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Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5 (2011) 1624-1641

D
DAVID PUBLISHING

Using Geospatial Information Systems in Analyzing Urbanization Impacts on Stream Habitats in Southern Mississippi Coastal Ecosystem
E. Merem1, S. Yerramilli2, C. Richardson1, J. Wesley1, T. Walker3, D. Foster1, J. Williams1, C. Romarno1 and E. Nwagboso4
1. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39211, USA 2. National Center for Biodefense Communications, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39204, USA 3. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39213, USA 4. Department of Political Science, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39217, USA Received: June 7, 2011 / Accepted: July 18, 2011 / Published: December 20, 2011. Abstract: The proliferation of urban development with concentration in population and human-environment interaction has intensified around urban environments. This has resulted in the degradation of urban environments, overuse of natural resources and widespread pollution of ecosystems. The patterns of design initiatives continue to follow unsustainable path with impacts on stream ecosystems. Accordingly, the paper adopts geospatial information systems and sustainability principles for the identification and sequential mapping of stressors impeding natural systems in Southern Mississippi. The results not only reveal that the study area experienced some significant changes in its watershed environments, but the stream habitat ecosystem remains under stress. The recommendations for mitigating the problems range from policy considerations to the adoption of ecosystem approach. Key words: Geospatial information systems, urbanization, ecological design, ecosystem approach, environmental degradation.

1. Introduction
Increasing signs demonstrating clear threats to the sustainability of ecosystems supporting human societies gave rise to various theories of human-environment interactions upon which basic material conditions, such as population, development, urbanization and other elements all impact the environment [1]. Compounding these concerns, it is the pace at which widespread proliferation of urban development with subsequent concentration of population and the human-environment interaction has intensified around stream environments in the last several years especially around the southern
Corresponding author: E. Merem, Ph.D., associate professor, research fields: climate change, GIS, natural resources management, environmental planning, land use, agriculture, remote sensing and watershed management. E-mail: edmund.c.merem@jsums.edu.

Mississippi Region coastal counties [2]. Considering the scale at which growing population and the competition for limited land resources impede natural resource bases and habitats in estuarine environments of the area. The public attention has now been drawn to the un-sustainability of land use practices in coastal counties where numerous stressors unleashed from urbanization continue to ravage sensitive stream habitats [3]. Accordingly, the mounting pressure from population growth in urban areas which is occurring at an alarming proportion continues to put enormous strain on urban ecosystem and the surrounding stream habitat environments. This has resulted in the degradation of stream habitats in urban environments and over utilization of natural resources to meet the needs of built up areas. There is also widespread pollution

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beyond the carrying capacity of the ecosystems. In the process, the patterns of urban design initiatives continue to follow unsustainable path leading to landscape transformations with grave impacts on stream ecosystems [4]. At the same time, various development activities have been adopted at the expense of environmental welfare of communities. The factors responsible for the problems are not far fetched. They range from socio-economic variables and policy elements. This is happening at a time when most stream ecosystems are impacted by urbanization processes due to the negation of environmental design principles based on sustainability and design patterns that are in sync with nature [5]. There are also concerns about the hazardous effects of such activities as agriculture, urban and industrial development on freshwater habitats in built up areas [6, 7]. Some of the most pervasive effects embody the increase in impervious surface cover within urban catchments. Such increases not only alter the hydrology and geomorphology of streams but it leads to changes in the stream habitat corridors. Existing literature has shown how runoffs from urbanized surfaces drive the loading of nutrients, pesticides and contaminants into ecosystems with resultant decline in both fish and algae populations. The rising incidence of non point source chemical pollution also poses enormous danger to the estuarine and coastal environments such as those in the southern Mississippi region [8]. Typically, excess storm water run off wrecks major havoc in a large number of urban areas by causing water pollution, ground water recharge deficits, and ecological damage to urban streams [9]. The proliferation of impervious surface allows for rain to get to a stream faster, creating higher pick flows that can lead to a stream alteration and habitat degradation. When impervious surface stops rainfall from permeating the soil, smaller amount of water is available for groundwater recharge and this in turn minimizes stream base flow. Depending upon the land use in the watershed or

stream corridor, roadways and parking lots nutrients that move over the surface through major storms often drain into water ways creating elevated toxic loading of the stream. In some areas, sensitive wetlands and various species are endangered because streams are overstretched by artificial run off from impervious surfaces and built up areas from urbanization [10, 11]. Similarly, in an earlier study of the little Miami River Basin, Susanna et al. [12] noted that urban development in the watershed had caused considerable change on run off and water quality. In the context of southern Mississippi, regional statistics and indicators for building and construction associated with these problems have grown exponentially over the years in affected counties. It is evident that the run off from different types of urban land use carry different kinds of contaminants. For example, run off from agricultural land use in the southern Mississippi region are enriched with nutrients and sediments. Compounding the matter is the lack of geospatial information systems and eco-design approach in current measures. Convinced about the risks, the current patterns of development pose to the environment. The World Commission on Environment and Development stressed the need to factor ecological and economic variables during decision making [13]. In the urban context, Edwin et al. [14] have noted that achieving ecosystem sustainability requires mitigation of some of these problems with the right tools. Clearly, ecosystem approach often represents the most appropriate type of model for analyzing human influences on ecological systems; it can play a central role in the design and analysis of alternative agricultural, industrial and residential systems that could reduce the human footprint on the earth [15]. Just as the ecosystem approach is a method for sustaining ecological desired future conditions that integrates ecological, economic and social factors in development. It also recognizes the importance of integrating science and technology, the economy and societys demands in the management of resources such as urban stream

