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Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association

Medieval German Social History: Generalizations and Particularism Author(s): John B. Freed Source: Central European History, Vol. 25, No. 1 (1992), pp. 1-26 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4546239 Accessed: 04/11/2009 08:51
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Medieval Generalizations

German and

Social

History:

Particularism

John

B. Freed

von Repgow commented around 1225 in the Sachsenspiegel: "Now do not be amazed that this book says so little about the law EIKE of the ministerials. It is in fact so diverse that no one can fully it. Under every bishop, every abbot, and every abbess the comprehend I cannot describe it."1 Eike ministerials have a distinct law; therefore, in identified here a fundamental German social his? problem studying that were tory: how does one generalize about diverse social institutions both a cause and a consequence of Germany's political fragmentation? How different things could be is illustrated by the structure ofthe estates in the eastern Alpine principalities. In the duchies of Austria and Styria the nobility was divided into two estates, the lords and the knights; but while there were about seventy or eighty families of lordly rank in Austria in 1280, there were so few lineages of lords in Styria?about in 1300, of whom only ten survived by 1400?that twenty-five they could not meet by themselves. There were even fewer lineages of Carinthian lords?ten or twelve families of ducal ministerials in 1286, of whom only two remained by 1446, and only a powerless Ritterstand in Salzburg and Tyrol. Unlike the other principalities, the peasant courts (Gerichte) formed a separate estate in Tyrol.2 If there were such "MedievalGermanSocialHistory" is a revised and expandedversion of a papergiven at the 1990 AmericanHistoricalAssociation Annual Meeting in New York. I would like to thankProfessor PatrickGeary ofthe University of Floridafor his criticalreadingof an earlierdraft. des Sachsenspiegels, 1. Eike von Repgow, Das Landrecht ed. Karl August Eckhardt, in Germanenrechte: Texte und Ubersetzungen, vol. 14 (Gottingen, 1955), 3, 42, 2: "Nu ne latet uch nicht wunderen, dat dit buk so luttel seget van denstlude rechte; went it is so manichvolt, dat is.neman to ende komen ne kan. Under iewelkeme biscope unde abbede unde ebbedischen hebben de denstlude sunderlik recht, dar umme ne kan ek is nicht besceden." 2. Heinz Dopsch, "Ministerialitat und Herrenstand in der Steiermark und in Salzburg," 62 (1971): 3-31; idem, "Probleme standiZeitschriftdes HistorischenVereinesjurSteiermark scher Wandlung beim Adel Osterreichs, der Steiermark und Salzburg vornehmlich im 13. und Stand: Untersuchungen zur SozialgeJahrhundert," in Josef Fleckenstein, ed., Herrschaft in schichteim 13. Jahrhundert (Gottingen, 1977), 207-53; Peter Feldbauer, Der Herrenstand Oberosterreich: (Munich and Vienna, 1972); idem, "RangUrspriinge,Anfange, Fruhformen probleme und Konnubium osterreichischer Landherrenfamilien: Zur sozialen Mobilitat l

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differences in the structure ofthe estates in contiguous Alpine territories, all of which, except Salzburg, had been united by 1363 under the rule of a single dynasty,3 what would happen if, say, the duchy of Mecklenburgwere Schwerin, electoral Trier, and the margraviate of Baden-Hachberg construct? No wonder that most also factored into the interpretative modern German historians, like Eike, have preferred not to generalize. Josef Fleckenstein observed in a 1984 tribute to Walter Schlesinger that his most extensive ones, had been research than rather general presentations (Darstellungen) .4 reports (Forschungen) said about a other German medievalsame can be The good many thing of contribution medieval The German ists. most important postwar, the latter's works, even

einer spatmittelalterlichen Fiihrungsgruppe," Zeitschrift 35 fur bayerische Landesgeschichte undStandebil(1972): 571-90; Peter Feldbauer,HerrenundRitter,vol. 1 of Herrschaftsstruktur 3 Landeraus ihrenmittelalterlichen zur Typologiederosterreichischen Grundlagen, dung:Beitrdge vols., in Sozial und Wirtschaftshistorische Studien (Munich and Vienna, 1973); Herbert undMarkte,vol. 2, ibid.; Ernst Bruckmuller, TalerundGerichte, Knittler, Stddte pt. 1, vol. 3, ibid.; Helmuth Stradal, Die Prdlaten, pt. 2, vol. 3, ibid.; Michael Mitterauer, Stdndept. 3, vol. 3, ibid.; Herbert Klein, "Salzburg und seine Landgliederungund Landertypen, stande von den Anfangen bis 1861," Festschrift fur HerbertKlein: Beitrdgezur Siedlungs-, von Salzburg:Gesammelte und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Klein, in Aufsdtzevon Herbert Verfassungssuppl. vol. 5 (Salzburg, 1965), fur SalzburgerLandeskunde, Mitteilungender Gesellschaft desspatmittelal? Adel und Vogtei:Zur Vorgeschichte 115-36; Folker Reichert, Landesherrschaft im HerzogtumOsterreich Stdndestaates terlichen (Cologne and Vienna, 1985); and Otto Stolz, "Bauer und Landesfurstin Tirol und Vorarlberg," in Theodor Mayer, ed., Adel undBauern Staat des Mittelalters im deutschen (Leipzig, 1943; rpt., Darmstadt, 1967), 170-212. 3. This statement is slightly misleading. The Habsburg lands were divided between the Albertine and Leopoldine lines in 1379 and not reunited again under a single ruler until 1490, and there were subsequent divisions in the early-modern period. In a very real sense the Habsburgs' Alpine domains did not form a distinct political entity until the establish? ment ofthe First Austrian Republic in 1918. On the other hand, the establishment in the thirteenth century of the Franciscanprovince of Austria, which included the convents in Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Tyrol as well as those in the duchy of Austria, suggests an incipient awareness that these easternAlpine territoriesformed a distinct entity. SeeJohn B. Freed, "The Friarsand the Delineation of State Boundaries in the Thirteenth Century," in William C. Jordan, Bruce McNab, and Teofilo F. Ruiz, eds., Orderand Innovationin the Thirteenth Century(Princeton, 1976), 38-40. und 4. Josef Fleckenstein, "WalterSchlesinger:28. April 1908-10. Juni 1984," Ordnungen Beitrdge(Gottingen, 1989), 543. Schlesinger's Ausgewdhlte formendeKrdftedes Mittelalters: der Landesherrschaft: most important works were probably Die Entstehung UntersuchuHgen nach mitteldeutschen Quellen (Dresden, 1941; rpt., Darmstadt, 1964), and Kirvorwiegend Sachsensim Mittelalter,2 vols. (Cologne and Graz, 1962). Schlesinger's most chengeschichte zur deutschen Beitrdge important essays were published in Walter Schlesinger, Mitteldeutsche des Mittelalters(Gottingen, 1961); Beitrdgezur deutschenVerfassungsge? Verfassungsgeschichte 2 vols. (Gottingen, 1963); and in Hans Patze and Fred Schwind, eds., desMittelalters, schichte 1965-1979 (Sigmaringen, 1987). Fleckenstein Aufsdtze von WalterSchlesinger Ausgewdhlte See rather than Darstellungen. noted that other scholars also preferred to write Forschungen his comments about Paul Kehr, "Paul Kehr: Lehrer, Forscher und Wissenschaftsorganisa475-76. In contrast, other scholars like tor in Gottingen, Rom und Berlin" in Ordnungen, Leopold von Ranke, Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, Karl Hampe, and today, Gerd Tellenbach, have done both well. "Gerd Tellenbach als National-und Universalhistoriker," ibid., 562.

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at least in the field of social history, has probably been the scholarship, and his stu? work of the so-called Freiburg School of Gerd Tellenbach Eduard Hlawitschka, and above all Fleckenstein, dents, most notably, and family Karl Schmid, on the changes in noble self-consciousness structure between the ninth and twelfth centuries;5 but one looks in vain for a book entitled simply Der Deutsche Adel im Mittelalter.6 Instead, there researched articles, which are eventually are lengthy, meticulously pub? and admiring lished in collections;7 Festschriften by de voted students on subjects dear to the honoree (surely, it is no accident that colleagues scholars use the German word for the genre);8 and above all, Anglolexic the proceedings of scholarly conferences.

5. On the Freiburg School, see John B. Freed, The Counts of Falkenstein:Noble Selfin Twelfth-Century Consciousness Germany(Philadelphia, 1984), 1-9, and idem, "Reflections on the Medieval German Nobility," The AmericanHistoricalReview 91 (1986): 560-66. 6. Gerd Tellenbach observed in 1965: "Fiir eine zusammenfassende Behandlung aller Probleme der Fuhrungsschichten des europaischen Mittelalters ist gerade jetzt die Forschung zu sehr im Fluss." "Internationaler Historikerkongress, Wien 1965: 'Einleitung' und 'Zur Erforschung des mittelalterlichen Adels (9.-12. Jahrhunderts),'" in Ausgewahlte Abhandlungenund Aufsatze, 4 vols. (Stuttgart, 1988), 3:868. Apparently, it still is. The closest thing we probably have toward such a synthesis ofthe work ofthe Freiburg School is Gerd Althoff, Verwandte, Freundeund Getreue:Zum politischenStellenwertder GruppenbindungenimfruherenMittelalter(Darmstadt, 1990). As its title indicates, Althoff does not deal with the changes in the structure of the nobility caused by the rise of the ministerials, the decimation of the old free nobility, and the development of territorial lordships. 7. Such collections can take two forms. The first is the collected articles of an eminent to celebrate a major birthday of the honoree. The scholar, often published as a Festschrift collected articles of Fleckenstein and Schlesinger are cited in note 4, those of Tellenbach in note 6 (so far only the first three volumes have been published; a fourth one has been undadligesSelbstverstandnis im announced). Karl Schmid's were published as Gebetsgedenken Mittelalter: Ausgewahlte Beitrdge: Festgabe zu seinem sechzigsten Geburtstag(Sigmaringen, 1983). Less well known scholars are also honored in this fashion. The collected articles of Herbert Klein, who was for many years the provincial archivist in Salzburg, are cited in note 2. The most important articles of Hans Wagner, the editor of Das Traditionsbuch des series 2, vol. 76 Augustiner-Chorherrenstiftes Neustift bei Brixen, in FontesrerumAustriacarum, des Burgenlandes (Vienna, 1954), and of the first volume of the Urkundenbuch (Graz and Cologne, 1955), appeared in Festschrift fiir Hans Wagnerzum 60. Geburtstag: Salzburg und Osterreich: von Hans Wagner Aufsatze und Vortrdge (Salzburg, 1982). Most of Wagner's work dealt with the modern period, in particular the eighteenth century. Second, articles by different scholars on the same subject but offering contradictory interpretations are pub? lished in a collection. The Wissenschaftliche in Darmstadt has published many Buchgesellschaft such volumes in its series, Wege der Forschung. Some examples are vol. 50, Walther und Verfassung des Sachsenstammes Lammers, ed., Entstehung (1967); vol. 60, Karl Bosl, ed., Zur Geschichteder Bayern (1965); vol. 185, Walther Lammers, ed., Die Eingliederung der Sachsenin das Frankenreich (1970); vols. 243-45, Carl Haase, ed., Die Stadt des Mittelalters, 3 vols. (1969-73); vol. 349, Arno Borst, ed., Das Rittertumim Mittelalter(1976); vol. 416, Giinther Franz, ed., DeutschesBauerntum im Mittelalter(1976); and vol. 492, Pankraz Fried, undMethoden derLandesgeschichte ed., Probleme (1978). Such collections are extremely useful in making articles that appeared in obscure journals more readily accessible, an important consideration for a non-German working in the area of medieval German history. Many of these collections, whatever form they take, include the original pagination. 8. For illustrative purposes, I will cite the Festschriften that were published in honor of

