CHEMISTRY

HIGHER 1 (Syllabus 8872) CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION AIMS ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT SUBJECT CONTENT SUMMARY OF KEY QUANTITIES AND UNITS MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS GLOSSARY OF TERMS DATA BOOKLET PERIODIC TABLE 1 1 2 3 6 20 21 22 25 35

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INTRODUCTION
Candidates will be assumed to have knowledge and understanding of Chemistry at O Level, as a single subject or as part of a balanced science course. This syllabus is designed to place less emphasis on factual material and greater emphasis on the understanding and application of scientific concepts and principles. This approach has been adopted in recognition of the need for students to develop skills that will be of long term value in an increasingly technological world rather than focusing on large quantities of factual material which may have only short term relevance. Experimental work is an important component and should underpin the teaching and learning of Chemistry.

AIMS
These are not listed in order of priority. Many of these Aims are reflected in the Assessment Objectives which follow; others are not readily assessed. The aims are to 1. provide, through well designed studies of experimental and practical chemistry, a worthwhile educational experience for all students, whether or not they go on to study science beyond this level and, in particular, to enable them to acquire sufficient understanding and knowledge to: 1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take or develop an informed interest in matters of scientific import; recognise the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to appreciate its applicability in other disciplines and in everyday life; be suitably prepared for employment and/or further studies beyond A Level.

1.2

1.3 2.

develop abilities and skills that: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 are relevant to the study and practice of science; are useful in everyday life; encourage efficient and safe practice; encourage the presentation of information and ideas appropriate for different audiences and purposes; develop self motivation and the ability to work in a sustained fashion.

2.5

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3.

develop attitudes relevant to science such as: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 accuracy and precision; objectivity; integrity; enquiry; initiative; insight.

4. 5.

stimulate interest in and care for the environment. promote an awareness that: 5.1 the study and practice of science are co-operative and cumulative activities, and are subject to social, economic, technological, ethical and cultural influences and limitations; the applications of science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the individual, the community and the environment; that science transcends national boundaries and that the language of science, correctly and rigorously applied, is universal; the use of information technology is important for communication, as an aid to experiments and as a tool for interpretation of experimental and theoretical results.

5.2

5.3

5.4

ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
The assessment objectives listed below reflect those parts of the Aims which will be assessed. A Knowledge with understanding

Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge with understanding in relation to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. scientific phenomena, facts, laws, definitions, concepts, theories; scientific vocabulary, terminology, conventions (including symbols, quantities and units); scientific instruments and apparatus, including techniques of operation and aspects of safety; scientific quantities and their determination; scientific and technological applications with their social, economic and environmental implications.

The Syllabus Content defines the factual knowledge that candidates may be required to recall and explain. Questions testing these objectives will often begin with one of the following words: define, state, describe, explain or outline. (See the Glossary of Terms)

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Handling, applying and evaluating information

Students should be able, in words or by using symbolic, graphical and numerical forms of presentation, to: 1. 2. 3. 4. locate, select, organise and present information from a variety of sources; handle information, distinguishing the relevant from the extraneous; manipulate numerical and other data and translate information from one form to another; analyse and evaluate information so as to identify patterns, report trends and conclusions, and draw inferences; present reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns and relationships; construct arguments to support hypotheses or to justify a course of action; apply knowledge, including principles, to novel situations; evaluate information and hypotheses; demonstrate an awareness of the limitations of chemistry theories and models; bring together knowledge, principles and concepts from different areas of chemistry, and apply them in a particular context; use chemical skills in contexts which bring together different areas of the subject.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11.

These assessment objectives cannot be precisely specified in the Syllabus content because questions testing such skills may be based on information which is unfamiliar to the candidate. In answering such questions, candidates are required to use principles and concepts that are within the syllabus and apply them in a logical, reasoned or deductive manner to a novel situation. Questions testing these objectives will often begin with one of the following words: predict, suggest, construct, calculate or determine. (See the Glossary of Terms)

SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT
All candidates are required to enter for Papers 1 and 2. Paper 1 2 Type of Paper Multiple Choice Structured and Free Response Questions Duration 50 min 2h Marks 30 80 Weighting (%) 33 67

Paper 1 (50 min, 30 marks) 30 multiple choice questions, all compulsory. 25 items will be of the direct choice type and 5 of the multiple completion type. All questions will include 4 responses.

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Paper 2 (2h, 80 marks) Section A (40 marks) A variable number of structured questions plus one or two data-based questions, all compulsory. Answered on the question paper. The data-based question(s) constitute(s) 1015 marks for this paper. The data-based question(s) provide(s) good opportunity to test higher order thinking skills such as handling, applying, and evaluating information. Section B (40 marks) Candidates will be required to answer a total of two out of three questions. Each question will carry 20 marks. All the questions will require candidates to integrate knowledge and understanding from different areas and topics of the chemistry syllabus.

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MARKS ALLOCATED TO ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES

Relationship between the assessment objectives and assessment components in the Theory Papers. In demonstrating what they know, understand and can do, candidates will be expected, within the Theory Papers (other than the multiple-choice paper), to use a form of communication appropriate to the context of the question. Assessment Objectives A B Knowledge with understanding Handling, applying and evaluating information Weighting (%) 40 60 Assessment Components Papers 1, 2 Papers 1, 2

The proportion of marks allocated to Physical, Inorganic and Organic Chemistry in Papers 1 and 2 will be in the approximate ratio 5:1:3. Data Booklet A Data Booklet is available for use in the Theory Papers. The booklet is reprinted at the end of this syllabus document. Nomenclature Students will be expected to be familiar with the nomenclature used in the syllabus. The proposals in "Signs, Symbols and Systematics" (The Association for Science Education Companion to 16-19 Science, 2000) will generally be adopted although the traditional names sulfate, sulfite, nitrate, nitrite, sulfurous and nitrous acids will be used in question papers. Sulfur (and all compounds of sulfur) will be spelt with f (not with ph) in question papers, however students can use either spelling in their answers. Grading Conditions Candidates results are based on the aggregation of their marks in the various papers, i.e. there are no hurdle conditions under which a prescribed level of performance in an individual paper prevents the award of an A Level result. Disallowed Subject Combinations Candidates may not simultaneously offer Chemistry at H1 and H2.

