HOW TO WRITE A LAB REPORT

When scientists want to report findings of an experiment, they submit reports that describe what they did during the course of their study to journals such as Science, Nature, or Journal of the American Chemical Society. Their reports describe succinctly the following things: 1 The problem the researchers identified. The hypotheses generated about the problem. The materials they used to conduct their experiment. The experimental method they used. Data collected during the experiment. Interpretation of the data to draw a conclusion. You do the same things when you write a lab report. Writing a lab report has one main objective, which is to report findings of an experiment. However, the reporting must be done in a very specific manner. When you write a lab report, you will use a style of writing known as technical writing. In general, a technical writing style is pretty dry, highly objective, extremely specific, and not very descriptive in terms of using descriptive words. When you write a lab report, you are writing as though the person who reads it knows absolutely NOTHING about what you are reporting. Remember: JUST THE FACTS. THE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT A LAB REPORT: The person who reads your report needs to be able to reproduce the experiment exactly as you performed it, without any outside help!! In the world of scientific journals, this is especially important because other researchers rely on accurate information and directions contained in journal articles in order for them to conduct their own research. The person reading may not necessarily know a great deal about the topic being researched by the articles author. Things you will need to do prior to writing a report: 11. Identify your problem. 22. Identify both the independent and dependent variables. 33. Establish a constant or constants. All formal lab reports will include the following sections: 1 TITLE PAGE: Center your title. Below that, type your name, your class/block, my name and the date the lab is to be turned in. 2 3 ABSTRACT: This should be no more than 150 words. This is written AFTER the entire report is finished. This is a summary of your lab, including a synopsis of your research question, your experimental method, your results and conclusion. 4 5 INTRODUCTION: The introductions purpose is twofold: it provides a framework for the reader to understand your experiment, and it introduces your research question and hypothesis. This should provide some background information for the reader, which is extremely important! Generally, this information will come from journals or other outside sources (your textbook, etc.), which must be cited properly. Failure to do so is plagiarism. As you describe your investigation, include only the question and hypothesis that you finally investigated. Briefly describe the experiment performed and the outcome predicted for the experiment. Although these items are usually presented after the background information near the end of the introduction, you should have each clearly in mind before you begin writing the introduction. It is a good idea to write down each item (question, hypothesis, prediction) before you begin to write your introduction. (from http://www.an.psu.edu/jxm57/irp/introd.htm) 1 2

3MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS: This tells the reader what you used to carry out the experiment. You should include all non-standard equipment, species of organism and sex of the organism if relevant to the experiment, as well as chemical reagents (including concentrations, if known). The methods section tells the reader HOW you carried out the experiment. It should be written in such a way that someone else can repeat your experiment and get the same results that you got. This part of the lab is one of the most important parts of the report, because it entails step by step what you did during the experiment. It is not necessary to write about failed attempts unless the technique you used could possibly be used by someone else. The method section must be written in the following manner: 1 DO NOT UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES USE THE PERSONAL PRONOUN I IN THIS SECTION! Scientific reports are never written in first person!! They are always written in third person, past tense. I know that this goes against what you have probably learned about writing in your English classes, but this is scientific report writing, and in the real world of scientific journals, this is how it is done. For example: Patients were monitored daily for 4 months to 1 year before surgery and for 12 to 46 months after transplantation. From the New England Journal of Medicine, 26 November 1992 Notice that I or we is not used here, and that the action is described as having taken place in the past. Always write in third person, past tense. Summarize your procedure. It is up to you to decide what details are important to the experimenter reading your report. Do they really need to know that you used a Wusthof knife to cut your potato cores with? No. Think about thisbe selective in what details you include in your procedure. 1 2CONCISE PROCEDURE = GOOD. LENGTHY PROCEDURE = BAD. The hardest part about writing a lab report is determining the amount of detail to include! 3 4RESULT: This section includes the following things: A paragraph or paragraphs summarizing the result. Data in either chart or table form. If your data includes calculations, you must SHOW ALL FORMULAS AND WORK! See the Data collection section of this reference guide for tips on how to choose an appropriate graph that accurately represents your data and how to construct effective data tables. Where appropriate, statistical analysis of data should be carried out. If you refer to your charts or graphs or drawings in your summary, refer to them as Figure 1, Table 1, etc. If your data includes pictures, please use the Making Scientific Drawings guidelines found in this reference guide. Always use the metric system! You will never see a scientific journal article that employs the standard system of measurement. THE RESULT SECTION IS NOT WHERE TO REPORT WHAT YOU EXPECTED TO OCCUR!!! 1 DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: The Discussion/Conclusion section is where you will analyze and interpret the results of your experiment. You should state your conclusions in this section. Do not use the word prove in your conclusions. Your results will support, verify, or confirm your hypothesis, or they will negate, refute, or contradict your hypothesis; but the word prove is not appropriate in scientific writing. Complete your Introduction and Results sections before you begin writing the discussion. The figures and tables in the Results section will be particularly important as you begin to think about your discussion. The tables allow you to present your results clearly to the reader, and graphs allow you to visualize the effects that the independent variable has had on the dependent variables in your experiment. Studying these data will be one of the first steps in interpreting your results. As you study the information in the Introduction section and your data in the Results section, write down relationships and integrate these relationships into a rough draft of your discussion. The following steps, modified from Gray, Dickey, and Kosinski (1988), may be helpful to you as you begin to organize your discussion:

11. Restate your question, hypothesis, and prediction. 22. Answer the question. 33. Write down the specific data, including results of statistical tests. Do you notice any trends or patterns in the data you collected? Data interpretation is extremely important here! 44. State whether your results did or did not confirm your prediction and support or negate your hypothesis. 55. Write down what you know about the biology involved in your experiment. How do your results fit in with what you know? What is the significance of your results? 66. List weaknesses you have identified in your experimental design. You will need to tell the reader how these imperfections may have affected your results. What errors could have occurred? How could you have improved your design? 77. List any problems that arose during the experiment itself. Unforeseen difficulties with the procedure may affect the data and should be described in the discussion. 88. What are some practical applications for your experiment? How else can this experiment be used in other research? Good researchers always talk about other studies that could be done using the research they conducted. This is how scientists learn from one another, and develop other projects! Having completed this list, integrate all of this information into several simple, clear, concise paragraphs. (from http://www.an.psu.edu/jxm57/irp/disc.htm) REFERENCES: This is a bibliography of any information sources you used in the writing of your report. For format, check the Citation Guide in this packet. With these guidelines, youll be on your way to designing great research projects in no time!

Action Verbs
For IB: These action verbs indicate the depth of treatment required for a given assessment statement. These verbs will be used in examination questions and so it is important that students are familiar with the following definitions: Define Draw List Measure State Annotate Apply Calculate Describe Distinguish Estimate Identify Outline Analyse Construct Deduce Derive Design Determine Discuss Evaluate Explain Predict Solve Suggest Give the precise meaning of a word or phrase as concisely as possible. Represent by means of pencil lines (add labels unless told NOT to do so). Give a sequence of names or other brief answers with no elaboration, each one clearly separated from the others. Find a value for a quantity. Give a specific name, value or other brief answer (no supporting argument or calculation is necessary). Add brief notes to a diagram, drawing or graph. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in a new situation. Find an answer using mathematical methods (show the work unless instructed not to do so) Give a detailed account, including all the relevant information. Give the differences between two or more different items. Find an approximate value for an unknown quantity, based on the information provided and scientific knowledge. Find an answer from a number of possibilities. Give a brief account or summary (include essential information only). Interpret data to reach conclusions. Represent or develop in graphical form. Reach a conclusion from the information given. Manipulate a mathematical equation to give a new equation or result. Produce a plan, object, simulation or model. Find the only possible answer. Give an account including, where possible, a range of arguments, assessments of the relative importance of various factors or comparisons of alternative hypotheses. Assess the implications and limitations. Give a clear account, including causes, reasons or mechanisms. Give an expected result. Obtain an answer using algebraic and/or numerical methods. Propose a hypothesis or other possible answer.