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the Konstanzer Arbeitskreisfur The most famous of these is undoubtedly mittelalterliche Geschichte, which was founded by Theodor Mayer in 1951 and whose proceedings appear in Vortrdge und Forschungen. Mayer's intention was to proceed from "the details of territorial history to general and thus to establish the "connections manifestations" between the par? ticular and the general."9 The question forty years later is whether the participants have really succeeded in making this transition. For exam? to the German ple, the three sessions that were devoted in 1967-68 territorial state in the fourteenth century resulted in the publication of articles with a total of 988 pages. Seven ofthe articles have twenty-five general themes, like the territories and the Church or hospitals and the cities; the remainder deal with a specific territory. The last article is a not There is no index (the lack summary. particularly good twenty-page of good indices is a major problem with a great deal of German schol? seven of the 1978-79 sessions, proceedings arship).10 The published the latepages?on general articles and sixteen regional studies?1,008 medieval Grundherrschaft, are better integrated (there is, for instance, a pointed out, fifty-five page index). In his summary Alfred Haverkamp of the contribu? that the different themes and methodologies however, tions and their territorial orientation make it difficult to establish supraand he refused to construct a model of the regional communalities, Central Europe.11 late-medieval Leopold Grundherrschaft in western in his Rural refusal Communities in the West, in Genicot cited Haverkamp's which he dealt with a larger and more diverse area than Haverkamp, but

Tellenbach, Fleckenstein, and Schmid;Josef Fleckenstein and Karl Schmid, eds., Adel und Kirche:Gerd Tellenbach zum 65. Geburtstag von Freunden und Schiilem (Freiberg, dargebracht Basel, and Vienna, 1968); Lutz Fenske, Werner Rosener, and Thomas Zotz, eds., Instituim Mittelalter. zum 65. Geburtstag tionen,KulturundGesellschaft Festschrift furJosef Fleckenstein (Sigmaringen, 1984); Gerd Althoff, Dieter Geuenich, Otto Gerhard Oexle, and Joachim im Mittelalter.Karl Schmidzum funfundsechzigsten Wollasch, eds., Personund Gemeinschaft Geburtstag (Sigmaringen, 1988). It should be stressed that a great deal of scholarship first For example, twelve ofthe forty-two items that appear in the appearsin such Festschriften. first three volumes of Tellenbach's collected articles were first published in Festschriften. 9. Josef Fleckenstein, "Danksagung an Theodor Mayer zum 85. Geburtstag: Versuch einer Wurdigung," Ordnungen (see above, note 4), 534-35. 10. Hans Patze, ed., Der deutsche Territorialstaat im 14.Jahrhundert, 2 vols. (Sigmaringen, 1970-71; 2d. ed., 1986). 11. Alfred Haverkamp, "Zusammenfassung: 'Herrschaft und Bauer'?das 'Sozialgebilde Grundherrschaft,'" in Hans Patze, ed., Die Grundherrschaft im spaten Mittelalter, 2 vols., in Vortrdge undForschungen, vol. 27, 2 pts. (Sigmaringen, 1983), 2:321, 344. Haver? kamp is not alone. After mentioning that there had been considerable discussion, including at the KonstanzerArbeitskreis,about the constitutional and structural elements of the medieval city, Jiirgen Sydow, "Elemente von Einheit und Vielfalt in der mittelalterlichen Stadt (im Lichte kirchenrechtlicherQuellen)," Universalismus undPartikularismus im Mittelal? ter (Berlin, 1968) (reprinted in Jiirgen Sydow, Cum omni mensuraet ratione:Ausgewahlte zu seinem10. Geburtstag, ed. Helmut Maurer [Sigmaringen, 1991]), 187, Aufsatze:Festgabe

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added: "These difficulties are very real. Nevertheless, they should not pre? vent us from cautiously describing some general features and trends."12 As Genicot's words and example indicate, it has been largely German or non-German historians who have written syntheses. non-historians The Germanist Joachim Bumke has written books about both the con? and courtly culture in Germany. He pointed out cept of knighthood13 that his Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages is the first general work on this subject in decades,14 even though Fleckenstein in this topic.15 The late Charles has been very interested himself wrote the first general account of the spread of German eastHigounet ward settlement since the publication of Rudolf Kotzschke and Wolfgang Ebert's Geschichte der Ostdeutschen Kolonisation (Leipzig, 1937) fifty years sub? ago. Perhaps only an outsider could write about this controversial detachment. the German with scholarly Interestingly enough, ject concluded: "Das Ende dieser Diskussion, die sich natiirlich nicht auf die genannten Institutionen beschrankt, ist noch nicht abzusehen, und es ist m. E. bei der Fiille von Ergebnissen, die uberhaupt erst einmal verarbeitet werden rmissen, nicht zu erwarten, dass ein zusammenfassendes Bild in naherer Zukunft entworfen werden kann." Such disclaimers appear frequently in Sydow's work. See, for instance, Cum omnimensura,127, 150, 236-37, 351-52. Similarly, Werner Rosener stated in his introduction to the proceedings ofthe colloquium that was held in 1987 in Gottingen on "Strukturen der Grundherrschaft im karolingisch-ottonischen Deutschland": "Eine abschliessende Bilanz des Gottinger Colloquiums, seiner Vortrage und lebhaften Diskussionen soll an dieser Stelle nicht gezogen werden; es muss dem Leser iiberlassen bleiben, sich anhand der Tagungsbeitrage ... ein eigenes Urteil dariiber zu bilden." Werner Rosener, "Zur Erforschung der fruhmittelalterder Grundherrschaft lichen Grundherrschaft," idem, ed., Strukturen imfruhen Mittelalter,in des Max-Planck-Instituts fur Geschichte,vol. 92 (Gottingen, 1989), 27-28. Verbffentlichungen und Forschungen that may be of special interest to Other volumes in the series Vortrage social historians are: vol. 4, Studien zu den Anfdngendes europaischen Stadtewesens,2d. ed. und ihr Wesen,2 vols., 2d. ed. (1986); (1975); vols. 7 and 8, Die Anfange der Landgemeinde Geschichtedes Mittelalters,2d. ed. (1976); vol. 11, vol. 10, Die Alpen in der europaischen zur gesellschaftlichen Strukturder mittelalterlichen Stadte in Europa, 2d. ed. Untersuchungen (1974); vol. 18, Walter Schlesinger, ed., Die deutsche Ostsiedlungdes Mittelaltersals Problem der europaischenGeschichte (1975); vol. 19, Hans Patze, ed., Die Burgen im deutschen Ihre rechts-und verfassungsgeschichtliche Bedeutung,2 pts. (1976); vol. 29, Berent Sprachraum: Schweinekoper, ed., Gilden und Ziinfte (1985); vol. 33, Helmut Maurer, ed., Kommunale BundnisseOberitaliens und Oberdeutschlands im Vergleich (1987); and vol. 35, Frantisek Graus, im Mittelalter(1987). ed., Mentalitdten 12. Leopold Genicot, Rural Communitiesin the Medieval West (Baltimore and London, 1990), 120-21. 13. Joachim Bumke, Studien zum Ritterbegriff im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert(Heidelberg, 1964). The English translation by W. T. H. and ErikaJackson, The ConceptofKnighthoodin the Middle Ages (New York, 1982), is based on the considerably revised, second German edition (Heidelberg, 1977). 14. Joachim Bumke, CourtlyCulture:Literature and Societyin the High MiddleAges, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Berkeley, 1991). This statement appears in a prefatory note to the original German edition: Hbfische Kultur: Literaturund Gesellschaftim hohen Mittelalter, 2 vols. (Munich, 1986), 1:1. 15. Fleckenstein's works include Die Hofkapelleder deutschen Konige, 2 vols. (Stuttgart, Tumier im Mittelalter:Beitrdgezu einer 1959-66), and Josef Fleckenstein, ed., Das ritterliche

6 translation

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book appeared before is the Dollinger, compatriot, Philippe Higounet's The German Hanseatic ofthe League.17 history who was educated in England, has written the

best analysis of tenthis an literature about there extensive Saxon society.18 Although century the ministerials,19 a topic of special interest to Karl Bosl,20 it was Leyser's student Benjamin Arnold who produced the first synthesis since the publication of August Freiherr von Ftirth's Die Ministerialen (Cologne) in 1836.21 And there is my own book about the friars.22 An examination of these books reveals why German historians have been so reluctant to generalize. First of all, there are factual mistakes that

