume formulation of Newton volume formulation of Newton s second law s second law

= +
F dA n V V V d V
t
CS CV
r
r
r r r
Contents of the coincident
control volume
Linear momentum equation Linear momentum equation
CV
CV method CV method
mass flow rate mass flow rate
Chapter 5
60
3/12 3/12
Since the plate is solid and the upper surface of the control vo Since the plate is solid and the upper surface of the control volume lume
is a streamline, there is no flow through these area. Thus is a streamline, there is no flow through these area. Thus
The conservation of mass The conservation of mass
( )
=
+ =
0
2 2
) 1 ( ) 2 (
2
dy u b bh U D
dA u dA U U D
h ???
h ???
=
0
udy Uh
=
0
2
Uudy b bh U
Drag on a flat plate is related to Drag on a flat plate is related to
momentum deficit within the momentum deficit within the
boundary layer boundary layer
CVmass flux
b=page 3839w
Ub Ub Ub Ub
61
4/12 4/12
As x increases, As x increases, increases and the drag increases and the drag
increases. increases.
The thickening of the boundary layer is The thickening of the boundary layer is
necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous
shear stress on the plate. shear stress on the plate. (This is contrary to (This is contrary to
horizontal fully developed pipe flow in which horizontal fully developed pipe flow in which
the momentum of the fluid remains constant the momentum of the fluid remains constant
and the shear force is overcome by the and the shear force is overcome by the
pressure gradient along the pipe.) pressure gradient along the pipe.)
dy ) u U ( u b D
0
=
A balance between shear drag
and a decrease in the
momentum of the fluid
Balance
Pipe flow
62
5/12 5/12
By T. von Karman (1881 By T. von Karman (1881- -1963) 1963)
dy ) u U ( u b D
0
=
=
2
bU D
Valid for laminar or turbulent flows Valid for laminar or turbulent flows
dx
d
bU
dx
dD
2

=
w w
b
dx
dD
bdx dD = =
dx
d
U
2
w

=
Momentum integral equation for the Momentum integral equation for the
boundary layer flow on a flat plate boundary layer flow on a flat plate
dy
U
u
1
U
u
0
|
\
|
=

momentum thickness Drag
LaminarTurbulent
x
momentum thickness
63
6/12 6/12
If we knew the detailed velocity profile in the boundary layer ( If we knew the detailed velocity profile in the boundary layer (i.e., i.e.,
the the Blasius Blasius solution), we could evaluate either the drag force or the solution), we could evaluate either the drag force or the
shear stress. shear stress.
u= u=u(x u(x)??? With an assumed velocity profile )??? With an assumed velocity profile in the boundary in the boundary
layer layer to obtain reasonable, approximate boundary layer result. to obtain reasonable, approximate boundary layer result.
The accuracy of the result depends on how closely the shape of The accuracy of the result depends on how closely the shape of
the assumed velocity profile approximates the actual profile. the assumed velocity profile approximates the actual profile.
( )
1 Y 1
U
u
1 Y 0 Y g
U
u
> =
=
B.C. B.C.
1 ) 1 ( g and 0 ) 0 ( g = =
0 y / u , y at
U u , y at
0 u , 0 y at
= =
= =
= =
velocity profile
g(Y)
64
7/12 7/12
g(Y) ? g(Y)=Y (Example 9.4) g(Y) ? g(Y)=Y (Example 9.4)
For a given g(Y), the drag can be determined For a given g(Y), the drag can be determined
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
1
2
1
0
2
0
C bU dY Y g 1 Y g bU dy u U u b D = = =

| |dY ) Y g( 1 ) Y g( C
1
0
1

=
2 0 Y 0 y w
C
U
|
dY
dg U
|
dy
du
= =
= =
0 Y 2
|
dY
dg
C
=
=
g(Y)
65
8/12 8/12
dx
UC
C
d
1
2
=
Integrating Integrating from from =0 at x=0 to give =0 at x=0 to give
x
1 2
1
2
Re
C / C 2
x UC
x C 2
=
=
x
U
2
C C
2 / 3
2 1
w

=
C C
1 1
and C and C
2 2
must be determined must be determined
66
9/12 9/12
Several assumed velocity profiles and the resulting value

Several assumed velocity profiles and the resulting value
of
of
Typical approximate boundary layer profiles Typical approximate boundary layer profiles
used in the momentum integral equation. used in the momentum integral equation.
velocity profile
B.C.
B.C.
67
10/12 10/12
The more closely the assumed shape approximates the actual (i.e. The more closely the assumed shape approximates the actual (i.e., ,
Blasius Blasius) profile, ) profile, the more accurate the more accurate the final results. the final results.
For any assumed profile shape, the functional dependence of For any assumed profile shape, the functional dependence of and and

w w
on the physical parameters on the physical parameters , , , U, and x is the same. Only the , U, and x is the same. Only the
constants are different. That is, constants are different. That is,
2 / 1
U
x
~
|
|
\
|
t tan cons
x
Re
2 / 1
x
=
2 / 1
3
w
x
U
~
|
|
\
|
velocity profile
constant
Table 9.2
68
11/12 11/12
Defining dimensionless local Defining dimensionless local friction coefficient friction coefficient
x
2 1
f
2
w
f
Re
C C 2
c
U
2
1
c =
=
x
U
2
C C
2 / 3
2 1
w

=
( (Blasius Blasius solution) solution)
x
2
w
f
Re
644 . 0
U
2
1
c =
=
Table 9.2
Solution of Momentum Integral Equation vs. Solution of Momentum Integral Equation vs. Blasius Blasius solution solution
69
12/12 12/12
For a flat plate of length For a flat plate of length l ll l l ll l and width b, the net friction drag and width b, the net friction drag D D
f f
and and
frictional drag coefficient frictional drag coefficient C C
Df Df
are defined as are defined as
dx b b U
2
1
C D
0
w
2
Df f

= =
l
l
l
l
l
Re
C C 8
dx c
1
b U
2
1
D
C
2 1
L
0
f
2
f
Df
= =
=

Ux / C C 2 c
2 1 f
=
= / U Re l
l
l
l
l
Re
328 . 1
dx c
1
b U
2
1
D
C
L
0
f
2
f
Df
= =
=

x
f
Re
644 . 0
c =
( (Blasius Blasius solution) solution)
Solution of Momentum Integral Equation vs. Solution of Momentum Integral Equation vs. Blasius Blasius solution solution
70
Example 9.4 Momentum Integral
Example 9.4 Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer Equation
Boundary Layer Equation
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate plate
at y=0. The at y=0. The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as
u= u=Uy/ Uy/ for 0 for 0 y y and u=U for y and u=U for y , as is shown in Figure , as is shown in Figure
E9.4. Determine the shear stress by using the momentum integral E9.4. Determine the shear stress by using the momentum integral
equation. Compare these results with the equation. Compare these results with the Blasius Blasius results given by results given by
x
U 332 . 0
2 / 3
w

=
velocity profile
71
Example 9.4
Example 9.4
Solution
Solution
The shear stress is given by The shear stress is given by
dx
d
U
2
w

=
0 y
w
y
u
=
=
For laminar flow
=
U
w
For the assumed velocity profile
6
dy
y
1
y
... dy
U
u
1
U
u
0 0
=
|
\
|
= =
|
\
|
=

dx
d
U
2
w

=
=
U
w
6
=
x
U 289 . 0
U
x
46 . 3
dx
U
6
d
dx
d
6
U U
2 / 3
w
2
=

=
72
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent
1/5 1/5
Above analytical results agree quite well with Above analytical results agree quite well with experimental results experimental results
up to a point where the boundary layer flow becomes turbulent up to a point where the boundary layer flow becomes turbulent, ,
which will occur for any which will occur for any freestream freestream velocity and any fluid provided velocity and any fluid provided
the plate is long enough. the plate is long enough.
The parameter that governs the transition to turbulent flow is t The parameter that governs the transition to turbulent flow is the he
Reynolds numbers Reynolds numbers in this case, in this case, the Reynolds number based on the the Reynolds number based on the
distance from the leading edge of the plate, Re distance from the leading edge of the plate, Re
x x
= =Ux Ux/ / . .
The value of the Reynolds number at the transition location is a The value of the Reynolds number at the transition location is a
rather rather complex function of various parameters involved, complex function of various parameters involved, including including
the roughness of the surface, the curvature of the surface, and the roughness of the surface, the curvature of the surface, and some some
measure of the disturbances in the flow outside the boundary lay measure of the disturbances in the flow outside the boundary layer er. .
Reynolds numbertransition
Re
73
2/5 2/5
On a flat plate with a sharp leading edge in a typical air On a flat plate with a sharp leading edge in a typical air- -stream, the stream, the
transition takes place at a distance x from the leading edge giv transition takes place at a distance x from the leading edge given by en by
Re Re
xcr xcr
=2 =2 10 10
5 5
to 3 to 3 10 10
6 6
. . Re Re
xcr xcr
=5 =5 10 10
5 5
is used. is used.
The actual transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer f The actual transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow low
may occur may occur over a region of the plate, not a specific single location over a region of the plate, not a specific single location. .
Typical, the transition begins at random location on the plate i Typical, the transition begins at random location on the plate in the n the
vicinity of Re vicinity of Re
x x
= = Re Re
xcr xcr
The complex process of transition from laminar to turbulent flow The complex process of transition from laminar to turbulent flow
involves the instability of the flow filed. involves the instability of the flow filed.
sharp leading edge
74
3/5 3/5
Small disturbances imposed on the boundary layer flow will eithe Small disturbances imposed on the boundary layer flow will either r
grow or decay, depending on where the disturbance is introduced grow or decay, depending on where the disturbance is introduced
into the flow. into the flow.
If the disturbances occur at a location with Re If the disturbances occur at a location with Re
x x
< <Re Re
xcr xcr
, they will , they will
die out, and the boundary layer will return to laminar flow at t die out, and the boundary layer will return to laminar flow at that hat
location. location.
If the disturbances occur at a location with Re If the disturbances occur at a location with Re
x x
> >Re Re
xcr xcr
, they will , they will
grow and transform the boundary layer flow downstream of this grow and transform the boundary layer flow downstream of this
location into turbulence. location into turbulence.
The boundary layer on a flat plate will become
The boundary layer on a flat plate will become
turbulent
turbulent
if the plate is long enough.
if the plate is long enough.
Disturbance
Rex < Rexcr
Rex < Rexcr
75
4/5 4/5
Transition process
Turbulent spots and the transition from laminar
to turbulent boundary layer flow on a flat plate.
Flow from left to right
76
5/5 5/5
Flatter Flatter
Transition from laminar to turbulent Transition from laminar to turbulent
flow involves flow involves a noticeable change a noticeable change
in the shape of the boundary in the shape of the boundary
layer velocity profiles layer velocity profiles. .
The turbulent profiles are flatter, The turbulent profiles are flatter,
have a large velocity gradient at the have a large velocity gradient at the
wall, and produce a larger boundary wall, and produce a larger boundary
layer thickness than do the laminar layer thickness than do the laminar
profiles. profiles.
boundary layer velocity profiles boundary layer velocity profiles
on a flat plate for laminar, on a flat plate for laminar,
transitional, and turbulent flow. transitional, and turbulent flow.
velocity profile
77
Transition
Transition
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 10ft/s. 10ft/s.
At approximately what location will be boundary layer become At approximately what location will be boundary layer become
turbulent, and how thick the boundary layer at that point if the turbulent, and how thick the boundary layer at that point if the fluid fluid
is (a) water at 60 is (a) water at 60 , (b) standard air, or (c) glycerin at 68 , (b) standard air, or (c) glycerin at 68 ? ?
78
Example 9.5
Example 9.5
Solution
Solution
For any fluid, the laminar boundary layer thickness For any fluid, the laminar boundary layer thickness
U
x
5

