X-RAYS

X-ray (or radiographic images) use the x-ray part of the em spectrum to
expose the subject

• short wavelength (l): < 1 nm (more than x10000 shorter than visible)
• high energy (E=hn=hc/l - n=c/l): > 1keV
• high frequency (n=c/l)

E: energy (in eV)

l: wavelength
h: plank’s constant
c: speed of light
n: frequency

Rem: eV is the energy that an e- acquires when accelerated one meter

distance in an electric field of a potential difference of 1 V
(e is charge and V is potential difference).
 X-RAY FILM
• Contains a blue-green sensitive emulsion
• Large crystals
• Gives optical density related to input exposure via the H&D curve
• Large tonal (dynamic range) 1000:1 instead of 100:1 for norm. films

A:screen exposure type

B:direct exposure type
DT: transmission density
H: exposure
R: useful density range (2)
L: useful exposure range (<0.5)
 X-RAY TUBE

• Basic x-ray tube is a vacuum tube containing a tungsten filament (anode),

bombarded by e- accelerated by kV. Photons are created from this process

• The emission x-ray spectrum has a continuum and line (spike) characteristics
 X-RAY TUBE
Spectral properties are changed by:
• altering kV (electric field ie. speed of the e-)
• or mA (current to filament)
Increased mA increases intensity (graph a)
Increased kV gives higher penetration - because of shorter l (graph b)
 X-RAY TUBE

Use of filter of various materials (Pb, Cu, Al) between source and subject
attenuates wavebands and removes low energy ls (soft x-rays)
which produce scattering. Because of shorter ls the beam is more penetrating!!
 X-RAYS
Attenuation by absorption

Io I

I = I o e -mx
m: linear attenuation coefficient I

x
 X-RAYS
Half Value Thickness (HVT)
HVT is the beam power measured as thickness (x) of material
to reduce Io to Io/2 (I.e. x where the intensity is decreased by 2)

put I = Io / 2 for x = 1/ 2

I o / 2 = I oe -mx divide by I o / 2 = I o e -mx

1 / 2 = e -mx apply loge

log e (1 / 2) = -mx solve for x

log e 2
x=
m
 X-RAYS
Half Value Thickness (HVT)
HVT is the beam power measured as thickness (x) of material
to reduce Io to Io/2 (I.e. x where the intensity is decreased by 2)

put I = Io / 2 for x = 1/ 2

I o / 2 = I oe -mx divide by I o / 2 = I o e -mx

I
1 / 2 = e -mx apply loge 1/2
log e (1 / 2) = -mx solve for x
log e 2 x
x=
m
 X-RAYS

The attenuation mechanism is mostly related to Z (atomic number)

of the material. It includes:

• Releigh scattering (proportional to Z2)

•Compton scattering (no dependence on Z)

•Photoelectric effect (proportional to Z3)

•Pair production (proportional to Z2)

• For a fixed mA the intensity I is related to the focus to film distance d by

the inverse square low: I=Io/d2
 X-RAYS

Z (atomic number) for:

• fat ~ 5.9
• muscle ~ 7.4
• bone ~ 13.9

Attenuation ratio for bone to muscle is 13.9/7.4= 6.6

I.e. Bone attenuates 6.6. (~7) times more than muscle

and thus gives better contrast.
 SHADOWGRAPHS
• Most usual mode of radiographs - skiagraphs

• The image relies on different absorption of tissue

that is transparent, but there is a large change in Z
(from air to bone gives a good contrast)

• Tissue would not be easily differentiated without the aid of

compounds with different Z introduced to give shadows.
Examples: Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) to image stomach, intestines
Iodine (I2) for blood.
SHADOWGRAPHS
X

Film
 X-RAY TOMOGRAPHY
Image of slices (tomi) of the body. Now an obsolescent
technique developed to localise an internal site (depth
localisation) in a body. Used instead of stereo radiography
that uses 2 tubes or two exposures.

Detail in plane
K is sharp
CAT SCANNING - 1st Generation

X: X-ray source
S: subject
D: detector

• Rotation in X intervals
• Time ~ 4 min!!!!
CAT SCANNING - 2nd Generation

• Single source with narrow fan of detectors

which traversed and rotated.
• Time ~ 20 sec.
CAT SCANNING - 3rd Generation

• Moving source with more detectors.

• Time ~ 4-5 sec.
CAT SCANNING - 4th Generation

• Stationary 360 degree ring of detectors

and a moving source.
• Time ~ 1 sec.
CAT SCANNING - 5th Generation

•Uses no moving parts.

•Tube with the patient inside 210 deg.
•The detector ring is similar.
•An e- beam scans around the body
in multiple adjacent tracks to generate
x-rays.
• Time ~ 0.1s to a few ms or real time
 NUCLEAR MEDICINE
• Uses ingested or injected radioisotopes

• Measurement of the distribution and concentration shows abnormalities

• Uses include Radiotherapy and Diagnosis by:

tracers (showing the functions of the organs) or
imaging (picture of an organ)

• Type of emitters: a particles - not detectable outside the body

b particles - very damaging
g-rays - very penetrating, not damaging (low radiotoxicity)

• Detection and imaging is with the aid of the gamma camera.