LAB SAFETY
You will carry out many laboratory activities in Biology. While no human activity is completely risk free, if you use common sense and a bit of science sense, you will encounter few problems. Science sense is an extension of common sense. Sensible laboratory conduct won't happen by memorizing a list of rules, any more than a perfect score on a written driver's test ensures an excellent driving record. The true test of science sense is your actual conduct in the laboratory. The following safety rules apply to all laboratory activities. For your personal safety and that of your classmates, make following these guidelines second nature in the laboratory. If you understand the reasons behind them, these safety rules will be easy to remember and to follow. 11. Perform laboratory work only when your teacher is present. Unauthorized or unsupervised laboratory experimenting is not allowed. 22. Your concern for safety should begin even before the first activity. Always read and think about each laboratory assignment before starting. 33. Know the location and use of all safety equipment in your laboratory. These should include the safety shower, eyewash, first-aid kit, fire extinguisher, and blanket. 44. Wear a laboratory coat or apron and protective glasses or goggles for all laboratory work. Wear shoes (rather than sandals) and tie back loose hair. 55. Clear your bench top of all unnecessary materials such as books and clothing before starting your work. 66. Check chemical labels twice to make sure you have the correct substance. Some chemical formulas and names differ by only a letter or number. Pay attention to the hazard classifications shown on the label. 77. You may be asked to transfer some laboratory chemicals from a common bottle or jar to your own test tube or beaker. DO NOT return any excess material to its original container unless authorized by your teacher. 88. Avoid unnecessary movement and talk in the laboratory. 99. Never taste laboratory materials. Gum, food, or drinks should not be brought into the laboratory. If you are instructed to smell something, do so by fanning some of the vapor toward your nose. Do not place your nose near the opening of the container. 1010. Never look directly down into a test tube; view the contents from the side. Never point the open end of a test toward yourself or your neighbor. 1111. Any laboratory accident, however small, should be reported immediately to your teacher. 1212. In case of a chemical spill on your skin or clothing rinse the affected area with plenty of water. If the eyes are affected, water-washing must begin immediately and continue for 10 to 15 minutes or until professional assistance is obtained. 1313. 1414. 1515. Minor skin burns should be placed under cold, running water. When discarding used chemicals, carefully follow the instructions provided. Return equipment, chemicals, aprons, and protective glasses to their designated locations.

1616. Before leaving the laboratory, ensure that gas lines and water faucets are shut off. CLEAN UP AFTER YOURSELVES! Failure to do so will result in 10 points taken off your lab grade. 1717. If in doubt, ask!

This was modified from http://www.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/lab/safety_rules.html

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

Statistical analysis of any quantitative data collected in lab is of great importance. Below are some statistical tests we may perform during the year in lab. Mean This is simply an average of all the data points. It is represented by the following symbol: . Standard Deviation Generally denoted by the lowercase letter sigma (), this is a measure of dispersion. In other words, the standard deviation measures the variance in a data set from the mean of that data set. It is calculated as the square root of the variance of a data set. This value is always positive. To calculate: 1 Calculate the mean. 2 Subtract each item in the data set from the mean. 3 Multiply each result by itself. 4 Add all these results together. 5 Divide by the total number of items. This is the variance. 6 The square root of the variance is the standard deviation. T test (from http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/statistics/tress4a.html#Student's%20t-test) A t-test is carried out to see if the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. We use this test for comparing the means of two treatments, even if they have different numbers of replicates. In simple terms, the t-test compares the actual difference between two means in relation to the variation in the data (expressed as the standard deviation of the difference between the means). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. List the data for treatment 1. List the data for treatment 2. Record the number (n) of replicates for each treatment (the number of replicates for treatment 1 being termed n1 and the number for treatment 2 being termed n 2) Calculate mean of each treatment (x1 and x2). Calculate s2 for each treatment; call these s12 and s22 Calculate the variance of the difference between the two means (sd 2) as follows:

7. 8.

Calculate sd (the square root of sd2) Calculate the t value as follows:

9. 10. 11.

(when doing this, transpose x1 and x2 if x2 > x1 so that you always get a positive value) Enter the t-table at (n1 + n2 -2) degrees of freedom; choose the level of significance required (normally p = 0.05) and read the tabulated t value. If the calculated t value exceeds the tabulated value then the means are significantly different. Now compare your calculated t value with tabulated values for higher levels of significance (e.g. p = 0.01). These levels tell us the probability of our conclusion being correct. For example, if our calculated t value exceeds the tabulated value for p = 0.05, then there is a 95% chance of the means being significantly different (or 99% for p = 0.01, 99.9% for p = 0.001). By convention, we say that a difference between means at the 95% level is "significant", a difference at 99% level is "highly significant" and a difference at 99.9% level is "very highly significant".