Formen- und Verhaltensgeschichte des Rittertums(Gottingen, 1985). Fleckenvergleichenden stein's own contribution in that volume, "Das Turnier als hofisches Fest im hochmittelalterlichen Deutschland," has been reprinted in his collected articles (see above, note 4). Other relevant articles that appear in that collection are "Die Struktur des Hofes Karls des Grossen im Spiegel von Hinkmars De ordine palatii" (1976); "Konigshof und Bischofsschule unter Otto dem Grossen" (1956); and "Rittertum und hofische Kultur: Ent(1976). stehung?Bedeutung?Nachwirkung" 16. Charles Higounet, Les Allemandsen Europecentrale et orientale au Moyen Age (Paris, im Mittelalter, 1989). The German translation by Manfred Vasold, Die deutsche Ostsiedlung had already appeared in 1986. It is worth noting that Schlesinger, who was a student of Kotzschke and whose Kirchengeschichte Sachsensis, in Fleckenstein's words, "eine Kirchengeschichte auf siedlungsgeschichtlicher Grundlage," never wrote such a book. See Fleckenstein, "Walter Schlesinger" (see above, note 4), 537, 540. 17. Philippe Dollinger, La Hanse (XHe-XVIIe siecles) (Paris, 1964). The Hansische Geschichtsverein commissioned the German translationby Marga and Hans Krabusch, Die Hanse (Stuttgart, 1966). An English translation by D. S. Ault and S. H. Steinberg was published by Macmillan in England and Stanford University Press in the United States in 1970. Klaus Friedland indicated that his new book, Die Hanse (Stuttgart, Berlin, and Cologne, 1991), 7-8, was not intended to supersede Dollinger's, which Friedland de? scribed as a unique reference work ("einzigartig als Handbuch und Nachschlagewerk"). 18. KarlJ. Leyser, Rule andConflictin an EarlyMedievalSociety:OttonianSaxony (London and Bloomington, Ind., 1979). It exists in a German translation: Herrschaft und Konflikt: Sachsen, trans. Karen Freifrau Schenck zu Schweinsberg Konig und Adel im ottonischen (Gottingen, 1984). 19. For a survey of the literature, see John B. Freed, "The Origins of the European Nobility: The Problem ofthe Ministerials," Viator1 (1976): 211-41. 20. Karl Bosl is best known for his Die Reichsministerialitdt der Salier und Staufer:Ein des hochmittelalterlichen deutschenVolkes, Staates und Reiches,2 vols. Beitragzur Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1950-51). His most important articlesabout the ministerialshave been reprinted in Fruhformen der Gesellschaft im mittelalterlichen zu einerStrukEuropa:Ausgewahlte Beitrdge dermittelalterlichen Welt(Munich and Vienna, 1964). For a critique of Bosl's work, turanalyse see Freed, "Reflections" (see above, note 5), 566-73. 21. Benjamin Arnold, GermanKnighthood 1050-1300 (Oxford, 1985). Arnold has now shifted his focus to the high aristocracy in his Princesand Territories in Medieval Germany (Cambridge, England, 1991). This is must reading for anyone who is interested in the origins ofthe German principalities, but Arnold himself admits in the introduction: "There is not much social and economic history ofthe nobility as a class or order . . . (1)" 22. John B. Freed, "The Friarsand German Societyin the Thirteenth Century,(Cambridge, Mass., 1977).

JOHN a local Vienna historian was would

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not make. For example, stated that Higounet a fief to Aribo of granted?date unspecified?as to Salzburg, and no archbishop was Salzburg.23 Vienna never belonged in? named Aribo. Second, the general historian sometimes overlooks his or her case. For instance, I formation that would in fact strengthen between tried to apply Jacques le Goff's thesis about the correlation ofthe mendicant orders to Germany,24 and the expansion urbanization first fact that the oldest Dominican but was confronted by the awkward was of Teutonia located in Friesach, Carinthia, in the province priory All I could say was that its town. a small, today sleepy provincial was an accident, due to Friesach's location on the Venicefoundation Vienna route.25 Friesach was, I now realize, the most important city in Carinthia, and the Friesach Pfennig was the standard thirteenth-century and circulated widely even in Hungary coin in the eastern Alps?it ofthe Friesach priory was an accident, Croatia.26 While the foundation Friesach was an obvious site for a Dominican house, particularly if the of the southeastern German order was interested in the evangelization frontier. Thus the priory in Pettau (today Ptuj, Slovenia) on the Drava near the Hungarian border was founded a decade later in 1230 by Mathilda, the widow of Frederick III of Pettau, whose ancestral castle in Stein, of southeast was located Carinthia, fifty kilometers approximately Friesach.27 Frederick's sister-in-law Richza of Rohitsch (today Rogatec)

23. Higounet, Les Allemands, 163-64. I have tried to figure out what Higounet meant. The first possible reference to Vienna (Wenia) occurs in 881, when Count Aribo (871-909) was the margrave along the Danube; but Aribo was never called, to my knowledge, Aribo of Salzburg. See Charles R. Bowlus, "Die Wilhelminer und die Mahrer," Zeitschrift fiir und 38 (1973): 756-75; Karl Lechner, Die Babenberger: Markgrafen Landesgeschichte bayerische 976-1246 (Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1976; rpt., Darmstadt, 1985), Herzoge von Osterreich Frankische Reichsarisim Sudosten: 24-27; and Michael Mitterauer, Karolingische Markgrafen Raum (Vienna, 1963), 160-69. im osterreichischen Stammesadel tokratieund bayerischer 24. Jacques le Goff, "Apostolat mendiant et fait urbain dans la France medievale: L'implantation des ordres mendiants. Programme-questionnaire pour une enquete," Annales 23 (1968): 335-52; idem, "Ordres mendiants et urbanisation dans la France medievale: ?tat de l'enquete," Annales25 (1970): 924-46. See Freed, The Friars, 15, 52-53. 25. Ibid., 32. 26. Egon Baumgartner, "Beitrage zur Geldgeschichte der Friesacher Pfennige," Carin? Kamtens150 (1960): 84-117; undvolkskundliche thia I: Geschichtliche Beitragezur Heimatkunde Arnold Luschin-Ebengreuth, "FriesacherPfennige: Beitrage zu ihrer Munzgeschichte und n.s. 15 (o.s. 55) (1922): 89-118; n.s. zur Kenntnis ihrer Geprage," Numismatische Zeitschrift Stddten in den mittelalterlichen 16 (o.s. 56) (1923): 33-144; Alfred Ogris, Die Burgerschaft Kamtensbis zumjahre 1335 (Klagenfurt, 1974), 28-37, 153-64; and Thomas Zedrosser, Die 3d. ed. Stadt Friesachin Karnten:Ein Fuhrerdurchihre Geschichte,Bau- und Kunstdenkmaler, 1953). (Klagenfurt, ducatusCarin27. August von Jaksch and Hermann Wiessner, eds., Monumentahistorica thiae, 11 vols. (Klagenfurt, 1896-1972), 4/1:79-80, no. 1720; 333-34, no. 2321; andjoseph des HerzogthumsSteiermark,4 vols. von Zahn and Gerhard Pferschy, eds., Urkundenbuch 271. no. 2:369, 1875-1975), (Graz,

8 was the

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in Studenitz cofounder of the Dominican nunnery (today Mathilda's sister-in-law Gisela and the latter's son, Siegand Studenice), fried of Mahrenberg (today Radlje), established the Dominican nunnery beneath their castle.28 I was simply unaware of Friesach's commercial importance in the first half of the thirteenth century and of the familial ties that linked the Dominicans' chief benefactors in Lower Styria (today and it should that be noted, through women. ran, Slovenia) such books tend to be Third, pastiches with examples drawn from the between Baltic and the Adriatic, the Moselle and the everywhere Memel. Such an approach obscures significant regional differences. Bumke's Courtly Culture contains the following extraordinary statement: " . . . it is not without some uneasiness that I repeatedly address isolated as typical manifestations statements and observations of their time, with? out being able to justify this in every case. It is here that the subjective character of the essay is most clear, for it would of course be possible to create a different picture by selecting entirely different passages."29 If creates a different pattern, what is the every turn of the kaleidoscope historical validity ofthe design? Fourth, the general historian has to build a construct, even if it does not fit all the facts. For instance, Arnold argued that ministerialis was simply the scribal designation for an "unfree became the means for the knight" in Germany and that knighthood ministerials' ascent into the nobility.30 Hence, the title of his book: German Knighthood 1050-1300. He dismissed in a footnote the evidence that in the Austro-Bavarian area the ministerials were not called knights because miles referred to the ministerials' own servile armed retainers,31 but the differences in terminology of significant may be symptomatic differences in the social structures ofthe respective territories and need to be carefully scrutinized for that very reason. Yet the inclusion of every

28. Ibid., 2:472-73, no. 363; 3:106-8, no. 49, 158-60, nos. 93, 94. For the familial connections, see John B. Freed, "German Source Collections: The Archdiocese of Salzburg as a Case Study," in Joel T. Rosenthal, ed., Medieval Womanand the Sourcesof Medieval History (Athens, Georgia, and London, 1990), 87-104. 29. Bumke, CourtlyCulture,19. In all fairness, Bumke was aware ofthe implications of his words because he continued: "Some readersmay find these methodological deficiencies so serious that they might question the usefulness of the present study. But in the final analysis every comprehensive essay faces similar problems, especially if it tries to document events and objects with direct reference to the sources." 30. Arnold, GermanKnighthood, 20, 69. 31. Ibid., 33, n. 52. On the whole issue, see John B. Freed, "Nobles, Ministerials, and 62 (1987): 575-611. It is worth noting Knights in the Archdiocese of Salzburg," Speculum that Bumke, who was aware of such regional differencesin the use ofthe word milesin The 61-62, declaredin CourtlyCulture,21, that, in describing "the social Conceptof Knighthood, basis of courtly literature," "Of necessity I have had to ignore the regional differences that increasingly shaped the legal and political developments within Germany from the thir? teenth century on."

JOHN regional variant details. threatens

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9 of

to dissolve

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has not only made German historians reluctant to generto James Sheehan, it has also made social history alize, but, according itself suspect, at least in the case of modern German history. The kleinhas meant that German deutsch domination of German historiography historians have tended to treat even nonpolitical topics from a political or family and to neglect topics, like the history of women perspective While a life, that cannot really be studied from a national perspective. is "it in deal of local Sheehan's written, is," words, "of history great interest only to people who share the experience ofthe Heimat."32 as well to Sheehan's comments have, I think, considerable applicability I know of medieval German history. Social history has been neglected. a no Annales-style German historian. The only by regional monograph works of this type have been written by non-Germans: Dollinger's and Richard C. Hoffclassic study of the Bavarian rural population33 mann's brilliant new book on the late-medieval duchy of Wrociaw.34 Werner decades Rosener on the pointed out that little work has been done in recent Grundherrschaft in German-speaking early-medieval review of Edith Ennen's Frauen im Fonay Wemple's

areas.35 Suzanne Mittelalter of German

"The section on the participation 1984) concluded: in urban life is commendable but, even in this area, new observations are beginning to be published by scholars . . ."36 Part of the problem with Ennen's book is that she paid little attention to the findings of local historians outside her own specialty of urban history. For example, only 43 ofthe 243 pages ofthe text are devoted to the High (Munich, women

32. James J. Sheehan, "What Is German History? Reflections on the Role ofthe Nation in German History and Historiography," TheJournal of ModernHistory 53 (1981): 11-12, 20. A comment in a recent article in The AmericanHistoricalReview illustrates the problem. William W. Hagen wrote in "Seventeenth-Century Crisis in Brandenburg: The Thirty Years' War, The Destabilization of Serfdom, and the Rise of Absolutism," American HistoricalReview 94, no. 2, (1989): 306: "While there are some good local studies of noble manors and peasant villages, the social and economic history of early-modern Brandenburg-Prussia has only begun to be written in terms acceptable to present-day scholarship." It is hard to imagine anyone saying that about seventeenth-century England or France. On the highly politicized nature of the postwar discussion of modern German history in general and the Third Reich in particular, see Richard J. Evans, In Hitler's Shadow: West GermanHistoriansand the Attemptto Escapefromthe Nazi Past (New York, 1989). 33. Philippe Dollinger, L'evolution des classes ruralesen Baviere depuis la fin de Vepoque jusqu'au milieu du XIHe siecle (Paris, 1949). carolingienne 34. Richard C. Hoffman, Land, Liberties, and Lordshipin a Late Medieval Countryside: and Change in the Duchy of Wroctaw AgrarianStructures (Philadelphia, 1989). 35. Rosener, "Zur Erforschung" (see above, note 11), 9. 36. Suzanne Fonay Wemple, Review, Speculum61 (1986): 924. Ennen's book is now available in English: The Medieval Woman,trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford, 1989).

