The Effect Of Expanding Gender Roles On Behavioral Problems: A Comparison Of Female College Students In Taiwan Robert Brammer West

Texas A&M University Ching-Faee Chen

Abstract Fus (1993) Behavior Problem Checklist was used to contrast behavioral problems of Data Management and Nursing Degree Programs from Jen-Te Junior College of Medical Nursing and Management. These two groups were selected because of their traditional gender segregation, with Data Management Degrees traditionally pursued by men and Nursing Degrees sought by women. Nursing students proclaimed to have more normal problems than their Data Management peers. However, no significant differences were found between the two groups related to serious behavioral problems. The possible influence of gender stereotypes and social discrimination is discussed as well as implications for these findings. The rapid growth of feminism has changed the way we view gender and gender roles. Opportunities are now available to men and women that seemed inconceivable to previous generations, but gender stereotypes and behavioral patterns are still associated with womanhood. Early studies into gender role identity argued that masculine adolescent girls were considerably healthier than their feminine peers (Butcher, 1989; Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982; Wells, 1980), and masculine women were considered to have higher self-esteem, jobs status, and satisfaction with their work (Chow, 1987). Only after researchers touted the advantages of masculinity were the negative elements revealed. Lobel., Slone, and Winch, (1997) found that girls who reported having traditionally masculine traits and behaviors were less popular, had lower social self-esteem, and were less satisfied with their gender. Other studies demonstrated that women entering nontraditional or traditionally masculine occupations experience more sexual harassment, more gender discrimination, adverse working conditions, higher stress levels, and lower overall satisfaction (Mansfield et al., 1991). In short, women and girls are unable to take advantage of traditionally masculine occupations and behavioral patterns because doing so results in powerful social repercussions. Women in the new era are also unlikely to return to traditionally feminine identities. Kagan (2000) observed that Russian girls identified with femininity long before their male peers discovered masculine identities. Despite the earlier identity with femininity, by the time boys and girls reach adolescents, both genders tend to deprecate femininity and prefer masculine personality traits (Kusa, 2001). Features such as fear may be mitigated by increased masculinity (Ginsburg, & Silverman, 2000), and girls feeling pressured to accept a feminine role identity are more likely to wrestle with depression (Wichstrom, 1999).

By early adulthood, men and women tend to view femininity as something connected with childishness (Powlishta et al., 2000). Feminine traits are considered to be relatively childlike and masculine traits to be relatively adult-like. These perceptions have created an important trend in Western societies. Boys, as they mature into adulthood, continue to prefer traditionally masculine activities and view themselves as masculine. Girls show increasing flexibility in their gender roles with age (Powlishta et al., 2000; Ruble & Martin, 1998). They learn to expand their view of gender, rather than simply reject their feminine role, and in doing so, acquire more patterns. The perception of femininity as childlike has serious repercussions for society. Femininity, while associated with fear and passivity, is also associated with traits such as empathy. Karniol, Gabay, Ochion, and Harari (1998) found that empathy was unrelated to age or to masculinity, but it was related to gender and to femininity. Boys had lower empathy scores than girls, and individuals high in femininity, whatever their gender, had higher empathy scores than those low in femininity. In Asian cultures, where feminist ideologies and opportunities emerged more recently, studies of gender differences and personality are just emerging. Some studies, such as Ma, Shek, and Tam (2001), examined traits such as aggressiveness as moderated by gender. They concluded that the physical changes of adolescence explained most of the variance in aggressiveness. The timing of these biological transformations depends on the maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis of the neuron-endocrine system that results in significant changes in body size, proportion, and composition, as well as development of the primary and secondary sex characteristics (Malina, 1990). Adolescence is also a time where young Asian women wrestle with changes in emotions, body image, and goal setting (Costello & Stone, 1995). Those who violate cultural norms can face depression, anxiety, and isolation (Horton, 1992; Renzetti, 1989). Just as in Western cultures, there are also advantages to violating traditional gender patterns. Hyunjoo (2001) examined the relationship between the acceptance of patriarchal ideology by female Korean students, where girls learn to put manners and etiquette over independence, selfreliance, and leadership. Ying (1991) found a movement away from traditional gender-role orientation among Taiwan College graduates and hypothesized that the change is due to increasing exposure to Western ideas and lifestyle. These changes in gender role have resulted in significant changes for Taiwanese women (Li, 1993). According to a report of the Directorate General of Budget Accounting and Statistics Executive Yuan, R.O.C. (2001), the gradual changes in women's occupational freedoms began in the 1960s when working women comprised less than 30% of Taiwanese women. By 1980 the percentage of working women had increased to 44.5%. By the year 2000, the rate reached 46%. Despite these changes in the workforce, Taiwanese women still favor traditionally feminine occupations (Gao, 1993; Li, 1993; Tsai, 1987). Occupational choices appear to be linked to the degree that an individual stereotypes him/herself (Muldoon, 1995). In Taiwan, as well as in other counties, traditionally feminine occupations (such as nursing) are often pursued by individuals with markedly feminine characteristics. Masculine occupations (such as business or data management) often attract more aggressive or less relational individuals (Hemsley-Brown & Foskett, 1999). Often, women who pursue