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H1 SUBJECT CONTENT PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1. ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY

Content Relative masses of atoms and molecules The mole, the Avogadro constant The calculation of empirical and molecular formulae Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)

Learning Outcomes [the term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for ionic compounds] Candidates should be able to: (a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses, based on the scale; define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant; calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes; define the terms empirical and molecular formulae; calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or composition by mass; write and/or construct balanced equations; perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving: (i) (ii) (iii) reacting masses (from formulae and equations); volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons); volumes and concentrations of solutions;
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(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

[When performing calculations, candidates answers should reflect the number of significant figures given or asked for in the question.] (h) 2. deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (g). REDOX REACTIONS

Content Redox processes: electron transfer and changes in oxidation number (oxidation state)

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Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) describe and explain redox processes in terms of electron transfer and/or of changes in oxidation number (oxidation state), as exemplified by Fe3+/Fe2+, MnO4/Mn2+ and Cr2O72/Cr3+; construct redox equations using the relevant half-equations. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

(b) 3.

Content The nucleus of the atom: neutrons and protons, isotopes, proton and nucleon numbers Electrons: electronic energy levels, ionisation energies, atomic orbitals, extranuclear structure

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their relative charges and relative masses; deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in an electric field; describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom; deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers (and charge); (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number and nucleon number; distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons present;

(b) (c) (d)

(e)

(ii) (f)

describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals; describe the shapes of s and p orbitals; state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton number (and charge); (i) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements (see the Data Booklet); explain the trends in ionisation energies across a period and down a Group of the Periodic Table (see also Section 8);

(g) (h) (i)

(ii)

(j) (k)

deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive ionisation energy data; interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the position of that element within the Periodic Table.

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4.

CHEMICAL BONDING

Content Ionic (electrovalent) bonding Covalent bonding and co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding (i) (ii) The shapes of simple molecules Bond energies, bond lengths and bond polarities

Intermolecular forces, including hydrogen bonding Metallic bonding Bonding and physical properties The solid state

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) describe ionic (electrovalent) bonding, as in sodium chloride and magnesium oxide, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams; describe, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams: (i) covalent bonding, as in hydrogen; oxygen; nitrogen; chlorine; hydrogen chloride; carbon dioxide; methane; ethane; co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, as in the formation of the ammonium ion and in the Al2Cl6 molecule;

(b)

(ii)

(c)

explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules such as BF3 (trigonal planar); CO2 (linear); CH4 (tetrahedral); NH3 (trigonal pyramidal); H2O (non-linear); SF6 (octahedral) by using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory; describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving (see also Section 9.1);

(d)

and bonds

(e) (f)

predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules analogous to those specified in (c); describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water as examples of molecules containing -NH and -OH groups; explain the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity and use them to compare the reactivities of covalent bonds; describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces), based on permanent and induced dipoles, as in CHCl3(l); Br2(l) and the liquid noble gases; describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by mobile electrons; describe, interpret and/or predict the effect of different types of bonding (ionic bonding; covalent bonding; hydrogen bonding; other intermolecular interactions; metallic bonding) on the physical properties of substances; deduce the type of bonding present from given information;

(g)

(h)

(i) (j)

(k)

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(l)

show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers associated with the breaking and making of chemical bonds; describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide; simple molecular, as in iodine; giant molecular, as in graphite, diamond; hydrogen-bonded, as in ice; metallic, as in copper;

(m)

[the concept of the unit cell is not required] (n) outline the importance of hydrogen bonding to the physical properties of substances, including ice and water; suggest from quoted physical data the type of structure and bonding present in a substance; recognise that materials are a finite resource and the importance of recycling processes. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

(o) (p) 5.

Content Enthalpy changes: lattice energy Hess Law

H of formation, combustion, and neutralisation; bond energy;

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) explain that some chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes, principally in the form of heat energy; the energy changes can be exothermic ( H negative) or endothermic ( H positive); explain and use the terms: (i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with particular reference to: formation; combustion; neutralisation; bond energy ( H positive, i.e. bond breaking); lattice energy ( H negative, i.e. gaseous ions to solid lattice);

(b)

(ii) (iii) (c)

calculate enthalpy changes from appropriate experimental results, including the use of the relationship heat change = mc T

(d)

explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic radius on the numerical magnitude of a lattice energy;

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(e)

apply Hess Law to carry out calculations involving given simple energy cycles and relevant energy terms (restricted to enthalpy changes of formation, combustion, and neutralization), with particular reference to: (i) determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct experiment, e.g. an enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes of combustion; average bond energies;

(ii)

[construction of energy cycles is not required] (f) construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms of the enthalpy change of the reaction and of the activation energy. EQUILIBRIA

6.