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habitats. Accordingly, there is an urgent need for the adoption of ecological design approach based on the applications of geospatial information systems for the identification and sequential mapping of urban stressors impeding the viability of natural systems in the southern Mississippi region. In light of that, the assessment of ecosystem health of stream habitats using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to detect change not only enhances our understanding of the scale of changes occurring in these systems, but it provides a framework for evaluating ecosystem decline and the mechanisms for restoration [16-19]. In the case of GIS, Gaurav [20] developed the eco-assessor based decision support system for the lower part of the Yazoo river Basin in Mississippi to help planners and managers determine the best locations for the restoration of wetlands on defined ecological and geographic criteria and probability of success. In the study, potential restoration area assessment involved data over lays sorted by hydrology, water quality and habitat. Elsewhere Joan et al. [2] adopted GIS and remote sensing in estimating the rates of change along the Pascagoula River and its tributaries in the Southern Mississippi area. In considering how modifications generated by human activities influence the changes. The authors digitized the larger and mined tributaries of the system in a GIS using varied sources of data such as aerial photographs and other types of spatial information. In a related work, another researcher adopts remote sensing and geospatial applications in the delineation of the Upper Pearl River watershed in the State of Mississippi [21]. The idea behind the study hinged on the benefits of accurate delineation of stream habitats (watersheds) using GIS in the management of the ecosystem [21]. Current remote sensing and geographic information systems technologies as the study noted promote rapid collection of field-data and prompt processing. Notwithstanding these capabilities, in the past years, widespread level of development triggered by human

activities has been eroding the environment and support systems along major stream ecosystems in the study area. In fact, direct and indirect effects of human activities continue to ravage estuaries. In the case of Mississippi, with limited efforts to curb ecological decline facing major watersheds of the state, Southern Mississippi River watersheds most notably the Pascagoula and the Southern streams now have the appearance of a stressed ecosystem with cases of water pollution [22]. In the Gulf area of the state, developers who do not have their property zoned for business and economic development continually request changes to the land use plan. They prefer that general use district such as residential and recreational be rezoned to allow for casino developments on sensitive coastal environments. Compounding the issue is the limited effort to evaluate the cumulative and secondary effects of these developments [23]. With such pressures, river systems in the area have experienced cases of water impairment caused by fecal coliform, mercury, PCBs and other contaminants and nutrients from agricultural runoff and other types of land use. A case in point is Turkey Creek in the coastal streams running through the wetlands of the North Gulfport in the Bay of Biloxi. The Turkey creek area as the focus of growth in the past decades attracts developers seeking permits to dreg hundreds of acres of wetlands in the area. The pressures from large-scale development, however, has contributed to the impairment of water quality along the Turkey creek area of the Basin [24]. While the other indicators of change in the Pascagoula basin involve water-body declines and other variables, using spatial information systems in stream habitat management minimizes the time needed to obtain inputs on water quality models. This can increase the measurement precision of stream habitat and watershed conditions [25]. The paper focuses on the issues, theory and practice of ecosystem design by using geospatial information technologies in the study of changes in urban streams/ecosystems in cities, with emphasis on

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ecological and environmental design principles in alleviating these problems. Adopting such an approach can provide planners information about the casual effects of disturbances in ecosystems and help them contribute to a more effective urban management in terms of environmental protection and through the infusion of ecological design principles in practice. The paper has five objectives. The first objective is to update the literature on ecosystem restoration, while the second objective centers on the need to identify ecological change issues along costal urban environments. The third objective is to apply spatial information technology such as GIS in gauging the pressures of urbanization along stream habitats and the fourth aim is to design decision support tools for assisting decision makers and resource mangers in monitoring environmental change. The fifth objective is to identify appropriate strategies and the efforts for curbing the threats of ecological change caused by urbanization. In terms of organization, the paper contains five sections. The first part covers the introduction of the paper while section two on methods and materials highlights the background on the study area and the methodology. The third part presents the results and the analysis on environmental change and the factors fuelling change. Section four contains a brief discussion of the results and suggestions for remedying the problems. Section five presents the conclusions.

contains major thriving urban areas prone to pollution and other environmental problems. The major river basin, the Pascagoula, is Mississippis second largest basin measuring approximately 164 miles long and 84 miles wide draining an area of about 9,600 miles before emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. It is also the largest unimpeded major river system in the continental United States. The major streams include the Pascagoula, Leaf and Chicksawhay Rivers as well as the Black and Red Creeks [26, 27]. The total estimated land area of the watershed measures about 386,008 acres with non-irrigated cropland and pastureland as the major land-uses. About 72% of the basin contains forested area and the other 21% classified as agricultural land. With the presence of generally well-drained and moderately drained soil types, the basin contains about 542 farms and an average farm size of 94 acres. The size of Cropland stretches across an area estimated at 22,100l acres while pastureland consists of 20,800 total acres [27].