stereotypically feminine occupations experience less gender-role conflict than their nontraditional peers (Muldoon, 1995), but few investigations have been conducted on the effects that such paths have on their behaviors (Liu, 1994). Higher levels of education attainment have been associated with economic prosperity and women's liberation in the Taiwanese society (Sun & Rooparine, 1996). As women continue to explore previously unavailable career paths, they challenge cultural norms and create a new subsection of female workers (Li, 1993; Gao, 1993; Tsai, 1987). What remains to be studied, however, is how these changes affect them as individuals. Do female students seeking nontraditional careers demonstrate the positive features associated with liberation or the negative features associated with prejudice? Method The sample population studied in this investigation consisted of female Nursing and Data Management students enrolled in the fall of 1999 in the School of Medical Nursing at Jen-Te junior college in Miao-Li, Taiwan. Students ranged in age from 18 to 23 years old and varied dramatically in social economic status. Social economic status was investigated by inquiring about the student's parents level of education and occupation. Hollingsheads (1957) two-factor index of social position was used for the assessment, resulting in five socioeconomic levels. Nursing in Taiwan is a female dominated profession with women comprising 96.6% of the student body. The two-year Nursing Program at the college enrolls twelve classes during the first year of the program and six classes during the second year. (Numbers were given to identify the students as first, second, third, and etc.) Of the 1,012 students enrolled in the program, a randomized sampling method reduced the number of participants to 106. The students selected represented both the first and second year students (N = 102 and 110, respectively). Data management (which trains students to be administrative medical technicians) is still a masculine field of study students, with males comprising 67.4% of the student body (down from 98% in 1978). The two-year Data Management Program at the college enrolls two classes the first year and two classes the second year. The total number of students is 184 persons, but the number of female students is 106 persons. Thus, all female Data Management students were chosen as sampling members. Instrument The Mooney Problem Checklist (MPC) (Mooney & Gordon, 1950) was selected for this study because of its proven validity for college students and because it is available in both English and Chinese (Fu, 1993). The self-report test of the MPC provides an effective method of surveying identified problems. The MPC has a reported test-retest correlation coefficient between .90 to .98. Previous uses of the MPC include Guos (1986) factor analysis of adolescent students, in which help-seeking problems fell into three areas: vocational problems, academic problems, and personal living problems. A variety of other studies have used the MPC and yielded important

findings for Asian college students (Chang & Lee, 1992; Chen, 1993; Liang, 1997). Identifying and investigating behavioral problems in general is still a primary method of assessing mental health in young adults and adolescents (Huang, 1999). Behavioral problems The behavioral problems discussed in this paper refer to personal adaptive problems in physical and psychological matters. In this study, the index of behavior is based on the College Student Behavioral Investigation Form, which includes 10 kinds of behavior disturbances: 1. Health and Physical Development- HPD, 2. Finances, living conditions and Employment- FLE, 3. Social and Recreational Activities- SRA, 4. Social-Psychological Relations- SPR, 5. Personal-Psychological Relations- PPR, 6. Courtship, Sex and Marriage- CSM, 7. Home and Family- HF, 8. Adjustment to Social Work- AS, 9. The Future: Vocational and Educational- FVE, 10. Curriculum and Teaching Procedure- CTP. Normal behavior problems The Problems Checklist consists of 30 problems in each of the 10 areas, totaling 300 problems. The participant reads each item, and indicates which items would be considered a current problem. If the item suggests an area that is troubling the student, the student was directed to underline it. The students were to proceed through the whole list, underlining the items that suggested concern for them. This list became the normal behavior problems. Serious behavior problems After completing the survey, the participants were instructed to reexamine those items underlined and circle the numbers in front of the items that caused the most distress. Students were then to indicate which of those circled problems would be considered a serious problem. Procedure The test checklist was administered to Participants in the school of nursing. Testing covered a two-day period and was carried out with the cooperation of the staff at the school. Participants were tested in groups ranging in size from 30-45, and they were instructed to answer all questions openly and honestly. Participants furnished their responses to test items by circling the most appropriate response to each item. The participant reads the items, indicating which are problems. If the item suggests an area of trouble for the student, they were instructed to underline it. They were directed to proceed through the entire list underlining areas of concern for them. These underlined areas were identified as normal behavior problems. The participant them reexamines those items underlined and circle the number in front of the items which are of most