Student's t test
Note 1: A difference between two means is significant (at the given probability level) if the calculated t value is greater than the value given in this table. A probability of p = 0.05 (95% probability of making a correct statement) is usually acceptable for biological work, but p = 0.1 can be used for a "one-tailed" t-test.

Note 2: When comparing two means, the number of degrees of freedom is (n 1 + n2)-2, where n1 is the number of replicates of treatment 1, and n2 is the number of replicates of treatment 2. Note 3: This table does not show all degrees of freedom. If you want a value between, say 30 and 40, then use the value for 30 df.

What does this mean in "real" terms? Statistical tests allow us to make statements with a degree of precision, but cannot actually prove or disprove anything. A significant result at the 95% probability level tells us that our data are good enough to support a conclusion with 95% confidence (but there is a 1 in 20 chance of being wrong). In biological work we accept this level of significance as being reasonable.

Chi Square Test (2)

The purpose of the chi square test is to compare observed results with expected results and see if the result is likely. The chi square test tests what is called the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis basically says that there is no statistically significant difference between your expected result, and what you actually observed. The chi-square test is always testing what scientists call the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the expected and observed result. The formula for the chi square test is:

where o: observed result and e: expected result You will need to have a chi square distribution table handy. Heres one:

MAKING SCIENTIFIC DRAWINGS

Often observations during laboratory exercises are recorded in graphic form. Scientists often make drawings and sketches of the things they see during the course of an experiment. These drawings are important communication tools that are used to represent data. It is important that the drawings be clear and act as an accurate representation of what was observed. Use the following guidelines in order to make drawings that are accurate of what you see in the lab. Use pencil only. Make the drawing while youre actually observing. It is difficult to remember every detail if you go back and try to do it later. Your drawing should take up a quarter of a page. Avoid making the drawing area crowded. If the drawing is of cells, there should be several, clearly recognizable cells. Avoid the brick wall drawing of cells! Lightly sketch an outline of what youre drawing, and add shading and stippling (dots) for effect. Color should be used only when it accurately represents the actual color of that object. Print the name of the specimen you observe, or the characteristic directly underneath the object. If you are using a microscope to observe something, you must include the magnification. All labels should be right justified. They should be aligned with one another and the label name should be to the side of the line identifying the object.

GLOSSARY OF LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS

It has been said that Biology is a language all its own. And it is, in a way. Like mos of the vocabulary we use on a daily basis, many words youll use in a Biology class are derived from Latin and Greek root words. On the following pages youll find a l
Root
A A, an (Gk) Abilis (L) Ad (L) Aequus (L) Aeros (Gk) Agon (Gk) Aktis (Gk) Allas (Gk) Allelon (Gk) Allucinari (L) Alveolus (L) Amnos (Gk) Amoibe (Gk) Amphi (Gk) Amylum (L) Ana (L) Andro (Gk) Angio, anggeion (Gk) Anthos (Gk) Anti (Gk) Aqua (L) Archae, archeo, archaios (Gk) Arthron (Gk) Artios (Gk) Askos (Gk) Aster (Gk) Autos (Gk) B Bakterion (Gk) Not, without Able to To, attached to Equal Air Assembly Ray Sausage Of each other To dream Small pit Lamb Change Both, about, around Starch Away, onward Male Vessel, container Flower Away, against, opposite Water Ancient, primitive Jointed Even Bag, sac Star Self Anaerobic Biodegradable Appendix, adductor Equilibrium Anaerobic Glucagon Actin Allantois Allele Hallucinate Alveolus Amnion Amoeba Amphibian Amylase Anaphase Androgens Angiogram, angiosperm Anther, antheridium Antibody, antibiotic Aquatic Archaebacteria, archaeologist Arthropod, arthritis Artiodactyl Ascospore Asteroidea Autoimmune

