Discrete Equivalence: Any continuous-time system can be digitised by suitable means s.

t it processes the input signal at discrete instants of time. The process of designing such a system is called Emulation. The biggest challenge in finding the discrete equivalent of a system is to find a discrete transfer function which will display same characteristics of the desired frequency range as shown by the continuous time system H(s). Methods/Approaches:1. Numerical Integration of the differential equations which describe the given design. 2. Pole-zero mapping uses the comparison of s and z domains. A continuous system having pole at s=s0 when sampled with period T will represent the response of it''s discrete equivalent at z=exp(s0*T). 3. Hold equivalence uses samples of original input signal, extrapolating between them to get an approximate accurate representation of the original signal which is then passed to the given transfer function. Numerical Integration:a. Forward Rectangular Rule:- In this case, the discrete T.F is obtained by taking the remaining area to be a rectangle whose area is the value of integrand at lower limit multiplied by period T(width of rectangle). Note: include all relevant eqns and fig. b. Backward Rectangular Rule:- In this case, the rectangle area is taken to be the value of integrand at upper limit multiplied by T. c. Trapezoidal rule(also called Bilinear transformation):- Remaining area is half the sum of the areas obtained in forward and backward Rule. By comparing all the H(s) with the corresponding H(z), we can clearly see that the replacement of s by the following terms(6.11) Mapping and stability criteria:- The z-domain region for each of these filters in s-domain can by found out by substututing s=jw. Note: include all the derivations to find stable region as done in class. A backward differnce rule always leads to a stable controller but this is not not true in case of other 2 rules where only a stable continuous controller can be mapped into a stable discrete controller. Frequency Pre-warping: Usage of approximation methods can cause the frequency scale to get distorted which causes a serious mismatch if controller

based on precise frequency requirements as in band-pass, band-reject and notch filters. This is called Frequency Warping. jw=s-> put discrete equivalent in z using trapezoidal rule.manipulate to get w= 2/T tan(w1*T/2) .............................use d.e 4 Though the distortion is small at lower frequencies, it becomes significant while approaching Nyquist frequency. Using frequency pre-warping, we can force the controller to give same response at the notch frequency but it still may have distortions at other frequencies. s-> w*(z-1)/tan(w*T/2)*(Z+1) Zero Pole Matching Equivalents To find the discrete equivalent of a continuous transfer function, we can also take the z-domain values of the poles and zeros existing in H(s). This is done by using the equation z- exp(-aT) where s=a signifies a pole and T is sampling period. If we use the z-transform technique for mapping zeros as well, it will utilise the same quation as above. A pole/zero at s= infinity would get mapped to z=-1 which represnts the highest possible frequency in the discrete transfer function. The gain of filter should match the gain of H(s) at band center or another critical point which is usually zero in most control applications. Hold Equivalent The continuous filter is fed the input signal at discrete instants of time by using a sampling circuit. 1. Zero Order Hold-> If the value of input is held at certain point from kT to (K+1)T. 2. First Order Hold-> If a first order polynomial equation is used to replicate the original signal during sample and hold. equations and figures from d.e 2