=
U
Re
x
xcr
cr

=
The boundary layer remains laminar up to
If we assume
5
xcr
10 5 Re =
= =
4
cr
10 5 ... x
= = 354 ...
cr
79
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Flow
Flow
How to get solution
80
Characteristic
Characteristic
The structure of turbulent boundary layer flow is very The structure of turbulent boundary layer flow is very complex, complex,
random, and irregular. random, and irregular.
The velocity at any location in the turbulent flow is The velocity at any location in the turbulent flow is unsteady unsteady in a in a
random fashion. random fashion.
The flow can be thought of as The flow can be thought of as a jumbled mix of intertwined, a jumbled mix of intertwined,
finite finite- -sized eddies (or swirls) sized eddies (or swirls) considerably more than is considerably more than is
associated with the mixing found in laminar flow where it is associated with the mixing found in laminar flow where it is
confined to the molecular scale. confined to the molecular scale.
flow
flowunsteadyrandom fashion
jumbled mix of intertwined, finite jumbled mix of intertwined, finite- -sized eddies sized eddies
(or swirls) (or swirls)
Laminar flow
81
Momentum Transfer
Momentum Transfer
1/2 1/2
Although there is considerable random motion of fluid particles Although there is considerable random motion of fluid particles
perpendicular to the plate, there is very little net transfer of perpendicular to the plate, there is very little net transfer of mass mass
across the boundary layer across the boundary layer the largest the largest flowrate flowrate by far is parallel by far is parallel
to the plate to the plate. .
Momentum? There is, however, a considerable net transfer of x Momentum? There is, however, a considerable net transfer of x
component of component of momentum momentum perpendicular to the plate because of the perpendicular to the plate because of the
random motion of the particle. random motion of the particle.
Fluid particles moving toward the plate (in the Fluid particles moving toward the plate (in the y direction) have y direction) have
some of their excess momentum (come from higher velocity area) some of their excess momentum (come from higher velocity area)
removed by the plate. removed by the plate.
82
Momentum Transfer
Momentum Transfer
2/2 2/2
Conversely, particles moving away from plate gain momentum from Conversely, particles moving away from plate gain momentum from
the fluid. The net result is that the plate acts as a momentum s the fluid. The net result is that the plate acts as a momentum sink, ink,
continually extracting momentum from the fluid. continually extracting momentum from the fluid.
For laminar flows, such cross For laminar flows, such cross- -stream transfer of these properties stream transfer of these properties
takes place solely on the molecular scale. takes place solely on the molecular scale.
For turbulent flow the randomness is associated with fluid parti For turbulent flow the randomness is associated with fluid particle cle
mixing. mixing.
Consequently, Consequently, the shear force for turbulent boundary layer flow the shear force for turbulent boundary layer flow
is considerably greater than it is for laminar boundary layer is considerably greater than it is for laminar boundary layer
flow flow. .
83
How to Get Solution
How to Get Solution
1/4 1/4
Since there is no precision expression for the shear stress in t Since there is no precision expression for the shear stress in the he
turbulent flow, turbulent flow,
there are no
there are no
exact
exact
solutions for turbulent

solutions for turbulent
boundary layer flows.
boundary layer flows.
Approximate results can be obtained by use of the momentum Approximate results can be obtained by use of the momentum
integral equation, which is valid for either laminar or turbulen integral equation, which is valid for either laminar or turbulent flow. t flow.
Reasonable approximations to the velocity profile, u= Reasonable approximations to the velocity profile, u=Ug(Y Ug(Y). ).
Empirical relationship for the wall shear stress. Empirical relationship for the wall shear stress.
shear stress
exact solution
velocity profile u/U = g(Y)
wall shear stress
84
How to Get Solution
How to Get Solution
2/4 2/4
Momentum integral equation ? Momentum integral equation ?
Giving a reasonable Giving a reasonable
approximations to the approximations to the
velocity profile u= velocity profile u=Ug(Y Ug(Y), ),
where Y=y/ where Y=y/ and u is the and u is the
time time- -averaged velocity. averaged velocity.
Frictional drag coefficient Frictional drag coefficient C C
Df Df
? ?
|
\
|

=
l
l
, Re C
Df
Friction drag coefficient for a flat Friction drag coefficient for a flat
plate parallel to the upstream flow plate parallel to the upstream flow
Page 87 Page 87 Page 87 Page 87
Dimensional analysis
Note
85
How to Get Solution
How to Get Solution
3/4 3/4
The mechanisms governing the flow The mechanisms governing the flow
Fully developed horizontal Fully developed horizontal pipe flow pipe flow: A balance between : A balance between
pressure forces and viscous forces pressure forces and viscous forces. The fluid inertia remains . The fluid inertia remains
constant throughout the flow. constant throughout the flow.
Boundary layer Boundary layer flow on a horizontal plate flow on a horizontal plate: A balance between : A balance between
inertia effects and viscous forces. The pressure remains constan inertia effects and viscous forces. The pressure remains constant t
throughout the flows. throughout the flows.
constant
86
How to Get Solution
How to Get Solution
4/4 4/4
Empirical Equations for the Flat Plate Drag Coefficient Empirical Equations for the Flat Plate Drag Coefficient
Page 69
Note
87
NEXT
NEXT
? ......
y
f
U
u
=
|
\
|
=
Reasonable assumption ?
Reasonable assumption ?
velocity profile velocity profile velocity profile velocity profile
velocity profile
88
Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow
1/3 1/3
A reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is polynomial i A reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is polynomial in y: n y:
0 y / u , y at
U u , y at 0 u , 0 y at
= =
= = = =

The assumed velocity distribution satisfy B.C. The assumed velocity distribution satisfy B.C.
a? b? c? a? b? c?
2
cy by a u + + =
2
2
2
y y
2
U
u
=
|
\
|
\
|
BCabc
89
Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow
2/3 2/3
Obtain an expression for

Obtain an expression for

w w
in term of
in term of
2
2
2
y y
2
U
u
=
|
\
|
\
|
\
|

=
1
0
2
w
d
U
u
1
U
u
dx
d
U
= =
=
=
U 2
...
y
u
0 y
w
c x
U
15
2
dx
d
15
2
... d
U
u
1
U
u
dx
d
U
U 2
2
1
0
2
+
= =
|
\
|

dx
d
U
2
w

=
dy
U
u
1
U
u
0
|
\
|
=

Page 62
= / Ux Re
x
90
Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow
3/3 3/3
x
Re
48 . 5
x
=
x
2
2
1
w
f
Re
73 . 0
U
c =
=
NOTEBlasius solution
91
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Flow
1/2 1/2
A reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is polynomial i A reasonable assumption for the velocity profile is polynomial in y: n y:
Obtain an expression for Obtain an expression for
w w
in term of in term of
1/7 1/7- -Power Law Profile Power Law Profile
\
|

=
1
0
2
w
d
U
u
1
U
u
dx
d
U
7 / 1
7 / 1
y
U
u
=
|
\
|
=
7 / 1
7 / 1
y
U
u
=
|
\
|
=
25 . 0
2
25 . 0
2
w
U
U 0233 . 0
V R
V 0332 . 0
|
\
|
=
|
\
|

=
92
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Flow
2/2 2/2
for
for
7
x
5
10 Re 10 5 < <
c x
U
240 . 0
5
4
....
d ) 1 (
dx
d
U
U
U 0233 . 0
4 / 1
4 / 5
7 / 1
1
0
7 / 1 2
25 . 0
2
+
|
\
|

=

=
|
\
|

5 / 1
x
Re
382 . 0
x
=
5 / 1
x
2
2
1
w
f
Re
0594 . 0
U
c =
=
93
Laminar vs. Turbulent
Laminar vs. Turbulent
For laminar flow For laminar flow
For turbulent flow For turbulent flow
The turbulent boundary layer develops more rapidly than The turbulent boundary layer develops more rapidly than
the laminar boundary layer. the laminar boundary layer.
Wall shear stress is much higher in the turbulent boundary Wall shear stress is much higher in the turbulent boundary
layer than in the laminar layer. layer than in the laminar layer.
5 / 1
x
Re
382 . 0
x
=
5 / 1
x
2
2
1
w
f
Re
0594 . 0
U
c =
=
x
Re
48 . 5
x
=
x
2
2
1
w
f
Re
73 . 0
U
c =
=
velocity profile velocity profile velocity profile velocity profile