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Middle Ages and that includes two pages on the Fair Maid of Kent who as this died in 1385. Ennen might have been better served, presumptuous sounds, if she had read, say, my article on Salzburg's most important, ministerial twelfth-century lished in a local historical heiress, journal, Diemut of Hogl, which was pub? the Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fiir

Salzburger Landeskunde.37 Students of modern German history have pondered why the Annales School has had so little influence until recently on modern German to and their musings may be of some relevance historiography, Irmline Veit-Brause asked why, unlike France where the medievalists. Annales has had great influence, Landesgeschichte has generally to the position of an ancillary discipline in the study of history. She pointed out that the study twentieth-century studied of local history has been associated since 1871 with particularism, of Germany and and supported by opponents ofthe Prussian domination of history. Moreover, the Methodenstreit at the kleindeutsch interpretation the beginning of this century, which pitted Karl Lamprecht, who advoSchool been relegated nineteenth-and an interdisciplinary approach to the study of cultural history, the traditional practitioners of legal and institutional history like against Georg von Below, ended with the reassertion ofthe primacy of political and narrative history. In contrast, the Annalistes applied the social sciences cated conceded that study of local history in France. Veit-Brause there has been a good deal of excellent work done in local history in Germany since the interwar period, but is has largely dealt with# medieval history, perhaps, she speculated, because medieval history was politically safer during the Nazi period. But, she added, "most of these studies remained on the level of a descriptive Bestandsaufnahme and abstained to the from systematically change on exploring theories about socio-historical a large scale. Even where such more comprehensive pictures emerged, as for example in the Stadtgeschichte of medieval and early modern times, it certainly did not revolutionize the dominant trend in German history."38 Hartmut Kaelble, writing in 1987, pointed to the apparent disinterest of French and German social historians in each other's work. As he put it, "During the last two decades, which saw the flowering of European

37. John B. Freed, "Diemut von Hogl: Eine Salzburger Erbtochter und die erzbischofliche Ministerialitat im Hochmittelalter," Mitteilungender Gesellschaft fiir Salzburger Landeskunde 120/21 (1980/81): 581-657. 38. Irmline Veit-Brause, "The Place of Local and Regional History in German and French Historiography: Some General Reflections," Australian Journalof FrenchStudies16 (1979): 447-78, esp. 471. On the treatment ofthe Nazi era by local historians, see Evans, In Hitlers Shadow(see above, note 32), 125-27.

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the Rhine has been a greater barrier than the English history, This failure to communicate has been Channel or even the Atlantic." to five causes. (1) The French have been interested in the attributed and early-modern in the Revolution, late-medieval periods, culminating whereas Germans have been concerned with the more recent past, focussocial history to ing on the Nazi era. (2) The Germans have employed in a new whereas French historians have study political questions way, been unpolitical. Indeed, the study of regional history in France, a highly centralized country, is, Kaelble argued, an escape from politics. (3) The French have concentrated as part of their escapism on the longue duree in an alien distant world, whereas the Germans have stressed social change in the more recent past. (4) The Germans have been far more concerned than the French with theory. (5) The first half of the twentieth century was the Annales School in France, whereas of the Weimar Republic, let alone the democratic political climate in the favorable for the development of the extreme German nationalism

Third Reich, was highly unfavorable for the study of social history. Kaelble concluded, that however, these divisions have been breaking down in the last few years among modern historians.39 have always been somewhat more receptive to as Veit-Brause because the work, noted, perhaps society were studying was clearly both more local and more international post-1789 Europe. Georges Duby, the dean of French medievalists, his debt to Karl Schmid on several occasions;40 and acknowledged other's Annaliste would Medievalists each they than has

be proud to have written Heinrich Fichtenau's ordinary book, Living in the Tenth Century: Mentalities and Social Orders 1991).41 Still, the fact remains that no German or Austrian (Chicago, 39. Hartmut Kaelble, "Sozialgeschichte in Frankreichund der Bundesrepublik: Annales gegen historische Sozialwissenschaften?" Geschichteund Gesellschaft13 (1987): 77-93, 77: "In den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten der Bliitezeit der europaischen Sozialgeschichte war der Rhein eine scharfere Grenze als der Armelkanal oder gar der Atlantik." 40. Georges Duby, The Chivalrous Society, trans. Cynthia Postan (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977), 67-68, 101-3, 150, 153; and MedievalMarriage:Two Modelsfrom TwelfthCenturyFrance, trans. Elborg Forster (Baltimore, 1978), 9-10. 41. The original German version is Heinrich Fichtenau, Lebensordnungen des 10. Jahrhun2 pts. (Stuttgart, 1984). derts:StudienuberDenkart und Existenz im einstigenKarolingerreich, Fichtenau, it should be noted, is an Austrian rather than a German. The English translation is Living in the Tenth Century:Mentalitiesand Social Order, trans. Patrick Geary (Chicago, 1991). Jiirgen Sydow, "Stadt und Kirche im Mittelalter: Ein Versuch," Wurttembergisch Franken58 (1974, reprinted in Sydow, Cum omnimensura) [see above, note 11]), 45-46, had in 1974 already recognized the need for French-style investigations of late-medieval urban piety: "Dabei ist dieser franzosischen Forschungsrichtung darin zuzustimmen, dass eine solche 'histoire de mentalite' nicht wie die 'Geistesgeschichte' vergangener Forschungsepochen losgelost von den materiellen Grundvoraussetzungen, sondern in einer die Synthese wahrenden Betrachtung betrieben werden muss, aber fiir Untersuchungen uber Riten,

any extra?

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medievalist has ventured to write an Annales-style regional monograph that is comparable to Duby's classic work on the Maconnais. it remains to be seen whether the scholarly barriers?and Moreover, in the former DDR separated medievalists in the will fall as West leagues quickly as the Berlin Wall. the last two decades more than fifty German during which was published in East Germany. Perhaps this is fear?that from their colI have reviewed books, none of a fluke, but the

Festschrift, Institutionen, Kultur und Gesellschaft im Mittelalter (1984), which was presented to Josef Fleckenstein on his sixty-fifty birthday, contains none an East German. Most of the contribarticles, thirty-five by utors are, as one would expect, West Germans, but there are also pieces and Scotland, France, Austria, England, Belgium, no East-German an wrote article for Similarly, professor the Festschrift, Person und Gemeinschaft im Mittelalter (1988), that was presented to Karl Schmid four years later. Equally interesting is the tabula scholars from Argentina, Austria, gratulatoria. Two-hundred-forty-seven Belgium, England, France, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Poland, Scot? and the United States as well as the Federal Republic land, Switzerland, Schmid on his sixty-fifth birthday; but the DDR was, as congratulated far as I can tell, unrepresented. East Germans did not share Conceivably, Fleckenstein's and Schmid's interest in the medieval nobility, but they were also not among the twenty-five individuals from West Germany, colloFrance, and Japan who attended the 1987 international Belgium, on manorial structures in Carolingian-Ottonian quium in Gottingen Germany, a topic that was, one would think, of more interest to Marxist historians.42 Similarly, Jurgen Sydow, who was the municipal archivist in Regensburg and Tubingen and the leader of the Siidwestdeutscher Arbeitskreis fiir Stadtgeschichtsforschung from 1963 to 1982, commented in a 1987 article on city leagues during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: "In contrast, the literature that appeared on our theme in the DDR and that can be explained in the overall context ofthe discussion there, went its separate way and can be utilized only in part for our purpose."43 Still, it must be said, if the East Germans were conspicuous by their absence at Glaubensformen, Mythen usw. bietet gerade das biirgerliche und stadtische Spatmittelalter ein breites Forschungsfeld." I can see no evidence, however, that Sydow actually embarked on this path himself. 42. Rosener, Strukturen (see above, note 11), 7. 43. Jiirgen Sydow, "Kanonistische Uberlegungen zur Geschichte und Verfassung der Bundnisse Stadtebunde des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts,"Maurer, ed., Kommunale (see above, note 11) (reprintedin Sydow, Cum omnimensura [see above, note 11]), 213: "Dagegen geht die in der DDR erschienene Literatur zu unserem Thema eigene Wege, die aus dem Gesamtkonzept der dortigen Diskussion zu erklarensind, und ist daher fiir unser Anliegen nur teilweise heranzuziehen." by scholars Switzerland. from

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the number of American, and French medievalists Gottingen, English, who were listed in the tabula gratulatoria ofthe Schmid Festschrift was also miniscule (George Beech was the only American among the 247 congratof German medievalists from their colleagues ulants). The isolation West or East is striking. often tortured history has thus, as Sheehan pointed out, Germany's The basic political orientation of profoundly shaped its historiography. medieval German social history is evident in the work of the Freiburg in the nobility originated in the early 1940s and Martin Lintzel about the role of during Schlesinger versus folk led the the of the First king by nobility in the formation German Reich.44 Surely, the choice of this topic was zeithedingt. The School. Tellenbach's interest his debate with of this debate was the publication of Tellenbach's seminal outgrowth 1943 article, "Vom karolingischen Reichsadel zum deutschen Reichsfiirin which he traced the connection between the Carolingian stenstand," and their the descendants, imperial aristocracy princes who created the individual After the war, Tellenbach and his students principalities.45 new in the Libri memoriales (Tellenbach, sources, particular, employed and Schmid edited, for example, the book of remembrance Hlawitschka, to explore the connections of Remiremont),46 between changes in family the formation consciousness, ment of territorial lordships.47 of patrilineal For instance, lineages, Schmid utilized and the establish? an entry in