2. Methods and Data


2.1 Study Area The study area located in southern Mississippi along the coastal plain in the southern portion of the map in Fig. 1 encompasses 6 selected counties. The six counties under analysis that consists of Pearl River, George, Stone, Harrison, Hancock and Jackson have a combined population 437,408 in 2006 (Table 1). The study location stretches through major urban areas along the Gulf coast region of Pascagoula and Biloxi-Gulfport metro areas. As shown in the table, it

George Pearl River Stone Jackson

Hancock

Fig. 1 The study area: southern Mississippi region.

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Table 1 The population and profile of southern Mississippi costal counties. County Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson Total Population 57,099 21,828 15,608 171,875 40,421 130,577 437,408 Area in square miles 811 478 445 580 476 726 3,516 CMA Picayune Pascagoula Gulfport-Biloxi Gulfport-Biloxi Gulfport-Biloxi Pascagoula NA

From an economic standpoint, timber use in the basin generates $325 million dollars to the economy. The Pascagoula basin accounts for 75% of oil and gas production in the state and there are about 250 surface mining operations in the area [28]. While agricultural and timber activities declined in the region in recent years, other forms of land use have increased their impact on the ecosystem. Although in channel mining was quite rampant in the area until it was banned in 1995. Floodplain sand and gravel mining remain active on the Bowie River side of the basin as well as in Thompson creek and Leaf River. At the same time, simultaneous development has been occurring in many parts of the basin, including the cities of Pascagoula, Moss Point, Meridian, Hattiesburg and Laurel [2, 28]. Some of the threats in the area that require conservation efforts anchored in sustainability principles are the threats of sediments entering streams and rivers in the Pascagoula as well as the issue of in-stream sedimentation caused by scouring of bed and bank erosion. The scale of unsustainable silver culture practices and unparalleled road construction for development in the area creates sedimentation concerns as well as interruption of hydrologic flow along the stream habitats. This has been compounded by gravel mining sedimentation and the alterations to hydrologic regimes threatening the migration and the spawning habitats of the Gulf Sturgeon, Pearl Darter and Alabama Shad [29]. The extent of these changes and the ecological impacts caused by development activities in the basin can be properly assessed using

geospatial information systems. 2.2 Methods This paper stresses a mix scale approach involving the use of descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and geospatial technologies of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in processing data provided through government sources and data bases from other organizations. The raw spatial data made up of maps and other kinds of digital information used in the research came from the United States Geological Surveys (USGS) data procurement unit, USDA and US EPA, the Government of Mississippi MARIS and United States Census and other organizations such as the University of Maryland On line data unit. 2.3 Step 1: Data Acquisition The first step involves the identification of the variables needed to assess the environmental impacts of urbanization on stream habitats in urban areas at the regional level. The spatial units of analysis consisted of the counties located in the Gulf region (Table 2). The variables encompasses socio-economic and environmental data, including land cover elements (of the amount of farmland, fertilized areas, impaired water bodies), population, number of building permits and the monetary values of construction and sales from agriculture. This process continued with the design of data matrices covering the various periods from 1990s and 2000 and beyond. In addition, to the design stage, access to databases and abstracts that are presently available within the Federal and state archives in Mississippi and the United States Geological Surveys

Using Geospatial Information Systems in Analyzing Urbanization Impacts on Stream Habitats in Southern Mississippi Coastal Ecosystem Table 2 The results of descriptive statistics. Counties Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson Counties Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson Counties Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson Counties Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson Counties Pearl River George Stone Harrison Hancock Jackson 1992 32,262 16,484 8,846 3,530 6,135 3,511 1998 2 5 1 2 2 5 1992 93,180 43,498 32,666 16,665 30,050 24,845 1992 9,961,000 6,897,000 4,530,000 1,951,000 2,139,000 4,902,000 1998 46,939 18,592 13,223 186,249 40,885 128,412 1997 28,907 11,907 8,671 4,514 9,271 11,882 2002 1 2 1 0 1 1 1997 130,344 54,645 50,862 25,761 47,548 43,390 1997 9,397,000 9,540,000 4,468,000 2,803,000 2,366,000 5,210,000 2002 50,381 20,034 14,108 189,996 44,607 132,895 Acres fertilized % Change (1992-1997) -10.39 -27.76 -1.978 27.87 51.11 238.42 Impaired water areas 2004 % Change (1998-2002) 0 -50 1 -60 1 0 0 -100 2 -50 1 -80 Farm land 2002 % Change (1992-1997) 120,135 39.88 62,995 25.62 57,257 55.7 25,248 54.58 37,721 58.22 42,890 74.64 Agro sales 2002 % Change (1992-1997) 11,721,000 -5.66 13,050,000 38.32 6,959,000 -1.36 3,336,000 43.66 2,529,000 10.61 6,391,000 6.28 Population 2004 % Change (1998-2002) 51,719 7.33 20,711 7.75 14,458 6.69 192,129 2.01 45,821 9.1 134,935 3.49 2002 14,234 19,395 8,886 4,323 7,062 8,779 % Change (1992-2002) -50.75 62.88 2.47 -4.23 -23.82 -26.11 % Change (2002-2004) -100 -50 0 100 0 % Change (1992-2002) -7.83 15.28 12.57 -1.991 -20.66 -1.152 % Change (1992-2002) 24.73 36.79 55.75 19.01 6.88 22.66 % Change (2002-2004) 2.65 3.37 2.48 1.12 2.72 1.53