 NUCLEAR MEDICINE - MEASURES
• Half-life (t 1/2 ) of the radiochemicals (ie. measure of radiochemicals) is
calculated, in disintegrations s-1 (1Bq=1 s-1 ), by:

t 1/2 = loge2/l where l is the decay constant

• Biological effects are measured by the absorbed dose D,

in J kg-1 or gray Gy, by:

D=energy/mass

• Damage effect is measured as a quality factor Q, eg:for x-ray, g-ray and b

particles Q=1, for slow neutrons Q=3, for a particles Q=10.
NUCLEAR MEDICINE - MEASURES

• Dose equivalent, in Sv (sievert), is calculated by:

Dose equivalent= D*Q

Annual significant ‘natural dose’ ~ 1-3 msV

Additional artificial dose ~ 0.25 mSV
 NUCLEAR MEDICINE
RADIOACTIVE TRACERS

• A variety of radioactive tracers (isotopes) provide diagnostic information

for specific purposes (e.g. blood, urine, organs, liver functions, tumours, etc.).

• The effective half-life of a g-emitter (Te) is related by its half-life (Tr)

and its biological half-life (Tb) by the relationship:

1/ Te = 1/Tb + 1/Tr
 NUCLEAR MEDICINE
GAMMA CAMERAS

• They use a scintillator as the detector (with excellent quantum

efficiency) for ‘counting’ the incident g radiation.

• The scintillator emits light

• The light emitted is amplified by a photomultiplier tube

 GAMMA CAMERAS
SIMPLE COLLIMATOR
Designed to measure overall activity
(eg. From the thyroid)

K: shielding
V: output signal
B: background
J: subject
g: g ray emission
D: detector (usually a PMT or SPD)
 GAMMA CAMERAS
RECTILINEAR SCANNER TYPE
Includes a lead septa that gives a
focal spot for scanning action by single
probe method to synthesize a picture
at low resolution.

Q: septa
F: focal spot
L: lightguide
x,y: scanning directions
 GAMMA CAMERAS
THE ‘USUAL’ GAMMA CAMERA
Is a fixed array of multiple detectors
(PMTs* or SPDs*), with a pinehole
aperture. The computed output is
viewed on CRTs real time.

P: Pinhole aperture
M: multiple detectors

*Photomultipliers,Silicon Photodiodes
 GAMMA CAMERAS
ROTATING TYPE FOR EMISSION
TOMOGRAPHY
A scanning system records sector
scans in a variety of planes which are
then combined by S/W to give a
composite view. It uses a rotating
gamma camera or a multi-crystal
scanner that has better resolution

A: multiple position scans

B: array of multiple detectors
 ULTRASOUND IMAGING

• Uses frequencies greater than 20kHz (ie. the audible limit) such
as 1 MHz for biomedical diagnostic use.

• The method depends on the detection of reflections of about 1%

in magnitude at body tissue.

• Applications include: brain scan, foetal size and development,

cardiography, tissue abnormalities, stones and others.

• Advantages are that: it can differentiate different type of tissue,

no tissue damage, no side-effects.
 ULTRASOUND - PROPERTIES

• Its velocity c, depends on the medium density, measured in

m s-1 (see table on the back of the handout).
• Sound image resolution depends on l. Increased resolution
is achieved by reducing l, but penetration is decreased.
• Reflection strength depends on density mismatch in the body,
e.g. between bone and muscle. The presence of air blocks
aids the transmission of the ultrasound.
• Use of a jelly between the transducer and the skin to assist the
transmission of ultrasound.
• The absorption of ultrasound in tissue depends on frequency, temperature,
density etc and is given by:

I = I o e -mk x
Where k is the attenuation coefficient and x the thickness.
 ULTRASOUND GENERATION
Sonar
• Contains a transmitter
and a receiver (T).
• Voltage is applied to
emit ultrasounds.
• Received energy is
converted back to voltage.
• Emits beams of variable
widths (pulses).

Note that otherwise we can

generate continuous ultrasound.
D=ct
D: range, c:velocity, t:time of travel
 ULTRASOUND
SCANNING TECHNIQUES
A type scan • Measures with a static transducer.

•The echo time is measured by

synchronizing the CRT display to
the transceiver.

•Applications: brain scan.

S: subject
C: transducer
J: jelly
T:transmitter, R:receiver
P: pulse rate generator
Q: time base generator
K: CRT display
 ULTRASOUND
SCANNING TECHNIQUES
B type scan (moving)
• Uses a ‘rocked’ transducer and
pulsed emissions to increase the
probability of obtaining normal
reflections.

• Applications: tumours and stones.

Positions 1-3 to give composite

image.
 ULTRASOUND
SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Time Position (TP) type scan
• It is a modified B scan type suitably
pulsed with low speed time.
• Applications: determination of foetal
heart rates.
Doppler type scan
• Uses continuous waves.
• Frequency changes due to the velocity
(V) of the subject or the source.
Movement towards the receiver
gives a higher frequency.
• Frequency change Dn=2nV/c
n: frequency
V: velocity of subject or source
c: velocity of ultrasound
• Applications: heart functions, blood flow