Shear stress
94
Example 9.6 Turbulent Boundary
Layer Properties
Layer Properties
1/2 1/2
Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat p Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate. late.
The boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/ The boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/ ) )
1/7 1/7
= Y = Y
1/7 1/7
for Y=y/ for Y=y/ 1 and u=U for Y 1 and u=U for Y 1, as is shown in Figure E9.6. 1, as is shown in Figure E9.6.
This is a reasonable approximation of experimentally observed This is a reasonable approximation of experimentally observed
profiles, except very near the plate where this formula gives profiles, except very near the plate where this formula gives u/ u/
y= y= at y=0. Note the difference between the assumed turbulent at y=0. Note the difference between the assumed turbulent
profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stre profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stress ss
agrees with the experimentally determined formula. Determine the agrees with the experimentally determined formula. Determine the
boundary layer thickness boundary layer thickness , , *, and *, and and the wall shear stress, and the wall shear stress,

w w
, as a function of x. Determine the friction drag coefficient, , as a function of x. Determine the friction drag coefficient, C C
Df Df
. .
4 / 1
2 / 3
w
U
U 0225 . 0
|
\
|
=
95
Layer Properties
Layer Properties
2/2 2/2
96
Example 9.6
Example 9.6
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
Whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, it is true that the dr Whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, it is true that the drag force ag force
is accounted for by a reduction in the momentum of the fluid flo is accounted for by a reduction in the momentum of the fluid flowing wing
past the plate. The shear stress is given by past the plate. The shear stress is given by
dx
d
U
2
w

=
=
|
\
|
= =
|
\
|
=

72
7
dY
U
u
1
U
u
... dy
U
u
1
U
u
1
0 0
7 / 1
Y
U
u
=
dx
U
231 . 0 d
dx
d
U
72
7
U
U 0225 . 0
4 / 1
4 / 1 2
4 / 1
2
|
\
|

=
=
|
\
|
5 / 1
x
5 / 4
5 / 1
Re
370 . 0
x
x
U
370 . 0 =
\
|

=
97
Example 9.6
Example 9.6
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
The displacement thickness, The displacement thickness, *, and the momentum thickness *, and the momentum thickness
5 / 1
x
2
w
5 / 4
5 / 1
5 / 4
5 / 1
0
*
Re
U 0288 . 0
... x
U
0360 . 0
72
7
...
x
U
0463 . 0
8
... dy
U
u
1
= =
|
\
|

=
= =
|
\
|

=
= =
|
\
|
=

The friction drag and the corresponding friction drag coefficien The friction drag and the corresponding friction drag coefficient t C C
Df Df
5 / 1 2
2
1
f
Df
5 / 1
2
5 / 1
2
0
w f
Re
0720 . 0
A U
D
C
Re
A
U 0360 . 0
Re
b
U 0360 . 0 ... dx b D
l
l l
l
l
=
=
= = = =
98
Example 9.7 Drag on a Flat Plate
Example 9.7 Drag on a Flat Plate
The water ski shown in Figure E9.7a moves through 70 The water ski shown in Figure E9.7a moves through 70 water water
with a velocity U. Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress with a velocity U. Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress on on
the bottom of the ski for 0<U<30ft/s. the bottom of the ski for 0<U<30ft/s.
99
Example 9.7
Example 9.7
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
The friction drag, D, caused by the shear stress on the bottom o The friction drag, D, caused by the shear stress on the bottom of the f the
ski can be determined as ski can be determined as
Df
2
Df
2 3
Df
2
f
C U 95 . 1
C U ) ft 4 ft 5 . 0 )( ft / slugs 94 . 1 (
2
1
C b U
2
1
D
=
= = l
U 10 80 . 3 ...
U
Re
5
= =
=
l
l
100
Example 9.7
Example 9.7
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
With U=10 ft/s, With U=10 ft/s,
00308 . 0 Re / 1700 ) Re /(log 455 . 0 C
58 . 2
f
D
= =
l l
6
10 80 . 3 ...
U
Re = =
=
l
l
From Table 9.3 From Table 9.3
lb 598 . 0 ) 00308 . 0 ( ) 10 ( 95 . 1 D
2
f
= =
101
Effects of Pressure Gradient
Effects of Pressure Gradient
102
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
Inviscid
Inviscid
Flow
Flow
1/2 1/2
For For inviscid inviscid flow past a circular flow past a circular
cylinder, the fluid velocity along the cylinder, the fluid velocity along the
surface would vary from surface would vary from U U
fs fs
=0 at the =0 at the
very front and rear of the cylinder to a very front and rear of the cylinder to a
maximum of maximum of U U
fs fs
=2U at the top and =2U at the top and
bottom of the cylinder. bottom of the cylinder.
The pressure on the surface of the The pressure on the surface of the
cylinder would be symmetrical about cylinder would be symmetrical about
the vertical the vertical midplane midplane of the cylinder. of the cylinder.
Favorable pressure Favorable pressure
gradient gradient
Adverse pressure gradient Adverse pressure gradient
pressure gradient
103
Inviscid
Inviscid
Flow
Flow
2/2 2/2
The drag on the cylinder is zero. The drag on the cylinder is zero.
No matter how small the viscosity, there will be a boundary laye No matter how small the viscosity, there will be a boundary layer r
that separates from the surface, giving a drag that is independe that separates from the surface, giving a drag that is independent of nt of
the value of the value of . .
This leads to what has been termed This leads to what has been termed
d d Alembert Alembert s s paradox paradox, the drag on an , the drag on an
object in an object in an inviscid inviscid fluid is zero, but fluid is zero, but
the drag on an object in a fluid the drag on an object in a fluid with with
vanishingly small (nut vanishingly small (nut nozero nozero) )
viscosity viscosity is not zero is not zero. .
104
Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow
1/5 1/5
Consider a fluid particle within Consider a fluid particle within
the boundary layer. In its attempt the boundary layer. In its attempt
to flow from A to F. to flow from A to F.
Because of the viscous effects Because of the viscous effects
involved, the particle in the involved, the particle in the
boundary layer experiences boundary layer experiences a loss a loss
of energy of energy as it flow along. as it flow along.
This loss means that This loss means that the particle the particle
does not have enough energy to does not have enough energy to
coast all of the way to the coast all of the way to the
pressure hill pressure hill (from C to F) and to (from C to F) and to
reach point F at the rear of the reach point F at the rear of the
cylinder. cylinder.
AF
CF
CFpressure hill
105
Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow
2/5 2/5
The kinetic energy deficit is seen in the velocity profile detai The kinetic energy deficit is seen in the velocity profile detail at l at
Point C. Point C.
The situation is similar to a bicyclist coasting down a hill and The situation is similar to a bicyclist coasting down a hill and up up
the other side of the valley. If there were no friction the ride the other side of the valley. If there were no friction the rider r
starting with zero speed could reach the same height from which starting with zero speed could reach the same height from which
he started. Clearly friction, making it impossible for a rider t he started. Clearly friction, making it impossible for a rider to o
reach the height from which he started without supplying reach the height from which he started without supplying
additional energy. additional energy.
The fluid within the boundary layer The fluid within the boundary layer does not have such an energy does not have such an energy
supply supply. Thus, the fluid flows . Thus, the fluid flows against the increasing pressure against the increasing pressure as far as as far as
it can, at which point the boundary layer it can, at which point the boundary layer separates from separates from (lifts off) (lifts off)
the surface. the surface.
Cvelocity profile
hill valley hill
separation
106
Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow
3/5 3/5
At the separation location D, At the separation location D, the velocity gradient at the wall and the velocity gradient at the wall and
the wall shear stress are zero the wall shear stress are zero. .
Beyond that separation location (from D to E) there is Beyond that separation location (from D to E) there is reverse flow reverse flow
in the boundary layer. in the boundary layer.
Because of the boundary layer separation, the average pressure o Because of the boundary layer separation, the average pressure on n
the rear half of the cylinder is considerably less than on the f the rear half of the cylinder is considerably less than on the front ront
half. half.
Thus, a large pressure drag is developed, even though the viscou Thus, a large pressure drag is developed, even though the viscous s
shear drag may be quite small. shear drag may be quite small.
D0wall shear stress0
DEreverse flow
separation
viscous shear drag
separation
107
Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow
4/5 4/5
The location of separation, the width of the wake region behind The location of separation, the width of the wake region behind the the
object, and the pressure distribution on the surface depend on t object, and the pressure distribution on the surface depend on the he
nature of the boundary layer flow. nature of the boundary layer flow.
Compared with a laminar boundary layer, the turbulent layer flow Compared with a laminar boundary layer, the turbulent layer flow
has more kinetic energy and momentum. Thus, has more kinetic energy and momentum. Thus, the turbulent the turbulent
boundary layer can flow farther around the cylinder before it boundary layer can flow farther around the cylinder before it
separates than can the laminar boundary layer separates than can the laminar boundary layer. .
wake region
flow
kinetic energy
108
Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow
5/5 5/5
The momentum flux within The momentum flux within
the turbulent boundary layer is the turbulent boundary layer is
greater than within the laminar greater than within the laminar
layer. layer.
The turbulent layer is better The turbulent layer is better
able to resist separation in an able to resist separation in an
adverse pressure gradient. adverse pressure gradient.
Separation occurs Separation occurs
when the momentum when the momentum
of fluid layers near of fluid layers near
the surface is reduced the surface is reduced
to zero by the to zero by the
combined action of combined action of
pressure and viscous pressure and viscous
forces. forces.
flow
adverse pressure
gradient
109
Flow Past an airfoil
Flow Past an airfoil
Flow visualization
Flow visualization
photographs of flow
photographs of flow
past an airfoil:
past an airfoil:
(
(
a
a
)
)
zero angle of attack,
zero angle of attack,
no separation, (
no separation, (
b
b
) 5
) 5
angle of attack, flow

angle of attack, flow
separation.
separation.
separation
5
110
Momentum Integral Boundary Layer
Equation with Nonzero
p/
p/
x
x
1/2 1/2
From the Bernoulli equation with negligible gravitational effect From the Bernoulli equation with negligible gravitational effects, s,
p+ p+ U U
2 2
fs fs
(x) is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary (x) is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary
layer. Thus layer. Thus
dx
dU
U
dx
dp
fs
fs
=
) x ( U U
fs fs
=