Content Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions; dynamic equilibrium (i) (ii) (iii) Factors affecting chemical equilibria Equilibrium constants The Haber process

Ionic equilibria (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases Acid dissociation constants, Ka Base dissociation constants, Kb The ionic product of water, Kw pH: choice of indicators Buffer solutions

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) explain, in terms of rates of the forward and reverse reactions, what is meant by a reversible reaction and dynamic equilibrium; state Le Chateliers Principle and apply it to deduce qualitatively (from appropriate information) the effects of changes in concentration, pressure or temperature, on a system at equilibrium; deduce whether changes in concentration, pressure, or temperature, or the presence of a catalyst affect the value of the equilibrium constant for a reaction; deduce expressions for equilibrium constants in terms of concentrations, Kc; calculate the value of Kc, in terms of concentrations from appropriate data; calculate the quantities present at equilibrium, given appropriate data (such calculations will not involve solving of quadratic equations);

(b)

(c)

(d) (e) (f)

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(g)

describe and explain the conditions used in the Haber process, as an example of the importance of an understanding of chemical equilibrium in the chemical industry; show understanding of, and apply the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, including the concept of conjugate acids and bases; explain qualitatively the differences in behaviour between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation; explain the terms pH; Ka; Kb; Kw; [the relationship Kw = KaKb is not required] calculate [H+(aq)] and pH values for strong acids, and strong bases; explain the choice of suitable indicators for acid-base titrations, given appropriate data, in terms of the strengths of the acids and bases; (i) (ii) explain how acidic buffer solutions control pH; describe and explain the uses of buffers, including the role of H2CO3/HCO3 in controlling pH in blood.

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k) (l)

(m)

7.

REACTION KINETICS

Content Simple rate equations; orders of reaction; rate constants Concept of activation energy Effect of concentration, temperature, and catalysts on reaction rate Enzymes as biological catalysts

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) explain and use the terms: rate of reaction; rate equation; order of reaction; rate constant; half-life of a reaction; activation energy; catalysis; construct and use rate equations of the form rate = k[A]m[B]n (limited to simple cases of single step reactions, for which m and n are 0, 1 or 2), including: (i) (ii) deducing the order of a reaction by the initial rates method; justifying, for zero- and concentration-time graphs; first-order reactions, the order of reaction from

(b)

(iii)

calculating an initial rate using concentration data;

[integrated forms of rate equations are not required] (c) (d) recognise that the half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of concentration; explain qualitatively, in terms of collisions, the effect of concentration changes on the rate of a reaction; show understanding, including reference to the Boltzmann distribution, of what is meant by the term activation energy;

(e)

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(f)

explain qualitatively, in terms both of the Boltzmann distribution and of collision frequency, the effect of temperature change on a rate constant (and, hence, on the rate) of a reaction; (i) explain that, in the presence of a catalyst, a reaction follows a different pathway, i.e. one of lower activation energy, giving a larger rate constant; interpret this catalytic effect in terms of the Boltzmann distribution;

(g)

(ii) (h) 8.

describe enzymes as biological catalysts which may have specific activity. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Preamble It is intended that the study should: be based on a study of the patterns across the third period of the Periodic Table apply unifying themes to inorganic chemistry, such as redox (Section 2), atomic structure (Section 3), chemical bonding (Section 4), and the reactions of ions and acid-base behaviour, (Section 6) where appropriate; include: the representation of reactions by means of balanced equations (molecular and/or ionic equations, together with state symbols); the interpretation of redox reactions in terms of changes in oxidation state of the species involved; the interpretation of chemical reactions in terms of ionic equilibria.

THE PERIODIC TABLE: CHEMICAL PERIODICITY Content Periodicity of physical properties of the elements: variation with proton number across the third period (sodium to argon) of: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Atomic radius and ionic radius Melting point Electrical conductivity Ionisation energy

Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in the third period (i) (ii) Reaction of the elements with oxygen and chlorine Variation in oxidation number of the oxides (sodium to sulfur only) and of the chlorides (sodium to phosphorus only) Reactions of these oxides and chlorides with water Acid/base behaviour of these oxides and the corresponding hydroxides

(iii) (iv)

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Learning Outcomes Candidates should, for the third period (sodium to argon), be able to: (a) describe qualitatively (and indicate the periodicity in) the variations in atomic radius, ionic radius, melting point and electrical conductivity of the elements (see the Data Booklet); explain qualitatively the variation in atomic radius and ionic radius; interpret the variation in melting point and in electrical conductivity in terms of the presence of simple molecular, giant molecular or metallic bonding in the elements; explain the variation in first ionisation energy; describe the reactions, if any, of the elements with oxygen (to give Na2O; MgO; Al2O3; P4O6; P4O10; SO2; SO3), and chlorine (to give NaCl; MgCl2; Al2Cl6; SiCl4; PCl3; PCl5); state and explain the variation in oxidation number of the oxides and chlorides; describe the reactions of the oxides with water; [treatment of peroxides and superoxides is not required] (h) describe and explain the acid/base behaviour of oxides and hydroxides, including, where relevant, amphoteric behaviour in reaction with sodium hydroxide (only) and acids; describe and explain the reactions of the chlorides with water; interpret the variations and trends in (f), (g), (h), and (i) in terms of bonding and electronegativity; suggest the types of chemical bonding present in chlorides and oxides from observations of their chemical and physical properties;

(b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

(i) (j)

(k)

In addition, candidates should be able to: (l) predict the characteristic properties of an element in a given Group by using knowledge of chemical periodicity; deduce the nature, possible position in the Periodic Table, and identity of unknown elements from given information of physical and chemical properties. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(m)

9.

Preamble Although there are features of organic chemistry topics that are distinctive, it is intended that appropriate cross-references with other sections/topics in the syllabus should be made. When describing preparative reactions, candidates will be expected to quote the reagents, e.g. aqueous NaOH, the essential practical conditions, e.g. reflux, and the identity of each of the major products. Detailed knowledge of practical procedures is not required, however, candidates may be expected to suggest (from their knowledge of the reagents, essential conditions and products) what steps may be needed to purify/extract a required product from the reaction mixture. In equations for organic redox reactions, the symbols [O] and [H] are acceptable.