Meaning

Example

Root
C Caedere, cide (L) Capillus (L) Carn (L) Carno (L) Cella, cellula (L) Cervix (L) Cetus (L) Chaite, chaet (Gk) Cheir (Gk) Chele (Gk) Chloros (Gk) Chondros (Gk) Chondros (Gk) Chorda (L) Chorion (Gk) Chroma, chrom (Gk) Chronos (Gk) Circa (L) Cirrus (L) Codex (L) Corpus (L) Cum, col, com, con (L) Cuticula (L)

Meaning
To kill Hair Flesh Flesh Small room Neck Whale Bristle Hand Claw Green cartilage Grain Cord Skin Color Time About Curl Tablet for writing Body With, together Thin skin

Example
Insecticide Capillary Carnivore Carnivorous Cellular Cervix Cetacean

Oligochaeta Chiroptera Chelicerae Chlorophyll Chondrichthyes Mitochondrion Notochord Chorion Chromosome Chronograph Circadian Cirrus Codon Corpus luteum Convergent, complement Cuticle

D Daktylos (Gk) De (L) Decidere (L) Degradare (L) Dendron (Gk)

Small rod

Bacterium

Finger Away, from To fall down To reduce in rank Tree

Perissodactyl Decompose Deciduous Biodegradable Dendrite

Bi, bis (L) Binarius (L) Bios (Gk) Blastos (Gk) Bryon (Gk) Bursa (L)

Two, twice Pair Life Bud Moss Purse, bag

Bipedal Binary fission Biology Blastocyst Bryophyta Bursitis

Dens (L) Derma (Gk) Deterere (L) Dia, di (Gk) Dies (L) Diploos (Gk)

Tooth Skin Loose material Through, apart Day Twofold, double

Dentures Epidermis Detritus Diastolic Circadian Diploid

Root
D Dis, di (Gk) Dis, di (L) Dormire (L) Drom (Gk) Ducere (L) E Echinos (Gk) Ella (Gk) Eidos, oid (Gk) Endo, en (Gk) Engchyma (Gk) Enteron (Gk) Entomon (Gk) Epi (Gk) Equus (L) Erythros (Gk) Eu (Gk) Evolutus (L) Ex, e (L) Exo (Gk) Extra (L) F Ferre (L) Fibrilla (L) Fissus (L) Flagellum (L) Follis (L) Fossilis (L) Fungus (L) G Gamo, gam (Gk) Gaster (Gk) Ge, geo (Gk) Gemmula (Gk) Genesis (L) Gen, geny (Gk) Gestare (L) Glene (Gk) Globus (L) Glotta (Gk)

Meaning
Twice, two Apart, away To sleep Running, racing To lead Spine Small Appearance Within Infusion Intestine, gut Insect Upon, above Horse Red True, good Rolled out Out Out, outside Outside, beyond To bear Small fiber A split Whip Bag Dug up Mushroom Marriage Stomach The earth Little bud Origin, birth Race To bear Eyeball Sphere Tongue

Example
Disaccharide Disruptive Dormancy Dromedary Oviduct Echinoderm Organelle rhizoid Endosperm Parenchyma Enterocolitis Entomology Epidermis Equisetum Erythrocyte Eukaryote Evolution Extinction Exoskeleton Extracellular Porifera Myofibril Binary Fission Flagellum Follicle Microfossils Fungus Gamete Gastropods Geology Gemmule Glucogenesis Genotype Progesterone Euglenoid Hemoglobin Epiglottis

Root
H Heme (Gk) Halo (Gk) Haploos (Gk) Haurire (L) Helix (L) Hemi (Gk) Herba (L) Hypo (Gk) Hermaphroditos (Gk) Heteros (Gk) Hierarches (Gk) Hippos (Gk) Histos (Gk) Holos (Gk) Homos (Gk) Homo (L) Hormaein (Gk) Hydro (Gk) Hyper (Gk) Hyphe (Gk) I Ichthys (Gk) Instinctus (L) Insula (L) Inter (L) Intra (L) Isos (Gk) Itis (Gk) J Jugare (L) K Kardia (Gk) Karyon (Gk) Kata, cata (Gk) Kephale (Gk) Keras (Gk) Kinein (Gk) Koilos, coel (Gk) Kokkus (Gk) Kolla (Gk)