= +
F dA n V V V d V
t
CS CV
r
r
r r r
Contents of the coincident
control volume
Linear momentum equation Linear momentum equation
Momentum Integral Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer Equation Boundary Layer Equation
( )
dx
dU
U U
dx
d
fs
fs
* 2
fs w
+ =
111
p/
p/
x
x
2/2 2/2
( )
dx
dU
U U
dx
d
fs
fs
* 2
fs w
+ =
dx
d
U
2
w

=
Constant pressure Constant pressure
boundary layer flows. boundary layer flows.
dx
dU
U
dx
dp
fs
fs
=
U U
fs fs
=U=constant =U=constant
112
NEXT
NEXT
DRAG
DRAG
Friction Drag
Friction Drag
Pressure Drag
Pressure Drag
Drag Coefficient Data and Examples

Drag Coefficient Data and Examples
LIFT
LIFT
113
DRAG
DRAG
Drag D is the component of force on a body acting parallel to
the direction of relative motion.
The drag coefficient C C
D D
The drag coefficient is a function of object shape, Reynolds
number, Re, Mach number, Ma, Froude number, Fr, and
relative roughness of the surface,
Where Where A A is the cross sectional area. is the cross sectional area.

+ = = = dA sin dA cos p dF D Drag
w x
A U
2
1
D
C
2
D
=
) , Ma , Fr Re, , shape ( f C
D
l
=
l /
114
Friction Drag
Friction Drag
Friction drag is due directly to the shear stress on the object Friction drag is due directly to the shear stress on the object
CDf = f (shear stress, orientation of the surface on which it acts)
is the friction drag coefficient. is the friction drag coefficient.
Df
2
f
C b U
2
1
D l =
A U
2
1
D
C
2
f
Df
=
l
l
U
Re ) / , (Re f C
f D
l
l
=
115
Example 9.8 Drag Coefficient Based
on Friction Drag
on Friction Drag
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder
shown in Figure E9.8a. According to a more advanced theory of shown in Figure E9.8a. According to a more advanced theory of
boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the
cylinder up to the separation location at cylinder up to the separation location at ~108.8 ~108.8 , with the , with the
dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Figure E9.8b. dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Figure E9.8b. The The
shear stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8< shear stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8< <180 <180 , is , is
negligible. Determine negligible. Determine C C
Df Df
, the drag coefficient for the cylinder based , the drag coefficient for the cylinder based
on the friction drag only. on the friction drag only.
116
Example 9.8
Example 9.8
Solution
Solution
The friction drag, The friction drag, D D
f f
, can be determined as , can be determined as

|
\
|
= =
0
w w f
d sin b
2
D
2 dA sin D

=
=
0 0
2
2
1
w
0
2
2
1
w
0
w
2
2
f
Df
d sin ) ( F
Re
1
d sin
U
Re
Re
1
d sin
U
d sin
U
2
bD U
2
1
D
C
2
2
1
w
U
Re
) ( F
=
5.93
Re
93 . 5
C
Df
=
117
Pressure Drag (Form Drag)
Pressure Drag (Form Drag)
Pressure drag is due directly to the pressure on the object. Pressure drag is due directly to the pressure on the object.
The pressure drag coefficient The pressure drag coefficient
C
C
Dp Dp
= dA cos p D
p
A
dA cos C
A U
2
1
dA cos p
A U
2
1
D
C
p
2 2
p
Dp

=
=
) 2 / U /( ) p p ( C
2
0 p
=
) / , (Re f C
Dp
l
l
=
Dynamic pressure Dynamic pressure
118
on Pressure Drag
on Pressure Drag
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder
shown in Figure E9.8a. The pressure coefficient on the surface o shown in Figure E9.8a. The pressure coefficient on the surface of f
the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is a the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as s
indicated in Figure E9.9a. Determine the pressure drag coefficie indicated in Figure E9.9a. Determine the pressure drag coefficient nt
for this flow. Combine the result of Example 9.8 and 9.9 to for this flow. Combine the result of Example 9.8 and 9.9 to
determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder. Compare determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder. Compare your your
results with those given Figure 9.21. results with those given Figure 9.21.
119
Example 9.9
Example 9.9
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
The pressure drag coefficient, The pressure drag coefficient, C C
Dp Dp
, can be , can be
determined as determined as
\
|
=
=
2
0
p
p
Dp
d
2
D
b cos C
bD
1
A
dA cos C
C
=
0
p Dp
d cos C C
Symmetry Symmetry
C C
Dp Dp
can be obtained by some numerical integration scheme or by can be obtained by some numerical integration scheme or by
determining the area under the curve in Figure E9.9(b). determining the area under the curve in Figure E9.9(b).
17 . 1 C
Dp
=
120
Example 9.9
Example 9.9
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
The net drag on the cylinder is the sum of friction and pressure The net drag on the cylinder is the sum of friction and pressure drag drag
17 . 1
Re
93 . 5
C C C
Dp Df D
+ = + =
This result is compared with the standard experimental value (ob This result is compared with the standard experimental value (obtained tained
from Figure 9.21) in Figure E9.9c. from Figure 9.21) in Figure E9.9c.
Eq. 2 Eq. 2
121
Drag Coefficient Data and
Drag Coefficient Data and
Example
Example
D
l
=
122
C
CD D
Shape Dependence
Shape Dependence
The drag coefficient for an The drag coefficient for an
object depends on the shape object depends on the shape
of the object, with shapes of the object, with shapes
ranging from those that are ranging from those that are
streamlined to those that are streamlined to those that are
blunt. blunt.
Drag coefficient for an Drag coefficient for an
ellipse with the characteristic ellipse with the characteristic
area either the frontal area, area either the frontal area,
A= A=bD bD, or the , or the planform planform area, area,
A=b A=bl ll l l ll l. .
123
C
CD D
Shape Dependence
Shape Dependence
Two objects of considerably different size that have the same dr Two objects of considerably different size that have the same drag ag
force: (a) circular cylinder C force: (a) circular cylinder CD D=1.2, (b) streamlined strut C =1.2, (b) streamlined strut CD D=0.12 =0.12
Drag forceshape
Drag force
Drag coefficient
124
C
CD D
Reynolds Number Dependence

The main categories of Reynolds number dependence are (1) very The main categories of Reynolds number dependence are (1) very
low Reynolds number flow, (2) Moderate Reynolds number flow, low Reynolds number flow, (2) Moderate Reynolds number flow,
and (3) very large Reynolds number flow. and (3) very large Reynolds number flow.
For Low Reynolds number flows (Re<1) For Low Reynolds number flows (Re<1)
For moderate Reynolds number For moderate Reynolds number
U C D l =
) , , U ( f D = l
Dimensional analysis
Re
C 2
U
U C 2
U
D
C
2 2 2 2
2
1
D
=
=
l
l
l
2 / 1
D
Re ~ C
Re
Re
125
C
CD D

Drag coefficient Drag coefficient
for low Reynolds number
for low Reynolds number flow past a variety flow past a variety
of objects. of objects.
Re
126
C
CD D

Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds numb Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number er
for a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere. for a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere.
The drag coefficient The drag coefficient
decreases when the decreases when the
boundary layer becomes boundary layer becomes
turbulent. turbulent.
The turbulent boundary layer travels The turbulent boundary layer travels
further along the surface into the further along the surface into the
adverse pressure gradient on the rear adverse pressure gradient on the rear
portion of the cylinder before portion of the cylinder before
separation occurs. This results a separation occurs. This results a
thinner wake ,small pressure drag ,and thinner wake ,small pressure drag ,and
sudden decrease in C sudden decrease in CD D. .
Re CD
E
WAKE
AE
127
Flow Patterns for Various Reynolds
Flow Patterns for Various Reynolds
Numbers
Numbers
The structure of the flow

The structure of the flow
field at selected Reynolds
field at selected Reynolds
number.
number.
Re
Wake regionRe
pressure drag
128
C
CD D