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9.1

INTRODUCTORY TOPICS

In each of the sections below, 9.1 to 9.6, candidates will be expected to be able to predict the reaction products of a given compound in reactions that are chemically similar to those specified. Content Molecular, structural and empirical formulae Functional groups and the naming of organic compounds Characteristic organic reactions Shapes of organic molecules; and bonds Isomerism: structural; geometrical

Structural formulae In candidates answers, an acceptable response to a request for a structural formula will be to give the minimal detail, using conventional groups, for an unambiguous structure, e.g. CH3CH2CH2OH for propan-1-ol, not C3H7OH. Displayed formulae A displayed formula should show both the relative placing of atoms and the number of bonds between them, e.g.

H H C H C

O O H

for ethanoic acid.

Skeletal formulae A skeletal formula is a simplified representation of an organic formula. It is derived from the structural formula by removing hydrogen atoms (and their associated bonds) and carbon atoms from alkyl chains, leaving just the carbon-carbon bonds in the carbon skeleton and the associated functional groups. Skeletal or partial-skeletal representations may be used in question papers and are acceptable in candidates answers where they are unambiguous. The skeletal formula for butan-2-ol and a partial-skeletal formula for cholesterol are shown below.

The

convention for representing the aromatic ring is preferred.

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Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) interpret, and use the nomenclature, general formulae and displayed formulae of the following classes of compound: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (b) alkanes, alkenes and arenes; halogenoalkanes; alcohols (including primary, secondary and tertiary); aldehydes and ketones; carboxylic acids and esters; amines, nitriles;

interpret and use the following terminology associated with organic reactions: (i) (ii) (iii) functional group; addition, substitution, elimination, hydrolysis; oxidation and reduction;

[in equations for organic redox reactions, the symbols [O] and [H] are acceptable] (c) (d) describe the shapes of the ethane, ethene and benzene molecules; explain the shapes of the ethane, ethene and benzene molecules in terms of and carbon-carbon bonds; predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules analogous to those specified in (c); describe structural isomerism; describe geometrical isomerism in alkenes, and explain its origin in terms of restricted rotation due to the presence of bonds; [use of E, Z nomenclature is not required] (h) deduce the possible structural and/or geometrical isomers for an organic molecule of known molecular formula; identify geometrical isomerism in a molecule of given structural formula. HYDROCARBONS

(e) (f) (g)

(i) 9.2

Content Alkanes (exemplified by ethane) (i) Combustion and substitution reactions

Alkenes (exemplified by ethene) (i) Addition and oxidation reactions

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Arenes (exemplified by benzene and methylbenzene) (i) (ii) (iii) Influence of delocalised electrons on structure and properties Substitution reactions Oxidation of side-chain

Hydrocarbons as fuels

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) (b) recognise the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar reagents; describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified by the following reactions of ethane: (i) (ii) (c) combustion; substitution by chlorine and by bromine;

describe the chemistry of alkenes as exemplified, where relevant, by the following reactions of ethene: (i) (ii) (iii) addition of hydrogen, steam, hydrogen halides and halogens; oxidation by cold, dilute manganate(VII) ions to form the diol; oxidation by hot, concentrated manganate(VII) ions leading to the rupture of the carbon-to-carbon double bond in order to determine the position of alkene linkages in larger molecules;

(d)

describe the chemistry of arenes as exemplified by the following reactions of benzene and methylbenzene: (i) (ii) substitution reactions with chlorine and with bromine; oxidation of the side-chain to give a carboxylic acid;

(e)

explain why arenes undergo substitution reactions (but not addition reactions) based on the stability of the aromatic nucleus; predict whether halogenation will occur in the side-chain or aromatic nucleus in arenes depending on reaction conditions; recognise the environmental consequences of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons arising from the internal combustion engine and of their catalytic removal. HALOGEN DERIVATIVES

(f)

(g)

9.3

Content Halogenoalkanes (i) (ii) Substitution Elimination

Relative strength of the C-Hal bond

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Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) recall the chemistry of halogenoalkanes as exemplified by: (i) the following substitution reactions of bromoethane: hydrolysis; formation of nitriles; formation of primary amines by reaction with ammonia; the elimination of hydrogen bromide from 2-bromopropane;

(ii) (b)

interpret the different reactivities of halogenoalkanes with particular reference to hydrolysis and to the relative strengths of the C-Hal bonds; explain the uses of fluoroalkanes and fluorohalogenoalkanes in terms of their relative chemical inertness; recognise the concern about the effect of chlorofluoroalkanes (CFCs) on the ozone layer. [the mechanistic details of how CFCs deplete the ozone layer are not required]

(c)

(d)

9.4

ALCOHOLS

Content Alcohols (exemplified by ethanol) (i) (ii) (iii) Formation of halogenoalkanes Reaction with sodium; oxidation; dehydration The tri-iodomethane test

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) recall the chemistry of alcohols, exemplified by ethanol: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (b) (i) (ii) (c) combustion; substitution to give halogenoalkanes; reaction with sodium; oxidation to carbonyl compounds and carboxylic acids; dehydration to alkenes; classify hydroxy compounds into primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; suggest characteristic distinguishing reactions, e.g. mild oxidation;

deduce the presence of a CH3CH(OH)- group in an alcohol from its reaction with alkaline aqueous iodine to form tri-iodomethane.