concern to them. These circled numbers were identified as serious problems. Each problem that was circled and underlined is scored to calculate as one behavior problem. Results An ANOVA and T-test were performed to provide description and inferential analyses. Description analysis analyzes the distribution status on various variables by the methods of number distribution, percentage, mean value, and standard deviation, etc. Inferential analysis distinguishes the differences in the behavior disturbance category and socioeconomic status in accordance with two departments by the statistic method of ANOVA analysis. The frequency data are reported in Table 1. There were slightly more first year nursing (n = 56) students than data management students (n = 46), and slightly more second year data management (n = 60) students than nursing students (n = 50). The mean age of nursing students was 20.2 years; the mean age of the data management students was 20.0 years. Socioeconomic status (SE) was categorized into a bell curve with 2.8% of the students classified as high status; 27.89% classified as middle-high status; 37.3% classified as middle status; 28.3% classified as middle-low status; and 3.8% as low status. Table 1 Frequency Statistics

Nursing Students Number of first year students Number of second year students Average age of student 56 50 20.2 (SD = 1.11)

Data Management Students 46 60 20.0 (SD = 0.86)

Table 2 Nursing students' mean, standard deviation and rank in the first ten items of behavioral problems

Nursing Students

Data Management Students

Behavioral Problems

Severe Problem Normal Problem Severe Problem Normal Problem Mean Mean Mean Mean

Health and Physical Development

3.06

7.57

2.73

6.21

Finances, Living conditions, employment Social and Recreational Activities Social-Psychological Relations Personal-Psychological Relations Courtship, Sex and Marriage Home and Family Adjustment to Schoolwork and learning Future: Vocational and Educational Curriculum and Teaching Procedure Overall Differences

2.27

5.71

2.23

4.68

3.21

8.96

2.88

7.07

2.42

7.21

2.40

5.85

3.33

8.53

2.76

6.74

1.34

3.91

0.77

2.70

1.77

3.97

1.01

2.78

5.05

11.44

4.25

9.23

2.53

6.93

2.34

5.72

4.75

9.62

2.58

5.68

73.85

29.73

56.64*

23.93

The mean, standard deviation, and rank on the sub-score areas of the Mooney Checklist for normal and serious problems of nursing students are shown in Table 2. In terms of the frequency of behavioral problems, both normal and serious behavioral problems for nursing students indicate that most problems are concentrated in the same four areas: (a) Adjustment to School Work and learning (AS); (b) Curriculum and Teaching Procedure (CTP); (c) PersonalPsychological Relations (PPR), and (d) Social and Recreational Activities (SRA). However, little difference is seen in the ranking of normal problems and serious problems, just only in the area for number sequence differences. Serious behavioral problems, in order of priority, are divided into four categories: AS, CTP, PPR, and SRA. Normal behavioral problems are: AS, CTP, SRA, and PPR. In the serious and normal behavior areas of the Courtship, Sex and Marriage (CSM); Home and Family (HF) and Finances, Living conditions and Employment (FLE), the categories could be ignored.

Table 2 also shows frequency statistics for data management students. In terms of the frequency of behavioral problems, both normal and serious behavioral problems for data management students indicate that the most problems are concentrated in the same four areas, in order of priority: AS, SRA, PPR, and HPD. The CSM, HF, and FLE, the categories for both normal and serious problems were not significant. Overall, a 2-tailed t-test comparing the means for nursing and data management students scores for normal and serious behavioral problems revealed mixed findings. There were no significant differences between nursing and data management students scores regarding serious behavioral problems (t = 1.514, p = .131), but the scores for normal problems were significantly different (t = 3.227, p = .001). These differences are graphically depicted in figure 1. Figure 1 Frequency of serious and normal behavioral problems within departments

An ANOVA was performed to measure significant differences between the nursing and data management students on each of the ten categories in the PCL. In the course classification grouping, in items of serious behavioral problems, nursing students have more Curriculum and Teaching Procedure (CTP) and Home and Family (HF) problems than data management students had. In items of normal behavioral problems, nursing students have more Health and Physical Development (HPD); Social and Recreational Activities (SRA); Personal-Psychological Relations (PPR); Courtship, Sex and Marriage (CSM) and Home and Family (HF); Adjustment to School Work and learning (AS); Curriculum and Teaching Procedure (CTP) problems than data management students. Table 3 Nursing and data management students mean, standard deviation and F test in the ten items of serious and normal behavioral problems Serious behavioral problems
Sum of Squares 5.778 Mean Squares 5.778 F .576 Sign. .449

Normal behavioral problems

Sum of Squares 97.811 Mean Squares 97.811 F *5.807 Sign.