Character of the drag Character of the drag
coefficient as a function of coefficient as a function of
Reynolds number for objects Reynolds number for objects
with various degrees of with various degrees of
streamlining, from a flat plate streamlining, from a flat plate
normal to the upstream flow to normal to the upstream flow to
a flat plate parallel to the flow. a flat plate parallel to the flow.
CDRe
129
Example 9.10 Low Reynolds Number
Example 9.10 Low Reynolds Number
Flow Drag
Flow Drag
A small grain of sand, diameter D=0.10 mm A small grain of sand, diameter D=0.10 mm
and specific gravity SG=2.3, settles to the and specific gravity SG=2.3, settles to the
bottom of a lake after having been stirred up bottom of a lake after having been stirred up
by a passing boat. Determine how fast it falls by a passing boat. Determine how fast it falls
through the still water. through the still water.
130
Example 9.10
Example 9.10
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
A free A free- -body diagram of the particle (relative to the moving particle) body diagram of the particle (relative to the moving particle)
is shown in Figure E9.10a. The particle moves downward with a is shown in Figure E9.10a. The particle moves downward with a
constant velocity U that is governed by a balance between the we constant velocity U that is governed by a balance between the weight ight
of the particle, W, the buoyancy force of the surrounding water, of the particle, W, the buoyancy force of the surrounding water, F F
B B
, ,
and the drag of the water on the particle, D. and the drag of the water on the particle, D.
3
O H O H B
3
O H sand
B
D
6
V F
D
6
SG V W
F D W
2 2
2
= =
= =
+ =
UD 3 ... C D
4
U
2
1
D
O H D
2 2
O H
2 2
= =
=
s / m 10 32 . 6
18
gD ) 1 SG (
U
D
6
UD 3 D
6
SG
3
2
O H
3
O H O H
3
O H
2
2 2 2
+ =
131
Example 9.10
Example 9.10
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
Since Since
1 564 . 0
DU
Re < =
=
The form of the drag coefficient used is valid. The form of the drag coefficient used is valid.
By repeating the calculations for various particle diameters, D, By repeating the calculations for various particle diameters, D, the the
result shown in Figure E9.10b are obtained. result shown in Figure E9.10b are obtained.
132
Example 9.11 Terminal Velocity of a
Example 9.11 Terminal Velocity of a
Falling Object
Falling Object
Hail is produced by the repeated rising and falling of ice parti Hail is produced by the repeated rising and falling of ice particles in cles in
the updraft of a thunderstorm, as is indicated in Figure E9.11a. the updraft of a thunderstorm, as is indicated in Figure E9.11a. When When
the hail becomes large enough, the aerodynamic drag from the the hail becomes large enough, the aerodynamic drag from the
updraft can no longer support the weight of the hail, and it fal updraft can no longer support the weight of the hail, and it falls from ls from
the storm cloud. Estimate the velocity, U, of the updraft needed the storm cloud. Estimate the velocity, U, of the updraft needed to to
make D=1.5 make D=1.5- -in in- -diameter (i.e., diameter (i.e., golf ball golf ball- -sized sized ) hail. ) hail.
133
Example 9.11
Example 9.11
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
For steady For steady- -state conditions a force balance on an object falling state conditions a force balance on an object falling
through a fluid at its terminal velocity, U, gives through a fluid at its terminal velocity, U, gives
V W V F
F D W
ice air B
B
= =
+ =
D
2 2
air B
C D
4
U
2
1
F W

=
D
2 / 1
D air
ice
C
5 . 64
C
gD
3
4
U =
|
|
\
|
=
3
D
6
V

=
To determine U, we must know CD. To determine U, we must know CD.
Unfortunately, C Unfortunately, C
D D
is a function of is a function of
the Reynolds number, which is not the Reynolds number, which is not
known unless U is known. known unless U is known.
134
Example 9.11
Example 9.11
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
We assume C We assume C
D D
=0.5 =0.5
s / ft 2 . 91
C
5 . 64
U
D
= =
4
10 26 . 7
UD
Re =
=
C
C
D D
=0.5
=0.5
C C
D D
=0.5 is correct. =0.5 is correct.
mph 2 . 62 s / ft 2 . 91 U = =
By repeating the By repeating the
calculations for various calculations for various
altitude, z, above sea level altitude, z, above sea level
135
C
CD D
Compressibility Effects
Drag coefficient as a function Drag coefficient as a function
of Mach number for subsonic of Mach number for subsonic
flow. flow.
For low Mach numbers, For low Mach numbers,
Ma<0.5 or so, compressibility Ma<0.5 or so, compressibility
effects are unimportant and the effects are unimportant and the
drag coefficient is essentially drag coefficient is essentially
independent of Ma. independent of Ma.
For larger Mach number flows, For larger Mach number flows,
the drag coefficient can be the drag coefficient can be
strongly dependent on Ma. strongly dependent on Ma.
Drag coefficient
Ma
MaCDMa
136
C
CD D
Drag coefficient as a function Drag coefficient as a function
of Mach number for supersonic of Mach number for supersonic
flow. flow.
Drag coefficient increases Drag coefficient increases
dramatically in the vicinity of dramatically in the vicinity of
Ma=1. Ma=1.
Ma = 1
137
C
CD D
Surface Roughness
Surface Roughness
1/3 1/3
Surface roughness protrudes through the laminar sub Surface roughness protrudes through the laminar sub- -layers adjacent layers adjacent
to the surface and alters the wall shear stress. to the surface and alters the wall shear stress.
In addition to the increase turbulent shear stress, surface roug In addition to the increase turbulent shear stress, surface roughness hness
can alter the Reynolds number at which the boundary layer become can alter the Reynolds number at which the boundary layer becomes s
turbulent. turbulent.
A rough flat plate may have a larger portion of its length cover A rough flat plate may have a larger portion of its length covered by ed by
a turbulent boundary layer than the corresponding smooth plate. a turbulent boundary layer than the corresponding smooth plate.
For streamlined bodies, For streamlined bodies, the drag increases with increasing surface the drag increases with increasing surface
roughness. roughness.
For For extremely blunt body extremely blunt body, such as a flat plate normal to the flow, , such as a flat plate normal to the flow, the the
drag is independent of the surface roughness. drag is independent of the surface roughness.
wall shear stress
shear stress
Re
turbulent boundary layer turbulent boundary layer

drag
138
C
CD D
Surface Roughness
Surface Roughness
2/3 2/3
For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere, an increase For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere, an increase in in
surface roughness can actually cause a decrease in the drag surface roughness can actually cause a decrease in the drag - - a a
considerable drop in pressure drag with a slight increase in considerable drop in pressure drag with a slight increase in
friction drag, combining to give a smaller overall drag. friction drag, combining to give a smaller overall drag.
The boundary layer can be tripped into turbulence at a smaller The boundary layer can be tripped into turbulence at a smaller
Reynolds number by using a rough Reynolds number by using a rough- -surfaced sphere. For example, surfaced sphere. For example,
the critical Reynolds number for a golf bass is approximately the critical Reynolds number for a golf bass is approximately
Re=4 Re=4 10 10
4 4
. In the range of . In the range of 4 4 10 10
4 4
<Re<4 <Re<4 10 10
5 5
, the drag on the , the drag on the
standard rough (i.e., dimpled) golf ball is considerably less t standard rough (i.e., dimpled) golf ball is considerably less than for han for
the smooth ball. the smooth ball.
pressure dragfriction dragDrag
139
C
CD D
Surface Roughness
Surface Roughness
3/3 3/3
The reason for dimples The reason for dimples
on golf balls on golf balls
Critical Reynolds number
The boundary layer can be tripped into turbulence at a smaller
Reynolds number by using a rough-surfaced sphere.
CDRe
140
Example 9.12 Effect of Surface
Example 9.12 Effect of Surface
Roughness
Roughness
A well A well- -hit golf ball (diameter D = 1.69 in., weight W = 0.0992 lb) hit golf ball (diameter D = 1.69 in., weight W = 0.0992 lb)
can travel at U = 200 ft/s as it leaves the tee. A well can travel at U = 200 ft/s as it leaves the tee. A well- -hit table tennis hit table tennis
ball (Diameter D = 1.50 in., weight W = 0.00551 lb) can travel a ball (Diameter D = 1.50 in., weight W = 0.00551 lb) can travel at U t U
= 60 ft/s as it leaves the paddle. Determine the drag on a stand = 60 ft/s as it leaves the paddle. Determine the drag on a standard ard
golf ball, a smooth golf ball, and a table tennis ball for the golf ball, a smooth golf ball, and a table tennis ball for the
conditions given. Also determine the acceleration of each ball f conditions given. Also determine the acceleration of each ball for or
these conditions. these conditions.
141
Example 9.12
Example 9.12
Solution
Solution
For either ball, the drag can be obtained from For either ball, the drag can be obtained from
D
2
4
2
2
1
C D U D

=
5
2 4
10 79 . 1
s / ft 10 57 . 1
) ft 12 / 69 . 1 )( s / ft 200 ( UD
Re =
=

For golf ball in standard air For golf ball in standard air
4
2 4
10 78 . 4
s / ft 10 57 . 1
) ft 12 / 50 . 1 )( s / ft 60 ( UD
Re =
=

For table tennis ball For table tennis ball
C C
D D
=0.25 for the standard golf ball =0.25 for the standard golf ball
C C
D D
=0.51 for the smooth golf ball =0.51 for the smooth golf ball
C C
D D
=0.50 for the table tennis ball =0.50 for the table tennis ball
142
C
CD D
Froude Number
Froude Number
1/2 1/2
An object moving on the surface, such as a ship, often produces An object moving on the surface, such as a ship, often produces
wave that requires a source of energy to generate. This energy wave that requires a source of energy to generate. This energy
comes from the ship and is manifest as a drag. comes from the ship and is manifest as a drag.
The nature of the waves produced often depends on the Froude The nature of the waves produced often depends on the Froude
number of the flow and the shape of the object. number of the flow and the shape of the object.
The wave The wave- -making drag, making drag, D D
w w
, can be a complex function of the , can be a complex function of the
Froude number and the body shape. Froude number and the body shape.
Drag coefficient as a function of Froude number and hull Drag coefficient as a function of Froude number and hull
characteristics for that portion of the drag due to generation o characteristics for that portion of the drag due to generation of f
waves. waves.
l g / U
WaveFr
DWFr
Froude Froude number number wave making effect wave making effect
143
C
CD D
Froude Number
Froude Number
2/2 2/2
The streamlined The streamlined
body (hull without a body (hull without a
bulb) has more drag bulb) has more drag
than the less than the less
streamlined one. streamlined one.
Streamlined body
Drag coefficient as a function of Froude number and hull charact Drag coefficient as a function of Froude number and hull characteristics eristics
for that portion of the drag due to generation of waves. for that portion of the drag due to generation of waves.
bow
wavewave drag
Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Fr Fr Fr Fr Re Re Re Re
design conditions design conditions design conditions design conditions
144
Froude Number
Froude Number
In honor of William Froude (1810~1879), a British civil engineer In honor of William Froude (1810~1879), a British civil engineer, ,
mathematician, and naval architect who pioneered the use of towi mathematician, and naval architect who pioneered the use of towing ng
tanks for the study of ship design. tanks for the study of ship design.
Froude number is the ratio of the forces due to the acceleratio Froude number is the ratio of the forces due to the acceleration of a n of a
fluid particles (inertial force) to the force due to gravity (gr fluid particles (inertial force) to the force due to gravity (gravity avity
forces). forces).
Froude number is significant for flows with free surface effects Froude number is significant for flows with free surface effects. .
Froude number less than unity indicate subcritical flow and valu Froude number less than unity indicate subcritical flow and values es
greater than unity indicate supercritical flow. greater than unity indicate supercritical flow.
3
2 2 2
2
gL
L V
gL
V
Fr
gL
V
Fr
= = >> =
Inertial force
gravity forceFr
11
145
C
CD D
Composite Body Drag