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(USGS), United States National Aeronautical and Space Agency (NASA) and host of other entities quickened the search process. The spatial data was acquired from the USGS and the Mississippi Automated Resources Information System (MARIS) covering the southern Mississippi region of

Pascagoula-Biloxi Gulfport area for the separate periods of 1992 through 2004. 2.4 Step 2: Geo Spatial Data Acquisition and Processing For the study area of southern Mississippi region,

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multi-temporal spatial data made up of shape files and maps were obtained for the study. The data that were assembled for southern Mississippi Gulf region urban counties of Stone, Pearl River, Harrison, Hancock, George, and Jackson along the Pascagoula river basin region include socio-economic and ecological data, shape files, paper and digital maps from 1992 to 2004. All the spatial and temporal data were processed using ARC-VIEW GIS and SPSS. The outputs which emerged consist of texts, tables and maps as well as matrices. The processed data displayed under different legends makes ecological and stream habitat variables like water appear as common colors of black and white while the other socio-economic variables were distinguished in similar colors as well. Furthermore, the output was visually compared to see the changes across time and space along the tributaries of the southern Mississippi Gulf coast environment. The remaining procedure involves spatial analysis and output (maps-tables-text) covering the study period using ARCVIEW GIS. This process helped show the extent of temporal-spatial evolution of change induced by urbanization. It provided opportunities to undertake the sequential mappings of the stressors impacting the stream habitats in the south Mississippi Gulf region. The idea behind the process stems from the advantages of carrying out precise mapping of stream habitats using geospatial information systems in the region. Accordingly, the analysis of ecosystem health of stream habitats using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to capture on going disturbances not only improves our knowledge of the scale of changes occurring in these systems, but it provides a framework for evaluating ecosystem decline and the mechanisms for restoration.

disturbance already outlined in the methodology. It consists of the snapshot of ecological variables of fertilized areas, impaired water areas, farmland etc., and socio-economic elements from population to agricultural sales in the region. This would be followed by a highlight of the factors responsible for change. 3.1 Environmental Analysis: Fertilized Acreages of Agricultural Land In terms of the size of acreages of land treated with fertilizer, the counties of Pearl River and George appear to have exceeded the other areas in the use of fertilizer nutrients. The use of fertilizers in Pear River ranged from about 32,262 acres in 1992, 28,907 during 1997 and 14,234 by 2002. Over the years (1992, 1997, and 2004) at George County, the size of agricultural land treated with fertilizer stood at 16,484, 11,907 and 19,395 acres. Within the same periods at Stone county, fertilizer acreages consists of 8,846 in 1992, 8,671 in 1997 and 8,886 in 2002. In 1992 about 3,530 acres were under the direct applications of fertilizer nutrients in Harrison county, in the following periods of 1997 and 2002, the size of fertilized areas stayed somewhat identical at 4,514 in 2002 and 4,323 in 2002. For Hancock county, land treated with fertilizers was estimated at 6,135 acres in 1992, 9,271 by 1997 and 7,062 during 2002. Between 1992, 1997 and 2002 in the Jackson county area, the numbers varied from 3,511 to 11,832 and 8,779 acres respectively (Table 2). On the percentages of change, it is seen that the counties were evenly split in terms of declines and gains in 1992-1997. In fact, three counties (Harrison, Hancock and Jackson) made gains while three other areas most notably Pearl River George and Stone saw their acreages of fertilized land decline. The breakdown of the figures show fertilized areas grew by 27% at Harrison, 51% at Hancock and by 238% in Jackson county. With the exception of 62% gains in fertilized areas for George and 2.4% for Stone county, the other remaining four counties experienced sizable declines in the period of 1992 through 2002 (Table 2).