44. The key works are Gerd Tellenbach, Kbnigtum und Stamme in der Werdezeitdes DeutschenReiches (Weimar, 1939); idem, "Die Unteilbarkeit des Reiches: Ein Beitrag zur Entstehungsgeschichte Deutschlands und Frankreichs," HistorischeZeitschrift 163 (1941): 20-42; Walter Schlesinger, "Kaiser Arnulf und die Entstehung des deutschen Staates und Volkes," ibid., 163 (1941): 457-70; Tellenbach, "Zur Geschichte Kaiser Arnulfs," ibid., 165 (1942): 229-45; Martin Lintzel, "Zur Stellung der ostfrankischen Aristokratie beim Sturz Karls III. und der Entstehung der Stammesherzogtumer," ibid., 166 (1942): 457-72; and Tellenbach, "Wann ist das Deutsche Reich entstanden?," DeutschesArchiv fur Geschichte desMittelalters 6, no. 1 (1943): 1-41. Tellenbach's articles, "Die Unteilbarkeit des Reiches," and "Wann ist das Deutsche Reich enstanden?" have been reprinted in the second volume of his collected essays (see above, note 6), Schlesinger's in Beitragezur deutschen Verfassungs? geschichtedes Mittelalters1 (see above, note 4). All of the articles have been reprinted in des deutschen Reiches(Deutschland um 900) (Darmstadt, Hellmut Kampf, ed., Die Entstehung 1956). On the debate, see Freed, "Reflections," 554-56; and Karl Ferdinand Werner, Das und die deutscheGeschichtswissenschaft NS-Geschichtsbild (Stuttgart, 1967), 51-52. 45. Gerd Tellenbach, "Vom karolingischen Reichsadel zum deutschen Reichsftirstenstand," in Mayer, ed., Adel und Bauern(see above, note 2), 22-73. It has been reprinted in und Staat im Mittelalter(Darmstadt, 1956), and in volume 3 Hellmut Kampf, ed., Herrschaft of Tellenbach's collected essays. Timothy Reuter translated the article into English: "From the Carolingian Imperial Nobility to the German Estate ofthe Imperial Princes," in The Medieval Nobility: Studies on the Ruling Classes of Franceand Germany from the Sixth to the Twelfth Century (Amsterdam, 1979): 203-42. 46. Eduard Hlawitschka, Karl Schmid, and Gerd Tellenbach, eds., Libermemorialis von 2 vols. (Dublin, 1970). Remiremont, zur Geschichtedes grossfrankischen 47. See Gerd Tellenbach, ed., Studien und Vorarbeiten

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of the Liber memorialis of St. Gall to investigate Henry I's designation of the Otto I as his successor and the acceptance of the indivisibility kingship.48 The use of social history to investigate constitutional changes?what Kaelble described as the use of social history to look at political history in a new way?is also evident in the work of a younger scholar like Gerd Using the Liber memorialis of Reichenau, Althoff demonstrated I, unlike his father, no longer treated the lay magnates as his also showed how changes in the Billungs' Althoff peers.49 lordship as is revealed by the necrology of their affected their family consciousness St. Michael's in Liineburg. The necrology also casts dynastic monastery, s in Althoff light, opinion, on such things as Hermann Billung's relations Althoff. that Otto his brother Wichmann the Elder and on various conspiracies.50 Unlike such French scholars as Duby,51 members ofthe Freiburg School of the changes in family struc? have not probed the social ramifications ture such as the effect that the formation of patrilineal lineages had on daughters and younger sons. with Adels (Freiburg, 1957). This contains articles by Tellenbach, Fleckenstein, und friihdeutschen Schmid, Franz Vollmer, andJoachim Wollasch. Tellenbach's own articles about the nobil? are reprinted in volume 3 of his ity, including his contributions in Studienund Vorarbeiten, as a historical source in collected works. Tellenbach discussed the use ofthe Librimemoriales a number of articles: "Der Konvent der Reichsabtei Priim unter Abt Ansbald (860-886)," und Aufsatze, 2:411-25; "Liturgische Gedenkbiicher als historiAbhandlungen Ausgewdhlte sche Quellen," ibid., 2:426-37; "Der Liber Memorialis von Remiremont. Zur kritischen Erforschung und zum Quellenwert liturgischer Gedenkbiicher," ibid., 2:438-84; and "Zur Bedeutung der Personenforschung fur die Erkenntnis des friiheren Mittelalters:Freiburger am 4. Mai 1957," ibid., 3:943-62. Many of Schmid'smost importantarticleson Rektoradsrede these themes have been reprintedin his collected articles, Gebetsgedenken (see above, note 7). 48. Karl Schmid, "Neue Quellen zum Verstandnis des Adels im 10. Jahrhundert," des Oberrheins 108 (1960): 185-232; and idem, "Die Thronfolge Zeitschrift fur die Geschichte Germanistische Ottos des Grossen," Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte, Abteilung81 (1964): 80-163. Neither of these articles was reprinted in Schmid's collected articles, but "Die Thronfolge Ottos des Grossen," and the first part of "Neue Quellen," in ottonischhave been reprinted in Eduard Hlawitschka, ed., Kbnigswahlund Thronfolge Zeit (Darmstadt, 1971). fruhdeutscher 49. Gerd Althoff, "Unerforschte Quellen aus quellenarmerZeit (IV): Zur Verflechtung der Fuhrungsschichten in den Gedenkquellen des friihen zehnten Jahrhunderts," in NeitStudiesin Medieval hard Bulst andJean-PhilippeGenet, eds., MedievalLives and the Historian: (Kalamazoo, Mich., 1986), 37-71. Prosopography im Spiegel ihrerMemorialuberlieferung: Studien 50. Gerd Althoff, Adels- undKbnigsfamilien undOttonen,Munstersche Mittelalter-Schriften47 (Munich, derBillunger zum Totengedenken 1984), 31-132. Althoff also examined the necrology of Merseburg, which incorporated material from Quedlinburg, and concluded that the Saxon kings. after Henry I did not Freunde remember lay magnates (133-228). The subtitle of Althoff's new book, Verwandte, und Getreue(see above, note 6), reveals the political perspective. 51. See, for instance, Georges Duby, "Lineage, Nobility and Knighthood: The Maconnais in the Twelfth Century?a Revision," The ChivalrousSociety (see above, note 40), 59-80; and idem, The Knight, the Lady, and the Priest: The Making of ModernMarriagein MedievalFrance,trans. BarbaraBray (New York, 1983), 227-84.

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or modern, medieval on the The study of local history, continues, other hand, to reinforce, as Sheehan indicated, love ofthe Heimat.52 For a thirtyexample, the title ofthe historical journal ofthe Rupertiwinkel, of kilometer on the left bank of the Salzach that had territory strip of Salzburg and that was ceded belonged to the ecclesiastical principality to Bavaria in 1816, is Das Salzfass (the salt barrel is the iconographic symbol of Salzburg's patron saint, Rupert): Heimatkundliche Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereins Rupertiwinkel (the name for the area came into use only around 1900). Christian Soika, the Kreisheimatspfleger of Traunstein, cited, in the fifth volume ofthe Heimatbuch des Landkreises Traunstein, Der nordliche Rupertiwinkel: Erbe des Landkreises Laufen (the Landkreis of which had been with the Rupertiwinkel, was Laufen, nearly coterminous divided in 1972 between the districts of Traunstein and Berchtesgaden), his predecessor's prefatory words, written in 1963, to the first volume in "Our Heimatbuch has the task not only to present the reader with a picture of his Heimat, as it is, but also how it originated and how it was formed. The Heimatbuch should transport the reader back into the history of his Heimat, should arouse his pride and love, and should keep alive the feeling for the inherited tradition of his Heimat . . . Heimat, love of the Heimat, and consciousness of the Heimat are spiritual values. Where they are lacking, the inner equilibrium has been disturbed." Soika that the Heimatgedanke, which had been misused earlier in the and smallcentury, was associated in the early 1960s with backwardness but he added that in the last twenty years consciousness of mindedness, the Heimat had considerably increased among the populace.53 Such "homeland books," often lavishly illustrated and published with subventions from local and provincial authorities and/or governmental private public, plines. contributors, and amateur contain articles, usually footnoted, by academic, local historians and by scholars from other discithe volume on the northern has Rupertiwinkel admitted the series:

For instance, on pieces geology, vegetation, prehistory, archaeological finds, the medieval administrative structure, church history, ecclesiastical and secular period,

52. On the study of local history in general, see Pankraz Fried, Problemeund Methoden Landeskunde des Mittelalters: Geneseund (see above, note 7); and Alois Gerlich, Geschichtliche Probleme(Darmstadt, 1986). 53. Christian Soika, ed., Heimatbuchdes LandkreisesTraunstein, vol. 5, Der nordliche Rupertiwinkel:Erbe des Landkreises Laufen (Trostberg, 1990), 5: "Unser Heimatbuch hat ja nicht nur die Aufgabe, dem Leser ein Bild seiner Heimat zu geben, wie sie ist, sondern auch, wie sie entstanden ist und wie sie geformt wurde. Es soll ihn in die Geschichte seiner Heimat zuruckfuhren, seinen Stolz und seine Liebe wecken und in ihm das Gefiihl fiir die gewachsene Tradition seiner Heimat lebendig halten . . . Heimat, Heimatliebe, und Heimatbewusstsein sind seelische Werte. Wo sie fehlen, ist das innere Gleichgewicht gestort."

16 architecture,

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the interior decoration of churches, castles, peasant houses, costumes, customs, dialect, place names, an iron forge, sites, pilgrimage in Tittmoning, and historical illustrations the castle and museum of the chief town in the northern Heinz Tittmoning, Rupertiwinkel. who is professor of comparative Landesgeschichte at the Uni? Dopsch, versity of Salzburg, wrote, for instance, the article on the medieval a prominent Germanist who teaches in period; and Ingo Reiffenstein, Salzburg, was the author of the piece on the local dialect. Needless to say, the quality of these articles varies greatly, but the Heimatbucher contain a great deal of extremely useful information.54 authorities and Historical exhibitions, by the provincial sponsored visited by hundreds of thousands of viewers,55 strengthen local patriotism. The lavishly illustrated exhibition catalogs contain not only detailed articles by descriptions of the artifacts in the exhibition but popularizing respected additional a separate scholarly with Sometimes monograph with the exhibition. For is published in conjunction was in in 1982 held to commemorate an exhibition Salzburg example, of the still flourishof the foundation the alleged 1400th anniversary in comof St. Peter's Salzburg (the exhibition abbey ing Benedictine a was or since the a non-event memorated founded, conceivably abbey scholars. articles foundation revived, by St. Rupert in 696). The exhibition late-antique im deutschen Sprachraum: St. Peter in Salzburg: 3. Das Kloster alteste catalog, 15. Mai-26. Oktober 1982: Schatze europaischer Kunst und Landesausstellung Kultur, has 430 pages. The separate, more scholarly commemorative volume, Mitteilungen scholarship in Studien und Festschrift Erzabtei St. Peter in Salzburg 582-1982, zur Geschichte des Benediktiner-Ordens und seiner Zweige 93 1982), has 950 pages.56 A great deal of valuable historical (Salzburg, is published?and buried?in the exhibition catalogs. For