Composite Body Drag
1/2 1/2
Approximate drag calculations for a complex body can often be Approximate drag calculations for a complex body can often be
obtained by treating the body as a composite collection of its v obtained by treating the body as a composite collection of its various arious
part. For example, the drag on an airplane can be approximate by part. For example, the drag on an airplane can be approximate by
adding the drag produced by its various components adding the drag produced by its various components the wings, the wings,
fuselage, tail section, and so on. fuselage, tail section, and so on.
Considerable care must be used in such an approach because of th Considerable care must be used in such an approach because of the e
interactions between the various parts. interactions between the various parts.
It may not be correct to merely add the drag o the components to It may not be correct to merely add the drag o the components to
obtain the drag of the entire object, although such approximatio obtain the drag of the entire object, although such approximations ns
are often reasonable. are often reasonable.
drag
146
C
CD D
Composite Body Drag

Composite Body Drag
2/2 2/2
The aerodynamic drag on automobiles can be determined by the use The aerodynamic drag on automobiles can be determined by the use
of composite bodies. of composite bodies.
The power required to move a car along a level street is used to The power required to move a car along a level street is used to
overcome the rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag. overcome the rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag.
The contribution of the drag due to various portions of cars (i. The contribution of the drag due to various portions of cars (i.e., e.,
front end, windshield, roof, rear end, windshield peak, rear front end, windshield, roof, rear end, windshield peak, rear
roof/trunk, and cowl) have been determined by roof/trunk, and cowl) have been determined by numerous model numerous model
and full and full- -sized tests as well as by numerical calculations. sized tests as well as by numerical calculations.
As a result it is possible to predict the aerodynamic drag on ca As a result it is possible to predict the aerodynamic drag on cars of a rs of a
wide variety of body styles. wide variety of body styles.
Power
front endrear end

147
Drag Coefficients for 2
-
-
D Objects
D Objects
148
-
-
D Objects
D Objects
149
Drag Coefficients for Some Objects
Drag Coefficients for Some Objects
150
Example 9.13 Drag on a Composite Body
Example 9.13 Drag on a Composite Body
A 60 A 60- -mph (i.e., 88 mph (i.e., 88- -fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in
Figure E9.13a Estimate the moment (torque), M, needed at the bas Figure E9.13a Estimate the moment (torque), M, needed at the base e
to keep the tower from tipping over. to keep the tower from tipping over.
151
Example 9.13
Example 9.13
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
We treat the water tower as a sphere resting on a circular cylin We treat the water tower as a sphere resting on a circular cylinder der
and assume that the total drag is the sum of the drag from these and assume that the total drag is the sum of the drag from these
parts. parts.
By summing moments about the base of the tower, we obtain By summing moments about the base of the tower, we obtain
Dc
'
c
4
2
2
1
c Ds
'
s
4
2
2
1
s
C D U D C D U D

= =
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+ =
2
b
D
2
D
b D M
c
'
s
s
Diameter of cylinder
Diameter of sphere
152
Example 9.13
Example 9.13
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
lb ft 10 64 . 3 ... M
lb 4840 ... C D U D
lb 3470 ... C D U D
5
Dc
'
c
4
2
2
1
c
Ds
'
s
4
2
2
1
s
= =
= = =
= = =
6
2 4
'
c
c
7
2 4
'
s
s
10 41 . 8
s / ft 10 57 . 1
) ft 15 )( s / ft 88 ( UD
Re
10 24 . 2
s / ft 10 57 . 1
) ft 40 )( s / ft 88 ( UD
Re
=
=
=
7 . 0 C 3 . 0 C
Dc Ds

153
LIFT
LIFT
1/3 1/3
Lift is defined as the component of fluid force perpendicular to the
fluid motion.
The lift coefficient, C
L
, is defined as

+ = = = dA cos dA sin p dF L Lift
w y
A U
2
1
L
C
2
L
=
L
l
154
LIFT
LIFT
2/3 2/3
Most common lift Most common lift- -generating devices (i.e., airfoils, fans, spoiler on generating devices (i.e., airfoils, fans, spoiler on
cars, etc.) operate in the large Reynolds number in which the fl cars, etc.) operate in the large Reynolds number in which the flow ow
has a boundary layer character, with viscous effects confined to has a boundary layer character, with viscous effects confined to the the
boundary layers and wake regions. boundary layers and wake regions.
Most of the lift comes from the surface pressure distribution. T Most of the lift comes from the surface pressure distribution. The he
wall shear stress contributes little to the lift. wall shear stress contributes little to the lift.
The relative importance of shear stress and pressure effects dep The relative importance of shear stress and pressure effects depends ends
strongly on the Reynolds number. strongly on the Reynolds number. For very low Reynolds number For very low Reynolds number
regimes, viscous effects are important, and the contribution of regimes, viscous effects are important, and the contribution of the the
shear stress to the lift may be as important as that of the pres shear stress to the lift may be as important as that of the pressure sure. .
Front spoilerrear spoiler
Re
ReRe
viscous effect
155
LIFT
LIFT
3/3 3/3
For the most part, the pressure distribution on the surface of a For the most part, the pressure distribution on the surface of an n
automobile is consistent with simple Bernoulli equation analysis automobile is consistent with simple Bernoulli equation analysis. .
Locations with high Locations with high- -speed flow (i.e., over the roof and hood) have speed flow (i.e., over the roof and hood) have
low pressure, while locations with low low pressure, while locations with low- -speed flow (i.e., on the grill speed flow (i.e., on the grill
and windshield) have high pressure. and windshield) have high pressure.
It is easy to believe that the integrated effect of this pressur It is easy to believe that the integrated effect of this pressure e
distribution would provide a distribution would provide a net upward force net upward force. .
Pressure distribution on the Pressure distribution on the
surface of an automobile. surface of an automobile.
hood
grill
156
Example 9.14 Lift from Pressure and
Shear Stress Distribution
1/2 1/2
When a uniform wind of velocity U blows past the semicircular When a uniform wind of velocity U blows past the semicircular
building shown in Figure E9.14a, the wall shear stress and press building shown in Figure E9.14a, the wall shear stress and pressure ure
distributions on the outside of the building are as given previo distributions on the outside of the building are as given previous in us in
Figure E9.8b and E9.9a, respectively. If the pressure in the bui Figure E9.8b and E9.9a, respectively. If the pressure in the building lding
is atmospheric (i.e., the value , p is atmospheric (i.e., the value , p
0 0
, far from the building), determine , far from the building), determine
the lift coefficient and the lift on the roof. the lift coefficient and the lift on the roof.
Figure E9.8 (b)
Figure E9.9 (a)
157
2/2 2/2
158
Example 9.14
Example 9.14
Solution
Solution
1/2 1/2
The lift The lift
) 2 / U /( (Re) ) ( F
2 2 / 1
w
=
The dimensionless shear stress The dimensionless shear stress

\
|
+
|
\
|
=
+ = = =
0
w
0
0
w y
d
2
D
b cos d
2
D
b sin ) p p (
dA cos dA sin p dF L Lift
159
Example 9.14
Example 9.14
Solution
Solution
2/2 2/2
The lift The lift
Re
96 . 1
88 . 0
A U
L
C
Re
96 . 1
88 . 0 A U
d cos ) ( F
Re 2
1
d sin
U
) p p (
2
1
A U L
2
2
1
L
2
2
1
0 0
2
2
1
0
2
2
1
+ =
=
|
|
\
|
+ =
(
(
=