3. Results
This part of the paper presents the results of descriptive statistics and temporal-spatial analysis of environmental change with GIS and correlation analysis on a set of indicators associated with stream

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3.2 Impaired Water Areas On the other environmental variables, in 1998, impaired water areas appeared more in the south Mississippi urban areas with three counties of Pearl River, Harrison, and Hancock each accounting for the 2 major water areas under impairment. In the same period, George and Jackson counties led the rest of the region with 5 impaired water areas while Stone emerged as the county with the least impaired water surface. Among the counties, in 2002 and 2004, only the George county and Hancock areas experienced water surface impairment in 2 areas while the rest had either one case of reported impaired surface or none at all (Table 2). 3.3 Farm Land The activities involving the use of agricultural shows Pearl River county had 93,180 acres of farm land in 1992. In the following periods, the size of farmland at the county reached 130,344 in 1997 and 120,135 in 2002. Within these periods, George county which opened the 1992 period with 43,498 acres saw its agricultural land areas jump to 54,645 acres in 1997 and 62,995 in 2002. At Stone county, the size of farmland rose from an initial value of 32,666 in 1992 to 50,862 in 1997 and 57,257 by 2002. In the same period, Harrison county used nearly 16,665 acres for farming in 1992, by the subsequent years of 1997 and 2002, farmland area in the county exceeded the 25,000 acres mark. Similarly, Hancock contained 30,050 in 1992 and it grew further to 47,548 in 1997 and 37,721 in 2002 while Jackson county which started with 24,845 acres in 1992 experienced increases of 43,390 and 42,890 acres in 1997 and 2002 respectively (Table 2). With the intense use of agricultural land in the study area, most of the counties posted double digit gains in percentages of change. To a great extent, three counties made up of Stone, Harrison and Hancock had parentages of change totaling over 53% between 1992-1997 while the rates of change for Pearl River county and George stood at 39.8% and 25%

respectively. The county of Jackson finished ahead of the rest with the highest gain of 74% from 1992-1997. In 1992-2002, the rates of change in terms of decline were evident in the counties of Pearl River at -7.8%, Harrison with -1.9%, Hancock at -20%, while the rate for Jackson county stood at -1.1%. During that period, the two counties that experienced gains comprised of George at a rate of 15% and Stone with 12.5% (Table 2). 3.4 The Correlation Analysis To buttress linkages to behavior of some of the variables herein analyzed in contributing to stream habitat pollution, the simple correlation analysis performed on the 5 variables shows a positive relation between impaired waters and fertilized acres (Table 3). With the increase in fertilized acres, there came a rise in the number of impaired waters as well. Of all the counties under analysis, Jackson and George emerged as the most polluted counties with maximum number of impaired waters in 1998. This can be attributed to increases in the fertilized acres variable as both counties experienced a drastic rise in the acres of farm land treated with fertilizers resulting in nutrient flow into the adjacent waters and stream habitats. 3.5 Spatial Analysis On the spatial aspects of the factors threatening stream habitats, fertilizer use across space as the maps in Figs. 2(a)-2(c) show seemed quite pronounced in the periods of 1992, 1997 and 2002 in some counties. Note that the northern portion of the study area map highlighting Pearl River county had fertilized areas exceeding 20000 acres. Fertilizer use not only reached high levels, but the northern part appeared as the area with more fertilized areas in the 1992 and 1997, 2002 fiscal years (Figs. 2(a)-2(c)). On the number of impaired waters over the years, two counties (George and Jackson) both accounted for maximum levels of 3 and 5 cases of impairment in 1998 than the other counties in the study area (Fig. 3(a)). While most

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counties each had 1 and 2 cases of impairment in 2002 and 2004, note that the situation in Harrison showed no cases of impairment in the same periods. The same thing can be said of Pearl River county where number of impaired watersheds gradually disappeared in 2004 (Figs. 3(b)-3(c)). Turning to impaired watersheds from nutrient flow in the coastal counties, there was a high concentration of impaired water areas in the 1998 period with much of it located at George and Jackson, Harrison, Hancock and Pearl River (Fig. 4(a)). A closer look on the maps during the year 2002 and 2004 indicates a slight recurrence of impairment in minute clusters within the three counties notably Hancock, George and Jackson (Figs. 4(b)-4(c)). In terms of toxic release inventory sites, there seems to be a high dispersion of toxic release sites with much of it situated along the lower part of the study area in 1998. Of all the counties, Jackson, Harrison and Pearl River known for their proximity to sensitive watersheds had more toxic release facilities at the period (Fig. 5). On geographic diffusion of farming operations, the northern counties of Pearl River, Stone and George had intense agricultural activities measured around 30,001 to 50,000 acres in 1992 and over 50,000 acres in the 1997 through 2002 period (Figs. 6(a)-6(c)).
Table 3 Summary of correlation analysis. Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Population 1 18 -0.425 0.079 18 -0.438 0.069 18 -0.436 0.071 18 -0.159 0.53 18 Variables and residuals Population