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9.5

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

Content Aldehydes (exemplified by ethanal) (i) (ii) (iii) Oxidation to carboxylic acid Reaction with hydrogen cyanide Characteristic tests for aldehydes

Ketones (exemplified by propanone) (i) (ii) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide Characteristic tests for ketones

Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the formation of aldehydes and ketones from, and their reduction to, primary and secondary alcohols respectively; describe the addition reactions of hydrogen cyanide with aldehydes and ketones; describe the use of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) to detect the presence of carbonyl compounds; deduce the nature (aldehyde or ketone) of an unknown carbonyl compound from the results of simple tests (i.e. Fehlings and Tollens reagents; ease of oxidation); describe the reaction of CH3CO compounds with alkaline aqueous iodine to give tri-iodomethane. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES

(b) (c)

(d)

(e)

9.6

Content Carboxylic acids (exemplified by ethanoic acid) (i) (ii) Formation from primary alcohols and nitriles Salt and ester formation

Esters (exemplified by ethyl ethanoate) (i) (ii) Formation from carboxylic acids Hydrolysis (under acidic and under basic conditions)

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Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) (b) describe the formation of carboxylic acids from alcohols, aldehydes and nitriles; describe the reactions of carboxylic acids in the formation of: (i) (ii) (c) (d) salts; esters on reaction with alcohols, using ethyl ethanoate as an example;

explain the acidity of carboxylic acids in terms of their structures; describe the acid and base hydrolysis of esters.

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SUMMARY OF KEY QUANTITIES AND UNITS

The list below is intended as a guide to the more important quantities which might be encountered in teaching and used in question papers. The list is not exhaustive. Quantity Base quantities mass length time electric current thermodynamic temperature amount of substance Other quantities temperature volume density pressure frequency wavelength speed of electromagnetic waves Planck constant electrode potential (standard) redox electric potential difference electromotive force molar gas constant half-life atomic mass atomic mass relative isotopic molecular mass relative molecular mass molar mass nucleon number proton number neutron number number of molecules number of molecules per unit volume Avogadro constant Faraday constant enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy change of reaction ionisation energy lattice energy bond energy electron affinity rate constant equilibrium constant acid dissociation constant base dissociation constant order of reaction mole fraction concentration partition coefficient ionic product, solubility product ionic product of water pH Usual symbols m l t I T n
,t V, v p v, f c h

SI unit kg, g m s A K mol C m3, dm3 kg m3, g dm3, g cm3 Pa Hz m, mm, nm m s1 Js V V V J K1 mol1 s kg g g mol1 m3 mol1 C mol1 J, kJ J mol1, kJ mol1 kJ mol1 kJ mol1 kJ mol1 kJ mol1 as appropriate as appropriate mol dm3 mol dm3 mol dm3 as appropriate mol2 dm6 -

(E ) E V E R T, t ma Ar m Mr M A Z N N n L F H H I k K, Kp, Kc Ka Kb n, m x c K K, Ksp, Kw pH 20

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS
It is assumed that candidates will be competent in the techniques described below: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) make calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of quantities; make approximate evaluations of numerical expressions; express small fractions as percentages, and vice versa; calculate an arithmetic mean; transform decimal notation to power of ten notation (standard form); use calculators to evaluate logarithms (for pH calculations), squares, square roots, and reciprocals; change the subject of an equation (Most such equations involve only the simpler operations but may include positive and negative indices and square roots.); substitute physical quantities into an equation using consistent units so as to calculate one quantity; check the dimensional consistency of such calculations, e.g. the units of a rate constant k; solve simple algebraic equations; comprehend and use the symbols/notations <, >, , /, , , x (or <x>); test tabulated pairs of values for direct proportionality by a graphical method or by constancy of ratio; select appropriate variables and scales for plotting a graph, especially to obtain a linear graph of the form y = mx + c; determine and interpret the slope and intercept of a linear graph; choose by inspection a straight line that will serve as the least bad linear model for a set of data presented graphically; understand (i) the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate of change, (ii) the area below a curve where the area has physical significance, e.g. Boltzmann distribution curves; comprehend how to handle numerical work so that significant figures are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified; estimate orders of magnitude; formulate simple algebraic equations as mathematical models, e.g. construct a rate equation, and identify failures of such models.

(g)

(h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

(m)

(n) (o)

(p)

(q)

(r) (s)

Calculators Any calculator used must be on the Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board list of approved calculators.

21

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
It is hoped that the glossary (which is relevant only to science subjects) will prove helpful to candidates as a guide, i.e. it is neither exhaustive nor definitive. The glossary has been deliberately kept brief not only with respect to the number of terms included but also to the descriptions of their meanings. Candidates should appreciate that the meaning of a term must depend in part on its context. 1. Define (the term(s)...) is intended literally. Only a formal statement or equivalent paraphrase being required. What do you understand by/What is meant by (the term(s)...) normally implies that a definition should be given, together with some relevant comment on the significance or context of the term(s) concerned, especially where two or more terms are included in the question. The amount of supplementary comment intended should be interpreted in the light of the indicated mark value. State implies a concise answer with little or no supporting argument, e.g. a numerical answer that can be obtained by inspection. List requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elaboration. Where a given number of points is specified, this should not be exceeded. Explain may imply reasoning or some reference to theory, depending on the context. Describe requires candidates to state in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main points of the topic. It is often used with reference either to particular phenomena or to particular experiments. In the former instance, the term usually implies that the answer should include reference to (visual) observations associated with the phenomena. In other contexts, describe and give an account of should be interpreted more generally, i.e. the candidate has greater discretion about the nature and the organisation of the material to be included in the answer. Describe and explain may be coupled in a similar way to state and explain. 7. 8. 9. Discuss requires candidates to give a critical account of the points involved in the topic. Outline implies brevity, i.e. restricting the answer to giving essentials. Predict implies that the candidate is not expected to produce the required answer by recall but by making a logical connection between other pieces of information. Such information may be wholly given in the question or may depend on answers extracted in an early part of the question. Deduce is used in a similar way as predict except that some supporting statement is required, e.g. reference to a law/principle, or the necessary reasoning is to be included in the answer. Comment is intended as an open-ended instruction, inviting candidates to recall or infer points of interest relevant to the context of the question, taking account of the number of marks available. Suggest is used in two main contexts, i.e. either to imply that there is no unique answer (e.g. in chemistry, two or more substances may satisfy the given conditions describing an unknown), or to imply that candidates are expected to apply their general knowledge to a novel situation, one that may be formally not in the syllabus. Find is a general term that may variously be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine etc. Calculate is used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should be shown, especially where two or more steps are involved.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