-1.76
3.92
6
2 4
10 82 . 3
s / ft 10 57 . 1
) ft 20 )( s / ft 30 ( UD
Re =
=

lb 944 AC U L
881 . 0 ... C
L
2
2
1
L
= =
= =
160
Airfoil
Airfoil
1/6 1/6
Airfoil is a typical device designed to produce lift. Airfoil is a typical device designed to produce lift.
Lift is generated by a Lift is generated by a pressure distribution pressure distribution that is different on the top that is different on the top
and bottom surface. and bottom surface.
For large Reynolds number flows these pressure distribution are For large Reynolds number flows these pressure distribution are
usually directly proportional to the usually directly proportional to the dynamic pressure, dynamic pressure, U U
2 2
/2 /2, with , with
viscous effects being of secondary importance viscous effects being of secondary importance. .
Lift Lift Lift Lift Lift Lift Lift Lift- -- - - -- -generating devices generating devices generating devices generating devices generating devices generating devices generating devices generating devices
viscous effect
161
Airfoil
Airfoil
2/6 2/6
Symmetrical airfoil cannot produce lift unless the angle of atta Symmetrical airfoil cannot produce lift unless the angle of attack, ck,
, is nonzero. , is nonzero.
Asymmetry of the nonsymmetrical airfoil could produce lift even Asymmetry of the nonsymmetrical airfoil could produce lift even
with with =0. =0.
For certain value of For certain value of , the , the
pressure distributions on the pressure distributions on the
upper and lower surfaces are upper and lower surfaces are
different, different, but their resultant but their resultant
pressure forces will be equal pressure forces will be equal
and opposite and opposite. .
vs.
vs.
162
Definition
Definition
Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack
The angle of attack ( The angle of attack ( ) ) is the angle is the angle
between the airfoil chord and the between the airfoil chord and the
freestream freestream velocity vector. velocity vector.
The chord length (c) of an airfoil is the The chord length (c) of an airfoil is the
straight line joining straight line joining the leading edge the leading edge
and the trailing edge and the trailing edge. .
The aspect ratio ( The aspect ratio (A A ) is defined as the ) is defined as the
ratio of the square of the length of the ratio of the square of the length of the
airfoil (b) to the airfoil (b) to the planform planform area (A= area (A=bc bc). ).
A A =b =b
2 2
/A=b/c. /A=b/c.
chord length
leading edge
trailing edge
Aspect ratio
b
b
163
Airfoil
Airfoil
3/6 3/6
The lift and drag coefficient is a function of The lift and drag coefficient is a function of
angle of attack, angle of attack, , and aspect ratio, , and aspect ratio, A A . The . The
aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the square aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the square
of the wing length to the of the wing length to the planform planform area (A= area (A=bc bc) , ) ,
A A =b =b
2 2
/A. /A.
The lift coefficient increases and the drag The lift coefficient increases and the drag
coefficient decreases with an increase in aspect coefficient decreases with an increase in aspect
ratio. ratio.
Long wings are more efficient because their Long wings are more efficient because their
wing tip losses are relatively more minor than wing tip losses are relatively more minor than
for short wings. for short wings.
LIFTDRAG
164
Airfoil
Airfoil
4/6 4/6
The increase in drag due to the finite length ( The increase in drag due to the finite length (A A
< < )of the wing is often termed )of the wing is often termed induced drag induced drag. It . It
is due to the interaction of the complex swirling is due to the interaction of the complex swirling
flow structure near the wing tips and the free flow structure near the wing tips and the free
stream. stream.
High performance soaring airplanes and highly High performance soaring airplanes and highly
efficient soaring birds (i.e., the albatross and sea efficient soaring birds (i.e., the albatross and sea
gull) have long, narrow wings. Such wings, gull) have long, narrow wings. Such wings,
however, have considerable inertia that inhibits however, have considerable inertia that inhibits
rapid maneuvers. Thus, highly maneuverable rapid maneuvers. Thus, highly maneuverable
fighter or acrobatic airplanes and birds (i.e., the fighter or acrobatic airplanes and birds (i.e., the
falcon) have small falcon) have small- -aspect aspect- -ratio wings. ratio wings.
VS.
induced drag
free stream
165
Airfoil
Airfoil
5/6 5/6
Although viscous effects and the wall shear stress contribute li Although viscous effects and the wall shear stress contribute little to ttle to
the direct generation of lift, they play an important role in th the direct generation of lift, they play an important role in the design e design
and use of lifting devices. and use of lifting devices.
The viscosity The viscosity- -induced boundary layer separation can occur on induced boundary layer separation can occur on
nonstreamlined nonstreamlined bodies such as airfoils that have too large an angle bodies such as airfoils that have too large an angle
of attack. of attack.
As the angle of attack is increased, the boundary layer on the u As the angle of attack is increased, the boundary layer on the upper pper
surface separates, the flow over the wing develops a wide, turbu surface separates, the flow over the wing develops a wide, turbulent lent
wake region, wake region, the lift decreases, and the drag increases the lift decreases, and the drag increases. .
Airfoil stall results.

Airfoil stall results.
viscous effectwall shear stress
viscosity

166
Airfoil
Airfoil
6/6 6/6
Such conditions are extremely dangerous if Such conditions are extremely dangerous if
they occur while the airplane is they occur while the airplane is flying at a flying at a
low altitude where there is not sufficient low altitude where there is not sufficient
time and altitude to recover from the stall time and altitude to recover from the stall. .
As the angle of attack is increase, the As the angle of attack is increase, the p p
between the upper and lower surfaces between the upper and lower surfaces
increase, causing the lift coefficient to increase, causing the lift coefficient to
increase smoothly until a maximum is increase smoothly until a maximum is
reached. Further increases in angle of attack reached. Further increases in angle of attack
produce a sudden decrease in C produce a sudden decrease in C
L L
/C /C
D D
. .
Onset of boundary Onset of boundary
layer separation on layer separation on
the upper surface the upper surface
stall stall
167
C
C
L L
/C
/C
D D
vs.
vs.

, C
, C
L L
vs. C
vs. C
D D
Most efficient angle of attack Most efficient angle of attack
(i.e., largest C (i.e., largest C
L L
/C /C
D D
) )
Onset of boundary Onset of boundary
layer separation on layer separation on
the upper surface the upper surface
168
Lift Control Devices
1/2 1/2
To generate necessary lift To generate necessary lift
during the relatively low during the relatively low- -speed speed
landing and takeoff procedures, landing and takeoff procedures,
the airfoil shape is altered by the airfoil shape is altered by
extending special flaps on the extending special flaps on the
front and/or rear portion of the front and/or rear portion of the
wing. wing.
Use of the flaps considerably Use of the flaps considerably
enhances the lift, although it is enhances the lift, although it is
at the expense of an increase in at the expense of an increase in
the drag the drag
leading edge
trailing edge
flapsLift
169
2/2 2/2
Application of high Application of high- -lift boundary layer control devices to lift boundary layer control devices to reduce reduce
takeoff speed takeoff speed of a jet transport aircraft. of a jet transport aircraft.
In the landing configuration, large slotted trailing In the landing configuration, large slotted trailing- -edge flaps roll out edge flaps roll out
from under the wing and deflect downward to increase the lift from under the wing and deflect downward to increase the lift
coefficient. After touchdown, spoiler are raised in front of eac coefficient. After touchdown, spoiler are raised in front of each each h each
flap to decrease lift and ensure that the plane remains on the g flap to decrease lift and ensure that the plane remains on the ground. round.
In the takeoff configuration, large slotted trailing In the takeoff configuration, large slotted trailing- -edge flaps deflect edge flaps deflect
to increase the lift coefficient. to increase the lift coefficient.
trailing edge flaps
spoiler
170
Example 9.15 Lift and Power
Example 9.15 Lift and Power
Humna
Humna
Powered Flight
Powered Flight
In 1977 the In 1977 the Gossamer Condor Gossamer Condor, shown in Figure E9.15, won the , shown in Figure E9.15, won the
Kremer prize by being the first human Kremer prize by being the first human- -powered aircraft to complete powered aircraft to complete
a prescribed figure a prescribed figure- -of of- -eight course two turning points 0.5 mil apart. eight course two turning points 0.5 mil apart.
The following data pertain to this aircraft: The following data pertain to this aircraft:
Fight speed = U = 15 ft/s Fight speed = U = 15 ft/s
Wing size = b = 96 ft, c = 7.5 ft (average) Wing size = b = 96 ft, c = 7.5 ft (average)
Weight (include pilot) = W= 210 lb Weight (include pilot) = W= 210 lb
Drag coefficient = C Drag coefficient = C
D D
= 0.046 = 0.046
Power train efficiency = Power train efficiency =
Determine the lift coefficient, C Determine the lift coefficient, C
L L
, ,
and the power, P, required by the and the power, P, required by the
pilot. pilot.
171
Example 9.15
Example 9.15
Solution
Solution
For steady flight conditions the lift must be exactly balanced b For steady flight conditions the lift must be exactly balanced by y
the weight the weight
109 . 0 ...
A U
W 2
C
AC U L W
2
L
L
2
2
1
= =
=
= =
7 . 23
46 . 0
09 . 1
C
C
D
L
= =
hp 302 . 0 ...
2
U AC
...
DU
P
AC U D DU P
3
D
D
2
2
1
= =
= =
=
= =
The product of the power P that the pilot supplies and the power The product of the power P that the pilot supplies and the power
train efficiency equals the useful power needed to overcome the train efficiency equals the useful power needed to overcome the
drag D drag D
172
Circulation
Circulation
1/4 1/4
viscous effect
Since viscous effects are of

Since viscous effects are of
minor
minor
importance in the
importance in the
generation of lift, it should be
generation of lift, it should be
possible to calculate the lift force
possible to calculate the lift force
on an airfoil by integrating the
on an airfoil by integrating the
pressure distribution obtained
pressure distribution obtained
from the equations governing
from the equations governing
inviscid
inviscid
flow past the airfoil.
flow past the airfoil.
The calculation of the

The calculation of the
inviscid
inviscid
flow past a two
flow past a two
-
-
dimensional
dimensional
airfoil gives a flow field
airfoil gives a flow field
173
Circulation
Circulation
2/4 2/4
The predicted flow field past an airfoil with no lift (i.e.,

The predicted flow field past an airfoil with no lift (i.e.,
a symmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack). This flow
a symmetrical airfoil at zero angle of attack). This flow
field appears to be quite accurate (except for the
field appears to be quite accurate (except for the
absence of thin boundary layer regions) .
absence of thin boundary layer regions) .
(
(
a
a
)
)
The calculated flow past the same airfoil at a nonzero