Part of the economic engine fueling ecological change in the region is evidenced by high growth in the sales of agricultural products. From the map, agriculture sales of more than $70000001 occurred more along the Pearl River and George counties most of the years while Jackson county also had sizable sales between 1997 and 2002 (Figs. 7(a)-7(c)). The spatial distribution of the population shows that in spite of demographic changes within all counties, the southern portion of the study area representing the counties of Jackson and Harrison had more population of and greater than 100,000 in the periods of 1998, 2002 and 2004. Both areas maintained a steady rise most of the time (Figs. 8(a)-8(c)). 3.6 Socio-Economic Factors Responsible for Stream Habitat Disturbance The extent and nature of environmental change leading to stream habitat degradation in the study area did not occur in a vacuum. Several socio-economic elements that played a role in the process are highlighted in this section of the paper. 3.6.1 Demography and Urban Growth The study area boosts of some of the most urbanizing areas including the city of Pascagoula. The area has been experiencing one of the most extensive
Farmland -0.425 0.079 18 1 18 0.805** 0 18 0.752** 0 18 -0.243 0.332 18 Fertilized acres Agro sales -0.438 -0.436 0.069 0.071 18 18 0.805** 0.752** 0 0 18 18 1 0.725** 0.001 18 18 0.725** 1 0.001 18 18 0.01 -0.055 0.97 0.828 18 18 Impaired waters -0.159 0.53 18 -0.243 0.332 18 0.01 0.97 18 -0.055 0.828 18 1 18

Farmland

Fertilized acres

Agro sales

Impaired waters

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c) Fig. 2 Number of acres fertilized in (a) 1992; (b) 1997; (c) 2002.

(c) Fig. 3 The number of impaired watersheds in (a) 1998; (b) 2002; (c) 2004.

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(a)

(c) Fig. 4 Impaired watersheds due to nutrient flow in (a) 1998; (b) 2002; (c) 2004.

(b)

Fig. 5 Spatial location of TRI sites in 1994.

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(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Fig. 6 2002.

(c) The farmland (in acres) in (a) 1992; (b) 1997; (c)

(c) Fig. 7 Total sales from agricultural products in (a) 1992; (b) 1997; (c) 2002.

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forms of urbanization brought about by rapid pace of economic development, proliferation of oil and gas activities and casino development. The request for residential and commercial housing permits as shown in Table 4 was significant in most of the counties. The role of residential and construction costs is quite evident in Hancock, Harrison and Jackson counties.
Table 4 Building indicators. Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Hancock county Building permits Construction cost $ 55 5,136,900 87 7,850,588 49 5,429,671 55 5,827,324 477 42,218,862 406 39,965,735 384 45,009,570 165 16,704,607 529 66,178,274 285 40,425,890 1,273 116,434,221 Harrison county Building permits 1,022 929 1,119 1,272 1,213 1,010 1,131 1,272 1,364 877 2,223 Jackson county Building permits 650 592 721 1,092 767 746 632 896 922 846 1,197 Construction cost $ 66,208,749 28,399,190 46,096,814 84,787,166 52,999,124 52,651,164 43,858,793 94,545,439 76,096,307 78,954,203 224,140,661 Construction cost $ 91,597,071 81,702,928 149,077,587 145,379,142 178,633,457 130,432,922 147,617,400 234,714,431 208,155,303 141,498,912 303,724,452

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8

(c) Population statistics in (a) 1998; (b) 2002; (c) 2004.

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Looking at those counties between 1996 through 2006, it is evident that Harrison County had more building permits with construction costs estimated at tens and hundreds of million dollars. The percentage of changes for population from 1998-2002 as Table 2 shows indicate that the Pearl River and George counties both had growth rates of a little over 7% estimated at 7.3 and 7.7% while the population grew at 6.6 % at Stone county in the same period. Among the remaining counties, Harrison posted a percentage of change of 2%, Hancocks population rose by 9.1% while Jackson experienced a population increase of 3.4%. The growth rates for 2002 to 2004 stayed at under 3% among the counties with two counties (Harrison and Jackson) having population growth rates of 1%. Another three counties (Pearl River, Stone, and Hancock) experienced growth rates estimated at slightly over 2% points while George county posted the highest gains of 3.3% (Table 2). These increases created high population concentration along the coasts adjacent to the basin at the expense of watershed ecosystem protection. 3.6.2 Economic Development and Agricultural Activities The economic activities in the basin embody those types that can impede the natural process of the watershed ecosystem. With a timber sector that generates over $300 million dollars in revenues and the presence of 75% of fossil fuel production, numerous drilling and mining activities are bound to live indelible ecological footprints in the form of severe disturbances on stream habitats all these years. The severity in channel and floodplain sand and gravel mining along the tributaries has raised concerns about the externalities unleashed from economic development. High level concentration of pollutants most notably PCBs, mercury, fecal coliform emanating from industrial and domestic sources have been reported in the river systems of the watershed. Other elements of urban change likely to impact the quality of habitats in the area can be evidenced from

the pace of agricultural sales in the region. From the Table 2 Pearl River made sales worth about $9,961,000 in 1992, $9,397,000 in 1997 and $11,721,000 in 2002. George county followed in the same periods with $6,897,000 in 1992, $954,000 in 1997 and $13,050,000 in 2002. At Stone county, the amount of tradable goods from agriculture were 4,530,000 in 1992, 4,468,000 in 1997 and 6,959,000 in 2002. In the other counties, the Harrison area farm sales stood at $1,951,000, $2,803,000 and $3,336,000 in 1992, 1997 and 2002 respectively while Hancock made sales estimated at $2,139,000, 2,366,000 and $2,529,000. The medium level sales reported in the area include $4,902,000, $5,211,000 and $6,391,000. The percentages of change in farm sales show very significant gains in 1992-1997 and 1992-2002 most of the time (Table 2). The externalities from agriculture in the form of nutrient flow into watersheds threaten the quality of biodiversity habitats.