54. Alfred Stefan Weiss's critical review of Soika's Heimatbuch appeared in the Mit? Landeskunde 130 (1990): 812-14. The Heimatbuch of teilungender Gesellschaft fiir Salzburger the northern Rupertiwinkel is hardly unique. The 320-page Heimatbuch of Bischofshofen, a town in the province of Salzburg that had 9,671 inhabitantsin 1987, Roswitha Moosleitner, 5000 Jahre Geschichte und Kunst (Bischofshofen, 1984), contains ten articles, Bischofshofen: including pieces by Dopsch on medieval and early-modern Bischofshofen, by Fritz Moos? leitner, director of the archaeological section of the Museum Carolino Augusteum in Salzburg, on the prehistoricaland ancient periods, and by Wiltrud Topic-Mersmann, an art historian at the University of Salzburg, on the eighth-century cross of Bischofshofen. 55. The attendance figures for some recent exhibitions in Austria with medieval themes are: "1200Jahre Kremsmunster" (1977), 472,000; "1000Jahre Babenberger in Osterreich" (1976), 466,000; "Die Kuenringer?Das Werden des Landes Niederosterreich" (1981), 400,000; "Die Bajuwaren?Von Severin bis Tassilo" (1988), 400,000; and "Die Steier? der Gesellschaft mark? Briicke und Bollwerk" (1986), 311,000. Mitteilungen fur Salzburger 131 (1991):422. Landeskunde the reader some sense of the To of the 56. magnitude give phenomenon, I will list the catalogs of several other exhibitions or commemorative volumes related to medieval

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instance, the St. Peter's catalog contains an excellent illustrated article about an amazing feat of medieval the still functioning, engineering: which includes a 370-meter-long Almkanal, tunnel, twelfth-century a meter wide and two meters high, through the Monchsapproximately berg in Salzburg.57 Such local historical whether it appears in separate mono? scholarship, in or local historical Heimatbiicher, exhibition journals, graphs catalogs, or commemorative varies enormously in quality. Some of it is volumes, For example, Helga Reindel-Schedl has recently completed outstanding. a monumental ofthe adminis? 868-page study topographic, proprietary, from the eighth until trative, and political structure ofthe Rupertiwinkel the nineteenth on which she worked for more than three decentury, cades. There are nineteen detailed maps in the text and four large maps in a pocket in the rear cover. The maps show such things as settlements in the eighth century, donations to the church of Salzburg in the eighth the manorial of St. Peter's in the twelfth and thirteenth century, holdings the the of counts 6f Plain and their ministerials, centuries, possessions and the judicial structure ofthe until 1600.58 It is an invaluable region reference work. Still, it is worth comparing Reindel-Schedl's essentially political and institutional approach with Duby's classic La societe aux Xle et XHe siecles dans le region mdconnaise (2nd. ed., Paris, 1971) or Guy Le Berry du Xe siecle au milieu du XHIe (Paris, 1973) with their Devailly's emphasis on social structure and societal change to see the difference in

Salzburg that have been held since 1980. Each is several hundred pages long and contains articles by distinguished scholars. Hermann Dannheimer and Heinz Dopsch, eds., Die des Freistaates Bajuwaren: Von Severin bis Tassilo 488-788: GemeinsameLandesausstellung BayernunddesLandesSalzburg:Rosenheim/Bayem,Mattsee/Salzburg:19. Maxbis 6. November 1988 (Korneuburg, Austria, 1988); Benediktinerabtei Michaelbeuem: Eine Dokumentation anldsslich der Erqffnung und Weiheder neu adaptierten Rdumefiir Intemat, Schule und Bildungsarbeit (Michaelbeuem, Austria, 1985); Hemmavon Gurk:Katalog:AusstellungaufSchlossStrassburg/ Karnten:14. Mai bis26. Oktober1988 (Klagenfurt, 1988); Dietmar Straub, ed., 900Jahre Stift Reichersberg: Augustiner Chorherrenzwischen Passau und Salzburg: Ausstellung des Landes Oberbsterreich 26. April bis 28. Oktober 1984 im Stift Reichersberg am Inn (Linz, 1984); Schatzhaus Karntens: Landesausstellung St. Paul 1991: 900 Jahre Benediktinerstift, vol. 1, Katalog, ed. Hartwig Pucker; vol. 2, Beitrdge,ed. Johannes Grabmayer (Klagenfurt, 1991); Heinz Dopsch and Roswitha Juffinger, eds., Virgil von Salzburg: Missionarund Gelehrter: desInternationalen vom 21.-24. September 1984 in derSalzburgerResidenz Beitrdge Symposiums zur Burgerbeteiligung: 100 (Salzburg, 1985); and Heinz Dopsch, ed., VomStadtrecht Festschrift von Salzburg (Salzburg, 1987). Jahre Stadtrecht 57. Heinz Dopsch, "Der Almkanal?eine Pionierleistung europaischer Bautechnik," St. Peter in Salzburg: 3. Landesausstellung Das dlteste Kloster im deutschenSprachraum: 15. Mai-26. Oktober1982: Schatze europaischer Kunst und Kultur (Salzburg, 1982), 117-21. 58. Helga Reindel-Schedl, Laufen an der Salzach: Die alt-salzburgischenPfleggerichte Laufen, Staufeneck, Teisendorf, Tittmoning und Waging (Munich, 1989). The monograph developed out of her dissertation: Helga Schedl, "Gericht, Verwaltung und Grundherr? schaft im bayerischen Salzach?Saalach?Grenzland unter der Herrschaft der Salzburger Erzbischofe" (Ph.D. diss., University of Munich, 1956).

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This is not to say perspective between French and German scholarship. that the French approach is necessarily better, but it reveals once again how little impact the Annales School has had east of the Rhine. write in seeming of each other's Many local historians ignorance that monographs work. Adriaan Verhulst pointed out, for example, about the structure of individual manors in the East Frankish Kingdom of with findings elsewhere.59 The consequence contain few comparisons such parochialism is that it is difficult to tell whether the local historians' findings are unique to their localities or whether their discoveries are part of a broader conclusions. questions. of historical pattern, and even harder to make any general explanatory Even worse, most local historians do not even raise these some local historians also show a lamentable lack Regrettably, otherwise valuable, article about shipping the church of Salzburg received property in The author from a Reginolt of Lampoding.

sense. A recent, on the Salzach indicated that Laufen in the eighth century then added that Reginolt was with

ofthe late-medieval the first representative Even if the that in surname Laufen!60 toponymic patrician family writer never heard of Karl Schmid, he might have asked himself if it is permissible to talk about a lineage that left not the slightest documentary trace for five hundred years. of all, there is the problem of integrating this vast outpouring it is or and local scholarship, whether social "old-fashioned" political constitutional history, into general German history. Part of the problem Above is simply human frailty. Few libraries can afford to procure all the local let alone the exhibition catalogs and comjournals and monographs, memorative volumes (this problem is even worse for American librar? ies); and no individual scholar, even if the material is readily accessible, can read all of it. Beyond that, there is the more fundamental problem of defining what is meant by Germany in any particular period during the Middle Second Ages. It is hardly identical with the territory of the former the Habsburg let alone the domains, Reich, which excluded reunited Federal Republic; but it cannot simply be equated with the medieval regnum Teutonicum, which included Brabant and Lorraine and criteria are hardly more helpful since Prussia. excluded Linguistic

59. AdriaanVerhulst, "Die Grundherrschaftsentwicklungim ostfrankischenRaum vom 8. bis 10. Jahrhundert: Grundziige und Fragen aus westfrankischer Sicht," in Rosener, Strukturen (see above, note 11), 30. derGesellund die Stadt Laufen," Mitteilungen 60. FranzHeffeter, "Die Salzachschiffahrt 129 (1989): 7-8. On the Lampodinger, see Heinz Dopsch, Landeskunde schaftfurSalzburger GeschichteSalzburgs: Stadt und Land, vol. 1, Vorgeschichte, Altertum, Mittelalter, 3 pts. (Salzburg, 1981-84), 1/1:401. Heffeter is not alone. Herbert Weiermann, "Burgen und des Landkreises Traunstein, 5:276, wrote: "Das Geschlecht der Lam? Schlosser," Heimatbuch podinger geht bis ins 8. Jahrhundertzuriick."

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burghers of Liibeck and Graz, if they ever met, would probably have found each othef's "German" nearly incomprehensible. English and French historians face the same problem, is more acute in but the problem Germany because of its large size, lack of natural borders, and declining which was, even in its heyday during the Saxonmonarchal authority, in those areas where the king could exercise Salian period, concentrated intensive lordship. In that sense, Ottonian history is largely Saxon his? tory just as Habsburg history is Austrian history.61 in part a response to The most recent trend in German historiography, is the writing of what I call "Common Market this very problem, History," in which or even European first paragraph of his provocative 1250: "This work can provide world German history is placed in a Western medieval historical context. Hagen Keller wrote in the

history of Germany between 1024 and the reader with a fair picture of the that took place in the era only if the developments Salian-Hohenstaufen West between 1000 and the middle ofthe thirteenth century are incorpois no longer on The emphasis rated into the history of Germany."62 social, history but on the political, economic, dynastic and constitutional in and intellectual transformation cultural, religious, (not necessarily the ninth and thirteenth that order) of Germany and Europe between ofthe titles of Hlawitschka's Vom Frankenreich centuries. A comparison zur Formierung der europaischen Staaten- und Volkergemeinschaft 840-1046 classic Geschichte der sdchsi? (Darmstadt, 1986) with Robert Holtzmann's schen Kaiserzeit (900-1024) (Munich, 1941; rpt. ed., Darmstadt, 1967) or of Keller's Zwischen regionaler Begrenzung und universalem Horizont: Deutsch-

61. On the problem of defining Germany in the Later Middle Ages, see Peter Moraw, Das Reich im spdtenMittelalter1250 bis 1490 zu gestalteterVerdichtung: Von offenerVerfassung (Berlin, 1985), 43-46. Johannes Fried, "Deutsche Geschichte im Friiheren und Hohen Mittelalter: Bemerkungen zu einigen neuen Gesamtdarstellungen," HistorischeZeitschrift 245 (1987): 625-59, criticized the new general histories of Germany that appeared in the 1980s (see below, note 62) for their failure to define what they meant by Germany prior to with all its regional the thirteenth century and for failing to integrate Landesgeschichte differences into their accounts. In Fried's view the authors concentrated on the Reich and the king and thus the regional focus of such histories changes as the monarchy's base of power shifted. Horizont: Deutschland 62. Hagen Keller, Zwischenregionaler im Begrenzungunduniversalem der Salier und Staufer1024 bis 1250, in Propylaen Geschichte Deutschlands, vol. 2 Imperium (Berlin, 1986), 11: "Von der Epoche der Salier und Staufer kann dieses Werk dem Leser nur dann ein angemessenes Bild vermitteln, wenn in der Geschichte Deutschlands die Entwicklung eingefangen wird, die sich von der Jahrtausendwende bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhun? derts im Abendland vollzog." For similar views, see Alfred Haverkamp, Aufbruchund 1056-1213 (Munich, 1984), 11-16; and Hermann Jakobs, KirchenreDeutschland Gestaltung: 1046-1215, 2d. ed. (Munich, 1988). Jakobs's book, v, 87-163, form und Hochmittelalter contains an excellent discussion and annotated bibliography about the major research problems in this time period. Haverkamp's book is available in English: MedievalGermany, 1056-1273, trans. Helga Braun and Richard Mortimer (Oxford, 1988).