Meaning
Blood Salt Simple To drink Spiral Half Grass Low, below Combining both sexes Other Rank Horse Tissue Whole Same, alike Man To excite Water Over, above Web Fish Impulse Island Between Within, inside Equal Inflammation Join together

Example

Hemoglobin Halophile Haploid Haustorium Helix Hemisphere Herbivore Hypoglycemia Hermaphrodite Heterozygous Hierarchy Hippopotamus Histology Holistic Homologous Hominid Hormone Hydrolysis Hyperventilate Hyphae Osteichthyes Instinct Insulin Interphase Intracellular Isotonic Arthritis Conjugate

Heart Nut, kernel Break down Head Horn To move Hollow, cavity, belly Berry, sphere Glue

Cardiac Prokaryote Catalyst Cephalopod Keratin Kinetic Coelom Streptococcus Colloid

Glykys, Glu (Gk) Gnathos (Gk) Gonos, gon (Gk) Gradus (L) Graphos (Gk) Gravis (L) Gymnos (Gk) Gyne (Gk)

Sweet, sugar Jaw Reproductive, sexual A step To write Heavy Naked, bare Female, woman

Glucose Agnatha Gonorrhea Gradualism Polygraph Gravitropism Gymnosperm Gynecology

Kotyl (Gk) Kreas (Gk) Krinoeides (Gk) Kyanos (Gk) Kystis, cyst (Gk) Kytos, cyt (Gk)

Cup Flesh Lilylike Blue Bladder, sac Hollow, cell

Hypocotyl Pancreas Crinoidea Cyanobacteria Blastocyst Lymphocyte

Root
L Lagos (Gk) Leukos (Gk) Libra (L) Logy (Gk) Lumin (L) Luteus (L) Lyein, lysis (Gk) Lympha (L) M Macros (Gk) Marsupium (L) Meare (L) Megas (Gk) Melas (L) Meristos (Gk) Meros (Gk) Mesos (Gk) Meta (Gk) Metabole (Gk) Meter (Gk) Micros (Gk) Mimos (Gk) Mitos (Gk) Molluscus (L) Monos (Gk) Morphe (Gk) Mors, mort (L) Mucus (L) Multus (L) Mutare (L) Myco (Gk) Mys (Gk) N

Meaning
Hare White Balance Study To grow light Yellow To split, loosen Water

Example
Lagomorpha Leukocyte Equilibrium Biology Bioluminescenc e Corpus luteum Lysosome Lymphocyte

Root
Osculum (L) Osteon (Gk) Ostrakon (Gk) Oura, ura (Gk) Ous, oto (Gk) Ovum (L) P Paleo (Gk) Pan (Gk) Para (Gk) Parthenos (Gk) Pathos (Gk) Pausere (L) Pendere (L) Per (L) Peri (Gk) Periodos (Gk) Pes, pedis (L) Phagein (Gk) Phainein (Gk) Phase (Gk) Phere, phor (Gk) Phloios (Gk) Phos, photo (Gk) Phyllon (Gk) Phylon (Gk) Phyton (Gk) Pinax (Gk) Pinein (Gk) Pinna (L) Plasma (Gk) Plastos (Gk) Platys (Gk) Plax (Gk) Pleuron (Gk)

Meaning
Small mouth Bone Shell Tail Ear Egg

Example
Osculum Osteocyte Ostracoderm Anura Otoscope Ovary

Ancient All Beside Virgin Disease To rest To hang Through Around Cycle Foot To eat To show Appearance To carry Inner bark Light Leaf Related group Plant Tablet To drink Feather Mold, form Formed object Flat Plate Side

Paleontology

Large Pouch To glide Large Black, dark Divided Part Middle After, following Change Measure Small A mime Thread Soft Single Form Death Slimy Many To change Fungus Muscle

Macrophage Marsupial Permeable Megaspore Melanin Meristem Polymer Mesophyll Metaphase Metabolism Millimeter Microscope Mimicry Mitosis Mollusk Monotreme Lagomorph Mortality Mucosa Multicellular Mutation Mycorrhiza Myosin