10.

11.

12.

13. 14.

22

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

15.

Measure implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a suitable measuring instrument, e.g. length, using a rule, or angle, using a protractor. Determine often implies that the quantity concerned cannot be measured directly but is obtained by calculation, substituting measured or known values of other quantities into a standard formula, e.g. relative molecular mass. Estimate implies a reasoned order of magnitude statement or calculation of the quantity concerned, making such simplifying assumptions as may be necessary about points of principle and about the values of quantities not otherwise included in the question. Sketch, when applied to graph work, implies that the shape and/or position of the curve need only be qualitatively correct, but candidates should be aware that, depending on the context, some quantitative aspects may be looked for, e.g. passing through the origin, having an intercept, asymptote or discontinuity at a particular value. In diagrams, sketch implies that a simple, freehand drawing is acceptable: nevertheless, care should be taken over proportions and the clear exposition of important details.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Construct is often used in relation to chemical equations where a candidate is expected to write a balanced equation, not by factual recall but by analogy or by using information in the question. Compare requires candidates to provide both the similarities and differences between things or concepts. Classify requires candidates to group things based on common characteristics. Recognise is often used to identify facts, characteristics or concepts that are critical (relevant/appropriate) to the understanding of a situation, event, process or phenomenon.

20.

21. 22.

Special Note Units, significant figures: Candidates should be aware that misuse of units and/or significant figures, i.e. failure to quote units where necessary, the inclusion of units in quantities defined as ratios or quoting answers to an inappropriate number of significant figures, is liable to be penalised.

23

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

TEXTBOOKS
Teachers may find reference to the following books helpful: Chemistry for Advanced Level by P. Cann & P. Hughes, published by John Murray A-Level Chemistry (4th Edition) by E. N. Ramsden, published by Nelson Thornes Understanding Chemistry for Advanced Level (3rd Edition), by T. Lister & J. Renshaw, published by Nelson Thornes Chemistry in Action (2nd Edition) by Michael Freemantle, published by Macmillan Press Advanced Chemistry through Diagrams by M. Lewis, published by Oxford University Press Chemistry in Context (5th Edition) by Hill & Holman, published by Nelson Thornes Chemistry in Context Laboratory Manual and Study Guide (5th Edition) by Hill & Holman, published by Nelson Thornes Experiments and Exercises in Basic Chemistry (5th Edition) by S. Murov & B. Stedjee, published by John Wiley Chemical Ideas (Salters Advanced Chemistry) by G. Burton, published by Heinemann ILPAC Advanced Practical Chemistry (2nd edition) by A. Lainchbury, J. Stephens, A. Thompson, published by John Murray These titles represent some of the texts available at the time of printing this booklet. Teachers are encouraged to choose texts for class use which they feel will be of interest to their students and will support their own teaching style. Many publishers are also producing videos and software appropriate for A Level Chemistry students.

24

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

for
Chemistry
(Advanced Level)

for use in all papers for the H1, H2, H3 Chemistry syllabuses, except practical examinations

25

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

TABLES OF CHEMICAL DATA

Important values, constants and standards molar gas constant the Faraday constant the Avogadro constant the Planck constant speed of light in a vacuum rest mass of proton, 1H rest mass of neutron, 0 n rest mass of electron, electronic charge molar volume of gas
0 1 1 1

R F L h c mp mn me e

= 8.31 J K1 mol1 = 9.65 x 104 C mol1 = 6.02 x 1023 mol1 = 6.63 x 1034 J s = 3.00 x 108 m s1 = 1.67 x 1027 kg = 1.67 x 1027 kg = 9.11 x 1031 kg = 1.60 x 1019 C

Vm = 22.4 dm3 mol1 at s.t.p Vm = 24 dm3 mol1 under room conditions (where s.t.p. is expressed as 101 kPa, approximately, and 273 K (0 C)) ionic product of water Kw = 1.00 x 1014 mol2 dm6 (at 298 K [25 C]) = 4.18 kJ kg1 K1 (= 4.18 J g1 K1)

specific heat capacity of water

26

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013) Ionisation energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of selected elements, in kJ mol1 Proton Number H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge Br Sr Sn I Ba Pb 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 35 38 50 53 56 82

First 1310 2370 519 900 799 1090 1400 1310 1680 2080 494 736 577 786 1060 1000 1260 1520 418 590 632 661 648 653 716 762 757 736 745 908 577 762 1140 548 707 1010 502 716

Second 5250 7300 1760 2420 2350 2860 3390 3370 3950 4560 1450 1820 1580 1900 2260 2300 2660 3070 1150 1240 1310 1370 1590 1510 1560 1640 1750 1960 1730 1980 1540 2080 1060 1410 1840 966 1450