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land im Imperium der Salier und Staufer 1024 bis 1250 with Karl Hampe's masterpiece Deutsche Kaisergeschichte in der Zeit der Salier und Staufer (1st The ed., 1908) reveals the change in perspective. Geoffrey Barraclough's 1946), which was based upon the Origins of Modern Germany (Oxford, finest interwar German scholarship in medieval political and constitu? tional history,63 best captures the flavor ofthe older tradition for Englishspeaking readers. of inheritance The newer works stress the common Carolingian Western Europe. Fleckenstein wrote about post-Carolingian Europe in an "Die Grundlegung der europaischen Einheit article entitled, revealingly, im Mittelalter": life and social structure the "But also in its economic old unity continued to have an effect. Although regional differences expressed themselves again more strongly in these areas with the increasing life and social of the world of states, they (economic nationalization in their basic to one another nevertheless related remained structure) The peasantry, manorialism, feudalism, let alone the nobility retained their common European features . . ."64 After and knighthood, Western Europe's Christian, classical, and Frankish inheri? mentioning common trends Keller identified, tance, among others, the following in his the West Middle when the view, perhaps was, Ages, High during structure. more uniformly shaped than in any other period in its history: popula? of trade, intensocial mobility, tion growth, urbanization, expansion sification of lordship, religious reform movements, papal centralization, Karl Ferdinand and the rise of scholasticism.65 the crusades, pilgrimages, the director of the German Insti? Werner, who is, significantly enough, has more than tute in Paris and who any other scholar perhaps stressed Frankish roots, even declared: "The common France's and Germany's one who went to receive the imperial crown in 962 was not a German

63. Barraclough's book is based in good measure on the essays by prominent German historians that he had translated and analyzed in the 1930s: MediaevalGermany911-1250: Essays by GermanHistorians,2 vols. (Oxford, 1938). 64. Josef Fleckenstein, "Die Grundlegung der europaischen Einheit im Mittelalter," (see above, note 4), 142-43: "Aber auch im Wirtschaftslebenund in der SozialOrdnungen strukturwirkt die alte Gemeinsamkeit fort. Zwar setzen sich in ihnen mit der zunehmenden Nationalisierung der Staatenwelt die regionalen Unterschiede wieder starkerdurch, aber sie miteinanderverwandt: Das Bauerntum, die Grund? bleiben dennoch in ihrer Grundstruktur herrschaft, das Feudalwesen bewahren gesamteuropaische Ziige?erst recht der Adel und das Rittertum ..." For similar views on Germany's and France's common Carolingian heritage, see Josef Fleckenstein, Early MedievalGermany,trans. Bernard S. Smith (Amster? dam, 1978), xi-xv, 75-86; and Karl FerdinandWerner, Structures politiquesdu mondefranc (London, 1979), i-iii. (VIe-XIIe siecles):Etudesur les originesde la Franceet de VAllemagne und Beginnderdeutschen The original German edition of Fleckenstein's book is Grundlagen Geschichte (Gottingen, 1976). 65. Keller, Zwischenregionaler Begrenzung,37-48.

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king but one of the Frankish kings who since the time of Charlemagne had divided or disputed among themselves the protection of the Roman must be rolling in his grave, In Wilhelm von Giesebrecht Church."66 short, whereas modern German historians have debated whether Ger? century on a Sonder? many embarked after the middle of the nineteenth most German medievalists modernization,67 weg, due to its incomplete of European history. have placed medieval Germany in the mainstream and the the monarchy Indeed, Keller stated that the dualism between of absolute monar? Reich was no more a Sonderfall than the development chy in "Modell Frankreich."68 While it is refreshing after the strident nationalism of an earlier era to of read Haverkamp's Salian-Hohenstaufen history Germany that begins with an account of Western expansion in the Mediterranean,69 a few words of caution are in order. First of all, the social and cultural unity of the Carolingian As Richard E. SulliEmpire should not be exaggerated. van put it: "In short, the real Carolingian world appears to have been comfortably drawing vital energies from regional and polymorphous, ethnic communities which pfedated the Carolingian age and which survived beyond it at least until about 1000 . . ."70 Let me cite a simple Mansus was synonymous with hoba in ninth-century Bavaria, example. but it referred only to the peasant's hut and garden in Thuringia, whereas huba was the complete the manorial Indeed, classic, bipartite holding. structure was only being introduced from the West into the East Frankish 66. Karl Ferdinand Werner, 'L'Empire carolingien: Le Saint Empire," in Maurice Duverger, ed., Le concept d'empire(Paris, 1980), 177; reprinted in Karl Ferdinand Werner, Vom Frankenreichzur Entfaltung Deutschlands und Frankreichs: Ursprunge?Strukturen? Beziehungen: AusgewahlteBeitrdge:Festgabezu seinem sechzigstenGeburtstag(Sigmaringen, 1984), 354: "Celui qui allait recevoir le couronnement imperial, en 962, n'etait pas un roi allemand, mais un des rois franc qui, depuis Charlemagne, se partageaient ou se disputaient la protection de l'Eglise romaine." It is worth noting that while Tellenbach and his critics debated in the 1940s the role ofthe king versus the folk led by the nobility in the creation of the first Reich, Werner refused to use the term Stammesherzogtiimer because, by stressing the folkish element, the word obscured the fact that the West and East Frankish Kingdoms arose out of Carolingian administrative units or regnaunder the leadership of high members ofthe Carolingian imperial aristocracy who held high imperial offices. See his "Les duches 'nationaux' d'Allemagne au IXe et au Xe siecle," Les Principautesau moyen-dge:Actes du de Venseignement Congresde la Societedes historiensmedievistes superieur public, Bordeaux1913 311-28. (Bordeaux, 1979), 29-46; reprinted in Vom Frankenreich, 67. Evans, In Hitler's Shadow(see above, note 32), 114. For a recent article on the debate, see Thomas Childers, "The Social Language of Politics in Germany: The Sociology of Political Discourse in the Weimar Republic," The AmericanHistorical Review 95 (1990): 331-35. 68. Keller, Zwischen regionaler Begrenzung, 24-25. 69. Haverkamp, Aufbruchund Gestaltung, 17-23. 70. Richard E. Sullivan, "The Carolingian Age: Reflections on Its Place in the History of the Middle Ages," Speculum64 (1989): 292-93.

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in the late Carolingian period.71 Frankish rule may have left Kingdom Western Europe with a common, classical, and Christian high culture with similar political institutions like Werner's and, at least superficially, regna;72 but the differences between, say, Saxony, whose Christianization wars of conquest, were initiated by Charlemagne's and "urbanization" let alone and the Rhineland with its Roman and Christian inheritance, or should not be minimized. Italy, Aquitaine Second, while historians like Keller are aware of the increasing regional diversification of high-medieval Europe,73 it is easy to lose sight of this in their general histories. The careless reader of Keller's volume may forget, for example, that the first German university was founded only in the second half of the fourteenth century when reading about the origins of Bologna and Paris and Germans who studied abroad in the twelfth century.74 The historian must ask why universities had been founded in of the thirteenth century, Italy, France, and England by the beginning it is defined (should the University but not in Germany however of in as a which was established 1348 be classified "German" uni? Prague as Johannes Fried pointed out, distinct Germany itself. Western and southern Ger? regional the Danube to the Leitha, many, particularly valley from Regensburg were far more receptive to the new French and Italian learning in the versity?). Moreover, differences there were, within century than the north.75 To cite another example, there are still in no satisfactory explanations why an estate of ministerials developed and but in Brabant not not in that the Empire but Lorraine, is, France, were equated with or why ministerials in Flanders or Champagne,76 twelfth 71. Verhulst, "Die Grundherrschaftsentwicklung"(see above, note 59), 37-38, 40-41. For an introductory discussion of the differences between northern, central, and southern Germany in the ninth century, see Timothy Reuter, Germanyin the Early MiddleAges c. 800-1056 (London and New York, 1991), 51-69. 72. See, for instance, Karl FerdinandWerner, "Konigtum und Fiirstentum im franzosischen 12. Jahrhundert,"in Vortrdge undForschungen, vol. 12 (Constance and Stuttgart, 1968), 177-225; reprinted in idem, Structures politiques (see above, note 64); idem, "MissusMarchio-Comes: Entre Tadministration centrale et 1'administration locale de l'Empire de carolingien," in Werner Paravicini and Karl Ferdinand Werner, eds., Histoirecomparee VAdministration (IVe-XVIII siecles) (Munich and Ziirich, 1980), 191-239; reprinted in Werner, VomFrankenreich (see above, note 66), 108-56; and idem, "La genese des duches en France et en Allemagne," Settimanedi studiodel Centroitalianodi studisull'altomedioevo, 21: NascitddelVEuropa ed Europacarolingia: da verificare un'equazione (Spoleto, 1981), 175278-310. Werner's article, "Konigtum und Fursten207; reprinted in Vom Frankenreich, tum," has been translated by Reuter, The Medieval Nobility (see above, note 45) as "Kingdom and Principality in Twelfth-Century France," 243-90. 73. Keller, Zwischenregionaler Begrenzung,48?51. 74. Ibid., 307-11. 75. Johannes Fried, "Die Rezeption Bologneser Wissenschaft in Deutschland wahrend des 12. Jahrhunderts," Viator21 (1990): 103-45. 76. On this problem, see Freed, "Origins" (see above, note 19), 237-41.