The calculated flow past the same airfoil at a nonzero
angle of attack (but one small enough so that boundary
angle of attack (but one small enough so that boundary
layer separation would not occur)
layer separation would not occur)
is not proper near
is not proper near
the trailing edge
the trailing edge
. The calculated lift for a nonzero
. The calculated lift for a nonzero
angle of attack is zero
angle of attack is zero
in conflict with the known fact

in conflict with the known fact
that such airfoils produce lift.
that such airfoils produce lift.
(
(
b
b
)
)
174
Circulation
Circulation
3/4 3/4
Same conditions as for (b) except Same conditions as for (b) except circulation circulation has been added has been added
to the flow to the flow nonzero lift, realistic flow. nonzero lift, realistic flow. (c) (c)
The unrealistic flow situation can be corrected by adding an The unrealistic flow situation can be corrected by adding an
appropriate clockwise swirling flow around the airfoil. appropriate clockwise swirling flow around the airfoil.
Superposition of flows to produce the final flow past the Superposition of flows to produce the final flow past the
airfoil. airfoil. (d) (d)
The results are The results are twofolds twofolds: : (1) The unrealistic behavior near the (1) The unrealistic behavior near the
trailing edge is eliminated and (2) the average velocity on the trailing edge is eliminated and (2) the average velocity on the upper upper
surface of the airfoil is increased while that on the lower surf surface of the airfoil is increased while that on the lower surface is ace is
decreased. The net effect is to change the original zero lift co decreased. The net effect is to change the original zero lift condition ndition
on that of a lift on that of a lift- -producing airfoil. producing airfoil.
bcirculation
12
175
Circulation
Circulation
4/4 4/4
The addition of the clockwise swirl is termed the addition of The addition of the clockwise swirl is termed the addition of
circulation. circulation.
The amount of swirl (circulation) needed to have the flow leave The amount of swirl (circulation) needed to have the flow leave the the
trailing edge smoothly is a function of the airfoil size and the trailing edge smoothly is a function of the airfoil size and the shape shape
and can be calculated from potential flow ( and can be calculated from potential flow (inviscid inviscid) theory. ) theory.
Although the addition of circulation to make the flow field Although the addition of circulation to make the flow field
physically realistic may seem artificial, it has well physically realistic may seem artificial, it has well- -founded founded
mathematical and physical grounds. mathematical and physical grounds.
For example, For example,
Consider the flow past a finite length airfoil.
Consider the flow past a finite length airfoil.
swirlcirculation
circulation
176
Trailing Vortex
Trailing Vortex
1/3 1/3
For lift For lift- -generating conditions the generating conditions the
average pressure on the lower average pressure on the lower
surface is greater than that on the surface is greater than that on the
upper surface. upper surface.
Near the tip of the wing, the Near the tip of the wing, the
pressure difference causes some of pressure difference causes some of
the fluid to migrate from the lower the fluid to migrate from the lower
to the upper surface. to the upper surface.
Trailing
Vortex)
177
Trailing Vortex
Trailing Vortex
2/3 2/3
At the same time, the fluid is swept downstream, forming At the same time, the fluid is swept downstream, forming a trailing a trailing
vortex from each wing tip vortex from each wing tip. .
It is speculated that the reason some birds migrate in It is speculated that the reason some birds migrate in vee vee- -formation formation
is to take advantage of the updraft produced by the trailing vor is to take advantage of the updraft produced by the trailing vortex of tex of
the preceding bird. It is calculated that for a given expenditur the preceding bird. It is calculated that for a given expenditure of e of
energy, a flock of 25 birds flying in energy, a flock of 25 birds flying in vee vee- -formation could travel 70% formation could travel 70%
farther than if each bird were to fly separately. farther than if each bird were to fly separately.
The trailing vortices from the right and left wing tips are conn The trailing vortices from the right and left wing tips are connected ected
by the by the bound vortex bound vortex along the length of the wing. along the length of the wing. It is the vortex It is the vortex
that generates the circulation that produces the lift. that generates the circulation that produces the lift.
Trailing vortexbound vortexcirculationLift

Vtrailing
vortex
178
Trailing Vortex
Trailing Vortex
3/3 3/3
The combined vortex system (the bound vortex and the trailing The combined vortex system (the bound vortex and the trailing
vortices) is termed vortices) is termed a horseshoe vortex a horseshoe vortex. .
The strength of the trailing vortices (which is equal to the str The strength of the trailing vortices (which is equal to the strength of ength of
the bound vortex) is proportional to the lift generated. the bound vortex) is proportional to the lift generated.
Large aircraft can generate very strong trailing vortices

Large aircraft can generate very strong trailing vortices
that persist for a long time before viscous effects finally
that persist for a long time before viscous effects finally
cause them to die out.
cause them to die out.
Such vortices are strong enough
Such vortices are strong enough
to flip smaller aircraft out of control if they follow too
to flip smaller aircraft out of control if they follow too
closely behind the large aircraft
closely behind the large aircraft. .
179

Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence Wake Turbulence

1969 1969 11 11 18 18 310H 310H 28L 28L

1964 1964 1969 1969 98 98 20 20
54 54 747 747 C C 5A 5A

http://library.hwai.edu.tw/Science/content/1973/00080044/0009.htm
trailing vortices trailing vortices
180

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

Trailing Trailing
Vortex Vortex

181

2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2
2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2

35 35
Wash Stream Wash Stream
Tornadoes Tornadoes

182

1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3

15% 15% 25 25 707 707

60 60

700 700

183

2/3 2/3 2/3 2/3
2/3 2/3 2/3 2/3

25 25 40 40 707 707

50 50 120 120 20 20

Learjet Learjet C C 5A 5A

184

3/3 3/3 3/3 3/3
3/3 3/3 3/3 3/3
1966 1966 F F 104 104 B B 70 70
B B 70 70
F F 104 104

185
Magnus Effect
Magnus Effect
1/2 1/2
The circulation is combined with an ideal, uniform upstream flow The circulation is combined with an ideal, uniform upstream flow. .
The combined flow pattern is no symmetrical. The combined flow pattern is no symmetrical.
The average pressure is greater on the lower half of the cylinde The average pressure is greater on the lower half of the cylinder than r than
on the upper half, and a lift is generated. This effect is calle on the upper half, and a lift is generated. This effect is called the d the
Magnus effect, after Heinrich Magnus (1802 Magnus effect, after Heinrich Magnus (1802- -1870). 1870).
Heinrich Magnus was a German chemist and physicist who first Heinrich Magnus was a German chemist and physicist who first
investigated above phenomenon. investigated above phenomenon.
It account for the various types of pitches in baseball (i.e.,cu It account for the various types of pitches in baseball (i.e.,curve ball, rve ball,
floater, sinker, etc.), the ability of a soccer player to hook t floater, sinker, etc.), the ability of a soccer player to hook the ball, he ball,
and the hook or slice a golf ball. and the hook or slice a golf ball.
186
Magnus Effect
Magnus Effect
2/2 2/2
LIFT LIFT
No lift No lift
Inviscid Inviscid flow past a circular cylinder: ( flow past a circular cylinder: (a a) uniform upstream flow ) uniform upstream flow
without circulation. ( without circulation. (b b) free vortex at the center of the cylinder, ( ) free vortex at the center of the cylinder, (c c) )
combination of free vortex and uniform flow past a circular combination of free vortex and uniform flow past a circular
cylinder giving cylinder giving nonsymmetric nonsymmetric flow and a lift. flow and a lift.
Vs. SINKER Vs. SINKER Vs. SINKER Vs. SINKER
187
Lift and Drag Coefficients for
Spinning Sphere
Spinning Sphere
1/2 1/2
The drag coefficient is fairly
independent of the rate of rotation, the
lift coefficient is strongly dependent on
it.
Both CL and CD are dependent on the
roughness of the surface.
In certain Reynolds number range, an
increase in surface roughness actually
decrease the drag coefficient.
188
Spinning Sphere
Spinning Sphere
2/2 2/2
Similarly, an increase in surface roughness can increase the lift
coefficient because the roughness help drag more fluid around the
sphere increasing the circulation for a given angular velocity.
A rotating, rough golf ball travels farther than a smooth one
because the drag is less and the lift is greater.
However, do not expect a severely roughed up (cut) ball to work
better extensive testing has gone into obtaining the optimum
surface roughness for golf balls.
189
Example 9.16 Lift on a Rotating Sphere
Example 9.16 Lift on a Rotating Sphere
A table tennis ball weighting 2.45 A table tennis ball weighting 2.45 10 10
- -2 2
N with diameter D=3.8 N with diameter D=3.8 10 10
- -
2 2
m is hit at a velocity of U=12 m/s with a back spin of angular m is hit at a velocity of U=12 m/s with a back spin of angular
velocity velocity as is shown in Figure E9.16. What is the value of as is shown in Figure E9.16. What is the value of if if
the ball is to travel on a horizontal path, not dropping due to the ball is to travel on a horizontal path, not dropping due to the the
acceleration of gravity. acceleration of gravity.
190
Example 9.15
Example 9.15
Solution
Solution
The lift generated by the spinning of the ball must exactly The lift generated by the spinning of the ball must exactly
balance the weight of the ball balance the weight of the ball
244 . 0 ...
D ) 4 / ( U
W 2
C
AC U L W
2 2
L
L
2
2
1
= =

=
= =
9 . 0
U 2
D
=
rpm 5420 s / rad 568

...
D
) 9 . 0 ( U 2
= =
= =

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1

General Characteristics of External Flow

Boundary Layer Characteristics

Objects are completely surrounded by the fluid and the

External flows involving air are often termed

Design of cars and trucks

to decrease the fuel

Improve ships, whether they are surface vessels

consider the various wind effects

= = dA sin dA cos p dF D Drag

= = dA cos dA psn dF L Lift

= Lift coefficient Lift coefficient

Navier Stokes equation

Standard Boundary layer thickness

Boundary layer displacement thickness

Boundary layer momentum thickness

The momentum thickness is the distance the plate would

Momentum integral equation

are extremely difficult to obtain.

0 ' ' ff ' ' ' f 2

power series expansion

Shear stress Shear stress

momentum thickness Drag

Several assumed velocity profiles and the resulting value

solutions for turbulent

Obtain an expression for

angle of attack, flow

Drag Coefficient Data and Examples

Reynolds Number Dependence

Reynolds Number Dependence

Reynolds Number Dependence

The structure of the flow

Reynolds Number Dependence

turbulent boundary layer turbulent boundary layer

Composite Body Drag

Composite Body Drag

front endrear end

Airfoil stall results.

Since viscous effects are of

The calculation of the

The predicted flow field past an airfoil with no lift (i.e.,

The calculated flow past the same airfoil at a nonzero

in conflict with the known fact

Trailing vortexbound vortexcirculationLift

Large aircraft can generate very strong trailing vortices

rpm 5420 s / rad 568

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