4. Discussion
The results not only reveal that the study area experienced some changes across time and space but the estuarine environments and stream habitats are threatened by urbanization elements. In light of that, the regions adjoining natural areas remain an ecosystem under stress. Overall, the result of the data analysis point to signs of growing incidence of pollution involving extensive fertilizer use and the impairment of water bodies. The presence of toxic facilities in the region exposes the regions natural systems to a great danger. The increases in human settlement indicators as indicated by population growth and the requests for building permits and the level of agricultural intensification needed to feed urban populace led to loss of arable farmland around the surrounding ecology. Increased agricultural land use activity known to precipitate large use of agrochemicals and other type of nutrients as the analysis showed grew to a great extent at very significant rates especially in Pearl River, Stone,

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George and Jackson counties. In the process, many of the study area stream corridors or habitats in the urban counties were greatly impaired. Under this setting, indicators like agricultural activities likely to spur pollution through fertilizer use as well as toxic inventory release sites were quite visible in the counties. Although several counties experienced double digit gains in the use of agricultural land, the downside is that under current practices, those gains often resulted into more use of fertilizers to boost agricultural productivity. This creates further impairment of stream corridors already over stretched with heavy load of nutrients and other contaminants beyond their carrying capacity. The loss of farmland to other land uses most notably urbanization still does not bode well for sustainability and ecological design approach and the environmental welfare or the carrying capacity of the sensitive stream habitats in the Mississippi Gulf region. The loss of farmland in such costal areas experiencing conversion of adjoining wetlands to urbanization seemed to have aided building construction. This leads to more impervious surfaces through which the flow of pollutants and toxic chemicals from roadways empty directly into sensitive estuarine habitats. Thus, gains and losses in agricultural land in the study area symbolizes a double edged sword for stream habitat planning since the emergent land use activities from these changes facilitates pollution of open streams in the region. With population exceeding over 100,000 in the Jackson and Hancock areas, it is evident that some of the counties along the coast have very high concentration of human populations likely to exert pressure on the environment and the sensitive natural habitats in the ecosystem. In an area sprawling with growth, there are bound to be requests for new development projects in the form of new housing and road designs likely to create more impervious surfaces at the expense of stream habitat health. At the same time, socio-economic indicators of agricultural sales,

building permits and construction costs as a measure of the intensity of land activities and transactions seemed quite pronounced. Large volume of investments resulting from high agriculture sales and boom in construction can put some added stress on the sensitive watersheds as run off from agriculture and construction sites empty into watersheds already stressed beyond their carrying capacities. All these point to the role of socio-economic and human factors fueled by urbanization in precipitating stream habitat impediment in an ecosystem. This seemed to reflect the ecosystem approach that often represents the most appropriate level of organization for analyzing human influences on ecological systems. It can play a central role in the design and analysis of alternatives and future lines of action. To buttress the linkages among some of the variables in fuelling change, a correlation analysis confirmed a direct relationship between impaired water surfaces and fertilizer use in the region. The environmental change analysis using geospatial information tool of GIS in the area identified a cluster of counties where land use activities involving agricultural farming and the widespread applications of fertilizers threatening urban environments and stream habitat ecosystem remained very active. From the spatial and temporal analysis, the regions stream corridors appear threatened by the gradual pace in the impairment of water bodies in certain areas and toxic site inventories. In fact, the proliferation of toxic inventory sites seem fully concentrated along the watersheds and the tributaries of rivers along the urban environments due to intense development and human activities. In light of this finding, the practical use of a mix scale approach involving GIS in tracking the extent to which urbanization had impacted and contributed to stream habitat change in coastal environments of southern Mississippi region stands as an update to the current literature on ecosystem restoration. With the meager efforts in the past to assess the impacts of urbanization along the Southern Mississippi River