HPD Between

.017

FLE

SRA

SPR

PPR

CSM

HF

AS

FVE

CTP

Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total

2106.726 2112.505 .118 1731.632 1731.750 5.778 3606.840

10.032 .118 8.246 5.778 17.175 .336 .014 .905

3537.472 3635.283 56.042

16.845 56.042 2.934 .088

4011.028 19.100 4067.071 .563 190.571 190.571 6100.387 6290.958 .953 97.811 5361.019 29.049 97.811

*6.560

.011

3612.618 4.245E-02 4.245E-02 2527.255 2527.297 16.981 3434.547 3451.528 16.981 946.340 963.321 30.948 1051.557 1082.505 34.080 4460.387 4494.467 1.887 2860.189 2862.075 249.528 5554.019 5803.547 12.035 16.981 16.355 16.981 4.506 30.948 5.007

.004

3.831

.052

1.038

25.529 5458.830 .309 170.283 170.283 6729.019 6899.302 .054 77.283 3039.396 3116.679 .014 74.887 32.043 77.283 14.473 74.887

5.314

.022

3.768

5.340

.022

6.180

5.941

.016

34.080 21.240 1.887 13.620 249.528 26.448

1.605

2646.925 12.604 2721.811 .207 260.495 260.495 7478.726 7739.222 .710 78.495 35.613 78.495

7.315

.007

.139

2.672

.104

9.435

6168.047 29.372 6246.542 .002 824.170 824.170 7108.000 33.848 7932.170

24.349

.000

All data indicated that students of nontraditional occupation (data management) have less behavioral problems than students of traditional occupation (nursing). These results were not due to socioeconomic status. SES had no significant effect on either normal behavioral problems (F(4,207) = .428, p = .788) or serious behavioral problems (F(4,207) = .519, p = .722). Discussion There are several possible explanations for data management students scoring significantly lower than nursing students on all observed differences. Socioeconomic status is one of the most likely explanations for differences since data management students would theoretically have greater economic security, but socioeconomic status had no observable effect. The next most likely alternative involves a greater sense of occupational freedom and gender role autonomy. Whether

this freedom and autonomy involves some element of masculinity is outside the scope of this study, but it seems reasonable to assume that women who enter traditionally masculine occupations experience behavioral flexibility, or adaptability, consequently leading to better adjustment and well being in life. Thus, androgyny may represent a sex-role alternative that promotes personal competence and mental health - the independent contributions of the characteristics of masculinity that benefits adolescent females adjustment (Butcher, 1989; Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Chow, 1987; Lamke, 1982; Wells, 1980). Previous studies have discovered similar findings as the ones found here when looking at the behavioral problems of nursing students/nurses (Chang & Lee, 1992; Chen, 1993, Lin, 1990; Liu, 1994; and Mayes & McConatha, 1982). The uniqueness of this study comes from the differences between the data management and nursing students. Students in data management were better adjusted to Curriculum and Teaching Procedures (CTP) and Home and Family (HF), Health and Physical Development (HPD); Social and Recreational Activities (SRA); PersonalPsychological Relations (PPR); Courtship, Sex and Marriage (CSM) and Home and Family (HF); and Adjustment to School Work and learning (AS) than nursing students. Data management students still had some areas of weakness. Adjustment to School Work and learning (AS) still ranks first as the most serious problem, but their rate was still slightly lower than the ones which nursing students received. In both cases, students characterized themselves as easily distracted from their work, lacking effective study skills, and fearing failure in college. These findings are similar to those of Sagaria et al. (1980), who found that academic issues are the greatest impetus for students to seek counseling. These differences can be partially explained by gender role theory. Androgynous individuals typically do better than sex-typed or nonandrogynous individuals in exploring a wide range of flexible and competent responses. Additionally, androgynous women were more advanced on decisional tasks than undifferentiated women (Chow, 1987). The nontraditional students may have overcome their curriculum and teaching procedure problems, for example, because they were more flexible than nursing students. This theory coincides with Kessler and McLeods (1984) hypothesis that women tend to be more vulnerable when events occur to someone in their social network. Nursing students have an examination for license upon graduation from college, but the data management students do not. The conclusions for this paper are difficult to aver with assurance because it is unclear whether the freedom Taiwanese women experience will correspond to the Western feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s. However, the results of this study do correspond with the findings of early Western gender studies, which imply that the next phase for Taiwanese women may follow a similar path. If so, the following recommendations appear warranted: a. Women will benefit from exploring nontraditional occupational fields; b. Schools should encourage women to explore their nontraditional occupational goals. In Taiwan, men still dominate most occupational categories, and occupational gender segregation still exists. These restrictions hurt men as well as woman as men are often discouraged from entering feminine occupations. When women choose to enter traditionally feminine occupations, attention and care should be provided such students. All students should

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