Pangaea Parenchyma Parthenogenes s Pathogen Menopause Appendix Permeable Perimeter Photoperiodism Bipedal Macrophage Phenotype Metaphase Electrophoresis Phloem Photosynthesis Chlorophyll Phylogeny Epiphyte Pinacocytes Pinocytosis Pinniped Plasmodium Chloroplast Platyhelminthe Placoderm Pleura

Nema (Gk) Neos (Gk) Nephros (Gk) Neuro (Gk) Nodus (L) Nomy (Gk) O Oikos (Gk) Oisein, eso (Gk) Oligos (Gk) Omnis (L) Ophthalmos (Gk) Organon (gk) Ornis (Gk) Orthos (Gk)

Thread New Kidney Nerve Knot, knob Ordered knowledge

Nematode Neonatal Nephron Neurology Internode Taxonomy

Plicare (L) Poly (Gk) Poros (Gk) Post (L) Pous, pod (Gk) Prae, pre (L) Primus (L) Pro (Gk and L) Proboscis (Gk) Producere (L) Protos (Gk) Pseudes (Gk) Pteron (Gk) Punctus (L) Pupa (L)

To fold Many Channel After Foot Before First Before, for Trunk To bring forth First False A wing A point Doll

Replication Polypeptide Porifera Posterior Gastropoda Precambrian Primary Prokaryote Proboscidean Reproduction Protoplasm Psuedopod Chiroptera Punctuated Pupa

Household To carry Few, little All Eye Tool Bird Straight

Ecosystem Esophagus Oligochaeta Omnivore Ophthalmology Organelle Ornithology Orthopedic

Root
R Radius (L) Re (L) Reflectere (L) Rhiza (Gk) Rhodon (Gk) Rota (L) Rumpere (L) S Saeta (L) Sapros (Gk) Sarx (Gk) Sauros (Gk) Scire (L) Scribre, script (L) Sedere, ses (L) Semi (L) Scop (Gk) Soma (Gk) Sperma (Gk) Sporos (Gk) Staphylo (Gk) Stasis (Gk) Stellein, stol (Gk) Sternon (Gk) Stinguere (L) Stolo (L) Stoma (Gk) Streptos (Gk)

Meaning
Ray Again To turn back Root Rose Wheel To break

Example
Radial Reproduction Reflex Rhizoid Rhodophyta Rotavirus Disruptive

Root
U Uni (L) V Vacca (L) Vagina (L) Valvae (L) Vasculum (L) Venter (L) Ventus (L) Vergere (L) Villus (L) Virus (L) Vorare (L) X Xeros (Gk) Xylon (Gk) Z Zoon, zo (Gk) Zygotes (Gk)

Meaning
One

Example
Unicellular

Bristle Rotten Flesh Lizard To know To write To sit Half To look Body Seed Seed Grapes Standing To draw in Chest To quench Shoot Mouth Chain

Equisetum Saprophyte Sarcoma Dinosaur Science Transcription Sessile Semipermeable Microscope Lysosome Angiosperm Microspore Staphylococcus Homeostasis Peristalsis Sternum Extinction Stolon Stoma Streptococcus

Cow Sheath Folding door Small vessel A belly A wind To slant Shaggy hair Poison To devour Dry Wood

Vaccine Vagina Bivalvia Vascular Ventral Hyperventilate Convergent Villi Virus Carnivore Xeriscape xylem

Animal Joined

Zoology Zygote

Syn (Gk) Synapsis (Gk) Systema (Gk) T Taxis, taxo (Gk) Telos (Gk) Terra (L) Thele (Gk) Therme (Gk) Thrix, trich (Gk) Tome (Gk) Trachia (Gk) Trans (L) Trematodes (Gk) Trope (Gk) Trophe (Gk) Turbo (L) Tympanon (Gk) Typos (Gk)

Together Union Whole

Systolic Synapse Ecosystem

To arrange End Earth, land To cover Heat Hair Cutting Windpipe Through Having holes Turn Nourishment Whirl Drum Model

Taxonomy Telomeres Terrestrial Epithelium Endotherm Trichomonas Microtome Tracheid Transpiration Monotreme Geotropism Heterotroph Turbellaria Tympanum Genotype