Third 11800 14800 3660 4610 4590 5320 6040 6150 6940 7740 2740 3230 2920 3390 3850 3950 4600 4940 2390 2720 2870 2990 3250 2960 3230 3390 3350 3828 2960 3300 3460 4120 2940 2040 3390 3080

Fourth 21000 25000 6220 7480 7450 8410 9290 9540 10500 11600 4360 4960 4540 5150 5770 5860 6480 7110 4170 4600 4770 5190 5400 5100 5400 5690 5980 6190 4390 4850 5440 3930 4030 4080

27

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013) Bond energies (a) Diatomic molecules Bond H H D D NN O=O FF ClCl BrBr II HF HCl HBr HI (b) Polyatomic molecules Bond C C C=C CC C.C (benzene) CH CCl CBr CI CO C=O CN C=N CN N H N N N=N OH OO SiCl SiH SiO SiSi S Cl SH SS Energy/kJ mol1 350 610 840 520 410 340 280 240 360 740 305 610 890 390 160 410 460 150 359 320 444 222 250 347 264 Energy/kJ mol1 436 442 994 496 158 244 193 151 562 431 366 299

28

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013) Standard electrode potential and redox potentials, E For ease of reference, two tabulations are given: at 298 K (25 C)

(a) an extended list in alphabetical order; (b) a shorter list in decreasing order of magnitude, i.e. a redox series. (a) E in alphabetical order Electrode reaction Ag+ + e Al Ba
3+

E /V Ag Al Ba 2Br Ca 2Cl Co Co Cr Cr Cr
2+ 3+ 2+

+0.80 1.66 2.90 +1.07 2.87 +1.36 +1.64 0.28 +1.82 0.43 0.91 0.74 0.41 +1.33 +0.52 +0.34
+

+ 3e + 2e

2+

Br2 + 2e Ca2+ + 2e Cl2 + 2e 2HOCl + 2H + 2e Co

2+ +

Cl2 + 2H2O

+ 2e +e

Co Cr Cr Cr2O72

3+

[Co(NH3)6]2+ + 2e
2+ 3+

Co + 6NH3

+ 2e + 3e +e

Cr

3+

+ 14H + 6e Cu + e Cu
2+ +

2Cr + 7H2O Cu Cu Cu 2F Cu + 4NH3

Cu2+ + 2e +e

+0.15 0.05 +2.87 0.44 0.04 +0.77 +0.36

[Cu(NH3)4]

2+

+ 2e

F2 + 2e Fe Fe
2+ 3+

+ 2e + 3e +e

Fe Fe Fe
2+

Fe

3+

[Fe(CN)6]3 + e Fe(OH)3 + e 2H + 2e I2 + 2e K +e Li + e Mn
2+ + + +

[Fe(CN)6]4 Fe(OH)2 + OH H2 2I K Li Mg Mn Mn Mn
2+ 2+

0.56 0.00 +0.54 2.92 3.04 2.38 1.18 +1.49

Mg2+ + 2e + 2e +e

Mn

3+

MnO2 + 4H + 2e

+ 2H2O

+1.23 +0.56 +1.67 +1.52 +0.81 +0.94 +0.87 2.71 0.25 0.51

MnO4 + e MnO4 + 4H+ + 3e MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e NO3 + 2H+ + e NO3 + 3H+ + 2e NO3 + 10H+ + 8e + Na + e
2+

MnO42 MnO2 + 2H2O Mn2+ + 4H2O NO2 + H2O HNO2 + H2O NH4+ Na Ni Ni + 6NH3 29 + 3H2O

Ni

+ 2e

[Ni(NH3)6]2+ + 2e

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013) H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e O2 + 4H + 4e O2 + 2H2O + 4e O2 + 2H + 2e 2H2O + 2e Pb Pb SO42

2+ 4+ + +

2H2O 2H2O 4OH

+1.77 +1.23 +0.40 +0.68

H2O2 H2 + 2OH Pb Pb
2+

0.83 0.13 +1.69 +1.47 +0.17 +2.01 +0.09 0.14 +0.15 1.20 0.26 +0.34 +1.00 +1.00 0.76

+ 2e + 2e

PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e + 4H + 2e S2O82+ S4O62+ 2+ Sn

4+ +

Pb2+ + 2H2O SO2 + 2H2O 2SO42 2S2O32 Sn Sn V V

2+ 3+ 2+

2e 2e

Sn + 2e + 2e +e

V2+ + 2e V
2+ 3+ + + +

VO + 2H + e VO2+ VO3 + 2H + e + 4H + e Zn + 2e
2+

V + H2O VO + H2O VO + 2H2O Zn

2+ 2+

All ionic states refer to aqueous ions but other state symbols have been omitted.

30

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

(b)

in decreasing order of oxidising power

(see also the extended alphabetical list on the previous pages) Electrode reaction F2 + 2e H2O2 + 2H + 2e S2O82+ + 2e

E /V 2F 2SO42 2H2O Mn2+ + 4H2O Pb2+ + 2H2O 2Cl 2Br Ag Fe 2I

2+ 3+

+2.87 +2.01 +1.77 +1.52 +1.47 +1.36 +1.33 +1.07 +0.81 +0.80 +0.77 +0.54 +0.40 +0.34 +0.17 +0.15 +0.09 0.00 0.13 0.14 0.44 0.76 2.38 2.87 2.92

MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e Cl2 + 2e Cr2O72 + 14H + 6e Br2 + 2e NO3 + 2H + e Fe