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stream habitat ecosystem, geospatial technology of GIS as demonstrated in this project has been quite effective in ensuring the mapping of change related information on the watershed with a spatial reference. As an effective tool for resource management, integrated data analysis using GIS facilitated the analysis of the spatial distribution of stream habitat change involving land use and hydrology and the demographic issues facing the south Mississippi river basin environment. Such spatial information technology is desirable for policy makers in the Mississippi area as they deal with the emerging problems threatening the environment along the regions stream habitats. To deal with the concerns raised in this research, this section of the paper provides four suggestions anchored in ecosystem approach and the principles of sustainability. The recommendations for mitigating the problems range from policy considerations, coastal zone planning, and the design of spatial information systems and the adoption of ecosystem approach. 4.1 Adopt Effective Policy The land use regulations and zoning laws operational in the state have several lapses that threaten the environmental welfare of citizens and other life forms along the basins. Just as land developers in the area constantly gain approvals for switching general development plans to commercial types with little recourse to cumulative impacts on the ecosystem. So are the growing vulnerability of quality of streams, lakes and the ecosystem health to the impairment and threats created by mining activities, silver culture and industrial development. Because current policies have done little to mitigate the inherent ecological problems on the estuarine environments, the paper suggests the adoption of effective policy instruments to ensure enforcement and a better framework for protecting the environment. This will go along in straightening the mitigation measures necessary in containing the

current pressures mounted on the stream corridors by urbanization in the study area. 4.2 Encourage Urban Costal Zone Planning Part of the mandate of planning is to promote the quality of life and the environment in coastal areas by involving multi-stakeholders including the decision makers and those whose livelihoods are impacted by development in the planning process through a set of goals. Considering the scale of pressures unleashed on the natural ecosystem by the built environment through urbanization in study area, the paper suggests the need for coastal zone planning in the region built on the conservation of natural areas especially stream corridors. Sensitive natural areas and habitats for biodiversity, endangered plants and animals along the Pascagoula watershed should be zoned as protected areas. This should be enforced with strict controls on future development activities along the shores of the watershed so that erosion and sedimentation problems experienced in the area can be minimized. 4.3 Promote Periodic Monitoring and Design of Spatial Information System The state of ecological health of the basin calls for regular monitoring, observation and assessment of land, sea, atmosphere, and open space in order to create a data collection network to track earths changing systems using spatial information. This approach would not only aid decision makers to understand how stream habitats and natural systems of the Gulf region work, but it provides opportunities for counties to partner together through yearly assessments of their conditions. It will also enable managers assess and predict change and interactions within natural systems such as watershed. This could be attained by providing future information for managing coastal resources in order to optimize their benefits to the environment, economy and society in line with ecosystem principles and sustainability.

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4.4 Support Ecosystem/Watershed Approach The ecology of aquatic life shares close linkages with the conditions of a watersheds terrestrial ecosystems. Yet society does not fully understand how stresses from human activities, such as land development, pollutant releases, deforestation, river channelization and agriculture affect these common linkages in the basin. Under this setting, the Pascagoula Watersheds as the basic units of land and surface water in the Southern Mississippi area merit continuous protection. This approach supports research that cuts across all disciplines with potentials for applying the principles of watershed restoration for the common good of communities at risk. The emphasis should be on the integration of ecological-socio-economic studies by taking into account the human factors associated with watershed stress under the aegis of ecosystem design approach.

stressors made up of fertilizer applications, number of impaired watersheds, the use of farmlands and pollution inventory sites were on the rise especially in areas adjacent to urban watersheds. Other aspects of the results show that socio-economic factors of population, income from agricultural sales and building permits grew in some of the areas. The pressures unleashed from these variables as the analysis indicates accentuated the strain on the regions ecosystem. The environmental change analysis in the area using GIS identified a cluster of several land cover types in the form of agricultural areas under use, size of land under fertilizer use, impaired water areas and diffusion of socio-economic indicators (stress sources) in space in affected areas. Accordingly, the application of GIS as demonstrated in this paper has been quite effective in ensuring the sequential mapping of stress factors along the southern Mississippi region. Being a valuable device for resource management, integrated data analysis through GIS quickened the assessment of geographic diffusion of urbanization impacts on stream habitats and change involving land use and demographic elements of urbanization threatening stream habitats. As part of the remedies, the paper offered four recommendations built on ecosystem approach and sustainability principles. The suggested actions for restoration offered here ranging from effective policy to ecosystem approach would go a long way in ensuring a speedy mitigation of the problems. Finally, geospatial information technology as used in this project would continue its emergence as a valuable device for policy makers in the state as they confront stressors threatening the environment along the southern Mississippi coastal region in the years ahead. Adopting such an approach can provide planners information about the casual effects of disturbances in ecosystems. This would help them contribute to a more effective urban management in terms of environmental protection and the infusion of ecological design principles in practice.

5. Conclusions
From the onset of the paper, the literature rightfully identified the threats urbanization poses to stream habitats. Using geospatial technology of GIS, the paper shows that human-environment interaction results in degradation of stream habitat corridors. The assessment of urbanization impacts on stream corridors using GIS not only enhances our understanding of the scale of changes occurring in these systems, but it provides a framework for evaluating ecosystem decline and the mechanisms for restoration. Nonetheless, in the past years, widespread level of urban development triggered by anthropogenic activities has been eroding the environment and support systems along the southern Mississippi study area. The results not only reveal that the study area experienced some significant changes in its watershed environments, but the stream habitat in the area remains an ecosystem under stress. Overall, the results point to threats to water quality, growing incidence of pollution, impairment of water bodies, and increase in human settlement, and agricultural intensification. Ecological indicators and

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