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knights in Alsace but not in Austria.77 As Henri Pirenne put it in 1909: "It is incomprehensible, moreover, given the nearly identical social conditions in the lands situated between the Rhine and the Seine in the High Middle Ages, why the ministerialage that flourished so much in Ger? should have been unknown in France" many and the Low Countries in (Pirenne thought that liege homage took the place ofthe ministerialage France).78 Such macro and micro regional differences require an explanation even in accounts that stress, among other things, the hierarchical of medieval noble dominance, and the common organization society, scholastic and chivalric cultures. ofthe bipartite manorial system and the late Third, as the introduction of German universities foundation tended to lag indicate, Germany in its social and economic behind its western and southern neighbors A Colmar Dominican described the transformation he had development.

in his native Alsace. It had been an underdeveloped witnessed region in enormous in which had the chronicler's 1200, undergone changes, opin? ion for the better, during his long lifetime. He specifically mentioned that in 1200 the two most important Alsatian cities, Basel and Strastowns with inadequate forbourg, had been small, rather insignificant and that tifications and unimpressive such towns as Colmar, buildings and Mulhouse had not existed at all.79 It is hard to Selestat, Rouffach, Flanders or Lombardy imagine anyone writing about thirteenth-century issue in like that. A major medieval German history is thus the effect that as the Christianization such external influences of Saxony in the late of French courtly culture in the eighth century or the introduction twelfth had on existing society. In the case ofthe friars, the establishment of a mendicant convent was not so much a response to the religious crisis

77. On the Alsatian ministerials, see Henri Dubled, "Noblesse et feodalite en Alsace du Xle au XHIe siecle," Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis (Revue d'histoiredu droit) 28 (1960): 129-80; idem, "Quelques reflexions sur les 'ministeriales' en Alsace," Archives de Veglise d'Alsace3 (1949/50): 375-82; and Hans Walter Klewitz, Geschichte derMinisterialitdt im Elsass bis zum Ende des Interregnums (Frankfurtam Main, 1929). On the Austrian ministerials, see in addition to the literature cited in note 2, Otto von Zallinger, Ministerialesund milites: ueberdie ritterlichen des XII. und Unfreienzunaechstin baierischen Untersuchungen Rechtsquellen XIII. Jahrhunderts (Innsbruck, 1878). 78. Henri Pirenne, "Qu'est-ce qu'un homme lige?" Academieroyale de Belgique:Bulletin de la classedes lettres(1909): 57: "On ne comprendrait pas d'ailleurs, vu l'identite presque complete de la situation sociale des pays situes entre le Rhin et la Seine au haut moyen age, pourquoi la ministerialite, si florissante en Allemagne et dans les Pays-Bas, eut ete inconnue en France." 79. Philipp Jaffe, ed., De rebus Alsaticis ineuntis saeculi XIII, in MonumentaGermaniae historica:Scriptores,vol. 17 (Hanover, 1861), 236. On the Colmar Dominican, see Karl Koster, "Die Geschichtsschreibung der kolmarer Dominikaner im 13. Jahrhundert," in am Oberrhein:Beitrdgezur Kultur- und Staatenkunde Paul Wenzcke, Schicksalswege (Heidelberg, 1952), 1-100.

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as a device to attract settlers to a new city like caused by urbanization German history has thus been its Colmar.80 A major theme throughout relatively late "modernization." diffused in the Fourth, we need to examine how such borrowings what made or not to German society receptive country, particular innovations, and how such imports were altered in the process. For instance, argued that Frederick Barbarossa's marriage to Beatrice of introduced French chivalric culture into Germany,81 whereas Burgundy Bumke thought that the princes rather than the Hohenstaufen were the chief promoters of courtly culture.82 More recently, C. Stephen Jaeger Fleckenstein has contended was a creation of the Ottonian that courtliness court as and Schmid has IV the cult of portrayed Henry clergy,83 promoting to the papal militia sancti Petri84 To the imperial knight in opposition clerical and knightly traditions prepare what extent did such indigenous the Hohenstaufen and/or princely courts to accept the new French court? ly culture? Let me cite a specific example of the diffusion of French courtly culture and the problems it poses. Ortolf II of Katsch, a Carinthian ministerial is now Slovenia ofthe archbishop of Salzburg, had built by 1190 in what a new castle named Montpreis (today Planina). He also named his only daughter and heir Herrad, apparently after the wife of Dietrich of Bern in the Dietrich saga.85 Since French names for castles appeared in western Germany only in the late twelfth century (the first

instance is also from 1190),86 how did a ministerial in a cultural backof courtly culture and, even water like Carinthia acquire his knowledge more important, what, if anything, did his choice of names signify? On the other hand, the Germans were also selective in what they Fried pointed out that while Henry V, Lothar, and Frederick borrowed. Barbarossa employed the Bolognese legists in Italy, they made no use of

80. Freed, The Friars(see above, note 22), 43-53. 81. Josef Fleckenstein, "Friedrich Barbarossa und das Rittertum: Zur Bedeutung der fiir HermannHeimpel zum 10. grossen Mainzer Hoftage von 1184 und 1188," Festschrift am 19. September 1911, 2 vols. (Gottingen, 1972), 2:1023-41. rpr. in Borst, Das Geburtstag Rittertum (see above, note 7). 82. Bumke, The Conceptof Knighthood (see above, note 13), 143-44. 83. C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trendsand the Formation of CourtlyIdeals, 939-1210 (Philadelphia, 1985). 84. Karl Schmid, "Salische Gedenkstiftungen fiir fideles, servientes und milites," in Kulturund Gesellschaft Fenske, Rosener, and Zotz, eds., Institutionen, (see above, note 8), 245-64. 85. Ernst Klebel, Der Lungau:Historisch-politische Untersuchung (Salzburg, 1960), 89-92; and Hans Pirchegger, Die Untersteiermark in der GeschichteihrerHerrschaften und Gulten, StadteundMdrkte,(Munich, 1962), 261. Montpreis is mentioned for the first time in 1190 in Willibald Hauthaler and Franz Martin, eds., SalzburgerUrkundenbuch, 4 vols. (Salzburg, 1898-1933), 2:648-49, no. 478. 86. Bumke, CourtlyCulture,87.

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at home and that only two civil treatises were written in Germany during the twelfth century. Roman law simply diverged too much from German legal practice and thinking, he concluded, to be should not be interpreted, Fried relevant.87 Such selectivity however, as an indicator of German political, insisted, cultural, and economic retardation and backwardness as, say, Bosl, who has repeatedly stressed and "modern" urban Italy the difference between "archaic" Germany and feudal France, has done.88 Germany had, Fried argued, its own traditions inherited from the Carolingian period that were not inferior to those of its western and southern neighbors.89 In discussing and explainFrance and Germany, or, for that matter, ing the differences between historians not and should between Bavaria, assume, in other Saxony of that is an ideal societal there words, against which type development all others are to be measured pluralistic society capitalistic, than the Hegelian nation-state. to suppose that what may have been generally Sixth, it is dangerous true in every part of Germany. David in was true necessarily Europe the of that across "burdens "widely matrimony" Herlihy stated Europe" shifted toward the bride and her family from the twelfth century onward in the later until the husband's gifts declined to virtual insignificance Middle cited and English declining economic evidence is Italian, he also most of Herlihy's He attributed this shift to the Spanish examples. of women and an unfavorable marriage importance market for women.90 The exact opposite occurred in the eastern Alpine the combined Here the husband's territories. contribution, namely dower and Morgengabe, could be by the later Middle Ages as widow's Ages. Although much as two and a half times the amount ofthe dowry.91 Does this mean and found wanting. Modern democratic, is no more the teleological end of history

87. Fried, "Die Rezeption" (see above, note 75), 104-5, 128-30. 88. Karl Bosl, Europa im Aufbruch:Herrschaft,Gesellschaft,Kultur vom 10. bis zum 14. (Munich, 1980), esp. 15-16, 192-93; and idem, Die Grundlagender modernen Jahrhundert des Mittelalters, 2 vols., in Gesellschaftim Mittelalter: Eine deutscheGesellschaftsgeschichte des Mittelalters,vol. 4, 2 pts. (Stuttgart, 1972). zur Geschichte Monographien 89. Fried, "Deutsche Geschichte" (see above, note 61), 651-59. 90. David Herlihy, Medieval Households (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1985), 98-103, esp. 98. in Osterreich: Ein Beitragzur 91. Wilhelm Brauneder, Die Entwicklungdes Ehegiiterrechts und der Neuzeit (Salzburg des Spatmittelalters und Rechtstatsachenforschung Dogmengeschichte and Munich, 1973), 206, found the following ratios between the wife's and the husband's contributions: Vienna 1:1.5, but also 1:1 and 1:2; nobles in Lower Austria, 1:1.5, but with a range from 1:1 to 1:2.5; Styria, 1:2; Carinthia, 1:2, and Salzburg, 1:1.5. See also Harald Bilowitzky, "Die Heiratsgaben in der Steiermark wahrend des spaten Mittelalters unter Stande- und wirtschaftsgeschichtlichem Aspekt" (Ph.D. diss., University of Graz, 1977), 70-75. For a fuller discussion ofthe problem, see chapter 4 of my forthcoming book: Noble Bondsmen:MinisterialMarriagesin the Archdiocese of Salzburg 1100-1343.

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in Austria and that that women became more important economically the marriage market favored them? To answer that question, it would be was a necessary to know whether the decline in the wife's contribution a more German cusor widespread phenomenon peculiarly east-Alpine of medieval that the limitations German is here It tom. history precisely To and the isolation of Austro-German scholarship reveal themselves. the problem has never been explored, let alone come to my knowledge, the attention of the larger scholarly community. In short, placing medieval Germany in a European context does not about local findings in a very really resolve the problem of generalizing its plan to publish diverse country. recently announced Oldenbourg one hundred volan Enzyklopddie deutscher Geschichte with approximately umes. Medievalists may be interested in the following proposed books: Neithard Bulst on demography, Rosener on agriculture, Thomas Zotz and ministerials, Franz Irsigler on the city, Otto on nobles, knights, Oexle on poverty, Michael Toch on the Jews, and Ulf DirlIt remains to be seen whether these, too, will meier on the economy. merely be pastiches with examples drawn from hither and yonder, or the authors will come to grips with medieval whether Germany's diversity by stating that such was true in A and B but not in C and D because of X, Y, and Z reasons.92 The regions to be compared Gerhard not be, however, nineteenth-century political entities, like the of like the Austrian prounless, Kingdom Wurttemberg, Napoleonic vinces, they were also medieval political units in the period under considshould It might also be helpful if the regions could be defined, if terms such as market networks or areas with possible, in non-political similar inheritance customs or manorial structures.93 If the contributors to Oldenbourg's new series succeed in doing this, then Eike's dilemma will finally have been resolved. eration. Illinois State University Normal

und Stdndebildung 92. Possible models are Herrschaftsstruktur (see above, note 2) and Verhulst, "Die Grundherrschaftsentwicklung"(see above, note 59). und allgemeine Geschichte," 93. On this point, see Herwig Wolfram, "Landesgeschichte 51 (1988): 3-12. Landesgeschichte fur bayerische Zeitschrift

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