3+ + +

2Cr + 7H2O

NO2 + H2O

Ag+ + e +e

I2 + 2e O2 + 2H2O + 4e Cu SO42
2+ +

4OH Cu

+ 2e

+ 4H + 2e

SO2 + 2H2O Sn2+ 2S2O32 H2 Pb Sn Fe Zn Mg Ca K

Sn4+ + 2e S4O62+ 2e 2H + 2e Pb + 2e Sn + 2e Fe + 2e Zn + 2e
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ +

Mg2+ + 2e Ca2+ + 2e K +e
+

31

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

Atomic and ionic radii (a) Period 3 metallic atomic/nm Na 0.186 Mg 0.160 Al 0.143 Si P S Cl Ar 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099 0.192 Be2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+ Ra2+ ionic/nm Na+ 0.095 Mg2+ 0.065 Al3+ 0.050 Si4+ P3 S2 Cl 0.041 0.212 0.184 0.181

single covalent

van der Waals (b) Group II metallic

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra

0.112 0.160 0.197 0.215 0.217 0.220

0.031 0.065 0.099 0.113 0.135 0.140

(c)

Group IV single covalent

C Si Ge Sn Pb

0.077 0.117 0.122 0.162 0.175

Si4+ Ge2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ F Cl Br I

0.041 0.093 0.112 0.120

metallic

(d)

Group VII single covalent

F Cl Br I At

0.072 0.099 0.114 0.133 0.140

0.136 0.181 0.195 0.216

(e)

First row transition elements single covalent Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

0.144 0.132 0.122 0.117 0.117 0.116 0.116 0.115 0.117 0.125

Sc3+ Ti2+ V3+ Cr3+ Mn2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Co2+ Ni2+ Cu2+ Zn2+

0.081 0.090 0.074 0.069 0.080 0.076 0.064 0.078 0.078 0.069 0.074

32

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013) Characteristic values for infra-red absorption (due to stretching vibrations in organic molecules). Characteristic ranges Wavenumber (reciprocal wavelength) /cm1 700 to 800 alcohols, ethers, esters 1000 to 1300 1610 to 1680 aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters 1680 to 1750 2070 to 2250 2200 to 2280 'hydrogen-bonded' in acids alkanes, alkenes, arenes 'hydrogen-bonded' in alcohols, phenols primary amines 'free' 2500 to 3300 2840 to 3095 3230 to 3550 3350 to 3500 3580 to 3650

Bond CCl CO C=C C=O CC CN OH CH OH N H OH

33

8872 H1 CHEMISTRY (2013)

34

The Periodic Table of the Elements Group I II

1.0

III H
hydrogen

IV

VI

VII

0
4.0

He
helium

Key
6.9 9.0 relative atomic mass

1 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0

2 20.2

Li
lithium

Be
beryllium

atomic symbol
name

B
boron

C
carbon

N
nitrogen

O
oxygen

F
fluorine

Ne
neon

3 23.0

4 24.3

atomic number

5 27.0 Al
aluminium

6 28.1

7 31.0

8 32.1

9 35.5

Na
sodium

Mg
magnesium

Si
silicon

P
phosphorus

S
sulfur

Cl

10 39.9

Ar
argon

chlorine

11 39.1

12 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4

13 69.7

14 72.6

15 74.9

16 79.0

17 79.9

18 83.8

K
potassium

Ca
calcium

Sc
scandium

Ti
titanium

V
vanadium

Cr
chromium

Mn
manganese

Fe
iron

Co
cobalt

Ni
nickel

Cu
copper

Zn
zinc

Ga
gallium

Ge
germanium

As
arsenic

Se
selenium

Br
bromine

Kr
krypton

19 85.5

20 87.6

21 88.9

22 91.2

23 92.9

24 95.9

25

26 101

27 103

28 106

29 108

30 112

31 115

32

33 119 122

34 128

35 127

36

Rb
rubidium

Sr
strontium

Y
yttrium

Zr
zirconium

Nb
niobium

Mo
42 43 184

Tc
44 186

Ru
ruthenium

Rh
rhodium

Pd
palladium

Ag
silver

Cd
cadmium

In

Sn
tin

Sb
antimony

Te
tellurium

131

Xe
xenon

molybdenum technetium

indium

iodine

37 133

38 137

39 139

40 178

41 181

45 190 192

46

47 195 197

48 201

49

50 204 Tl 207

51 209

52

53

54

35
55 87

Cs
caesium

Ba
barium

La
lanthanum

Hf
* 72
hafnium

Ta
tantalum

W
tungsten

Re
rhenium

Os
osmium

Ir

Pt
platinum

Au
gold

Hg
mercury

Pb
lead

Bi
bismuth

Po
polonium

At
astatine

Rn
radon

iridium

thallium

56

57

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

Fr
francium

Ra
radium

Ac
actinium

88

89

* rutherfordium dubnium 105 * 104

Rf

Db

Sg
seaborgium

Bh
bohrium

Hs
hassium

Mt
meitnerium

Uun
ununnilium

Uuu
unununium

Uub
ununbium

Uuq
ununquadium

Uuh
ununhexium

Uuo
ununoctium

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

114

116

118

140

141

144

150

152

157

159

163

165

167

169

173

175

lanthanides

Ce
cerium

Pr
59 60

Nd
61

Pm
promethium

Sm
samarium

Eu
europium

Gd
gadolinium

Tb
terbium

Dy
dysprosium

Ho
holmium

Er
erbium

Tm
thulium

Yb
ytterbium

Lu
lutetium

praseodymium neodymium

58

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

actinides *

Th
thorium

Pa
protactinium

U
uranium

Np
neptunium

Pu
plutonium

Am
americium

Cm
curium

Bk
berkelium

Cf
californium

Es
einsteinium

Fm
fermium

Md
mendelevium

No
nobelium

Lw
lawrencium

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103