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Stop Air Pollution

5 Easy Steps to Reduce Air Pollution


Cutting down on air pollution is an important step in going green. While transportation is the most obvious generator of air pollution, other aspects of your lifestyle also affect the amount of emissions you create -- everything from the products you buy, your behaviors at home and the way you handlehousehold waste. A number of small changes in different areas of your life can make a difference. The big results come when everyone is making such a contribution. Step 1: Save energy around the house. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, saving energy can reduce carbon emissions. Because most energy sources require burning fossil fuels, the less energy you use, the greener you are. Set your appliances and lights on a timer to turn off after a certain period of inactivity. Use compact fluorescent bulbs instead of standard lightbulbs, and use your microwave instead of the oven to heat small items. (See References 3) Step 2: Manage your heating and cooling. Turn your thermostat down in the winter and up in the summer whenever you are at work, sleeping or on vacation. You can also turn your water heater down to 120 degrees to save power. Make sure your insulation is up to the recommended level for your area, and insulate pipes that pass through unheated spaces. Check to see that your windows and doors are not leaking warm or cool air. To make sure your furnace and air conditioners are running efficiently, perform regular maintenance. (See References 3) Step 3: Cut back on the amount of packaging you purchase and the amount of household waste you produce. The process of manufacturing packaging releases harmful emissions into the atmosphere, so patronize brands that use as little packaging as possible. Recycle everything you can: aluminum, paper, glass, plastic and cardboard are usually easy to recycle. When you are disposing of chemical-based substances like paint, batteries, pesticides or solvents, check with your local waste management office for a safe, eco-friendly method. (See References 3) Step 4:

Reduce the amount of time you spend in the car. Carpool or use public transportation whenever you can. For shorter distances, walk or ride your bike to do errands. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, changing to carpooling can save a person over $1,000 per year. If you avoid driving alone only one day every week for a year, you can save hundreds of dollars in expenses, not to mention the wear and tear on your car. When you must drive, refill your gas tank during colder times of the day and avoid spilling gas to prevent evaporation into the atmosphere. (See References 2) Step 5: Improve your fuel economy. According to the EPA, a 1 percent increase in fuel economy equals a 1 percent decrease in carbon dioxide emissions (see References 1). Avoid accelerating quickly, braking hard and driving at high speeds, particularly when in heavy traffic. Remove excess weight from your car and remove unused roof racks or bike carriers, which cause drag.

This article has been written by an outside contributor. It has not been reviewed by the LifeScript editorial staff for accuracy.

7 Ways To Reduce Air Pollution


In todays complex world, with hazardous chemicals in everything we buy, e-waste filling our landfills and the exponential increase in gasoline-burning automobiles on the highways, the idea of being able to reduce air pollution is not easy to imagine. More than just smog, air quality is linked to everything, from childhood asthma to global warming. Turning a blind eye to the problem of air pollution not only risks our own health but the health of the planet for generations to come. There is still time, however, to make a difference. With these seven steps, you can start right away to improve the air quality in your home and in your community. And that makes everyone breathe a little easier. Step 1: Understand Where Air Pollution Comes From According to the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are six major causes of air pollution in the United States. These are ground-level ozone, particulate matter, lead, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. While most people have heard of carbon monoxide, lead and particulate matter, they might be surprised to learn that the primary source of air pollution today is ground-level ozone. Unlike the natural ozone layer that surrounds the earth and helps regulate temperature by shielding it from the suns harmful rays, ground-level ozone occurs when nitrogen oxides mix with volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The chemical reaction that follows emits ground-level ozone that can lead to numerous health problems. Upper

respiratory ailments such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema are all related to ground-level ozone. So where does this chemical reaction occur? Anywhere you have gasoline vapors, car exhaust fumes, a large storage of chemical agents, and factory or utility plant emissions. Reduce these key elements and you can reduce the amount of ground-level ozone you are exposed to. Step 2: Reduce Your Use of Automobiles Automobiles do more than just contribute to ground-level ozone. The making of gasoline requires the burning of coal and oil which causes an increase in sulfur dioxides, another of the six leading causes of air pollution. The EPA says petroleum refineries are key producers of sulfur dioxides and the more time spent behind the wheel of a car means more air pollution for everyone to breathe. While it may not be possible to completely eliminate your use of automobiles, try consolidating errands and shopping to keep from making multiple trips to the same location. If you live near a commuter railway, make a commitment to take the train at least one day a week to work. Looking for a new set of wheels? Why not buy a hybrid. These great vehicles combine electric and fuel energy to get better mileage and many produce nearly zero emissions. Step 3: Plant More Plants NASA recently discovered that many household plants, like the Gerbera Daisy, Peace Lily and English Ivy are instrumental in removing carbon monoxide from the air. Operating much like the human liver, these common indoor plants actually filter harmful chemicals and dangerous compounds from the air, absorbing the toxins through tiny pores in their leaves and digesting the pollution through their stems, roots and out through the soil. Using these natural air filters in your home or office can greatly reduce the amount of indoor air pollution and help eliminate recurring colds and respiratory problems. According to the NASA study, other helpful varieties for clean air are the bamboo palm, Chinese evergreen and any of the Dracaena trees. Step 4: Go Solar Electricity might seem a green way to heat your home, but the VOCs generated by electrical utility plants are among the highest in all forms of manufacturing. Nitrogen oxides are also a byproduct of electrical utilities and as we learned in Step 1, combining the two can lead to deadly increases in ground-level ozone. Utility companies produce more sulfur dioxides than petroleum plants and the amount of other resources necessary to operate the plants make electric utilities a less-than optimum choice when looking to power your home. Todays solar panels are unique in both design and installation. Whereas previous generation panels were large and unsightly perched above your roof, modern versions are colorful, install directly into the roof tiles and can usually generate enough electricity to power your home, heat yoStep 5: Get the Lead Out The dangers of lead-based paint have been known since roughly the 1970s, however,

recent environmental issues surrounding imported toys have caused everyone to rethink the use of lead in common household products. Leaded fuels were phased out after the 1990 Amendment to the federal Clean Air Act, making trash-burning, battery storage, and utility-leaching the major sources of household lead pollution. Have your gas and electric appliances checked to make sure there are no leaks in the lines or shorts in the wiring. Never burn trash or use your fireplace to get rid of excess garbage. If you have old batteries lying around, call your County Department of Environmental Health and ask where you can legally dispose of them. Most importantly, check the label on painted items such as furniture, decorator items and childrens toys. If you are unsure if the item contains lead-based paint, contact the manufacturer and ask. If they are unable to tell you, return the item for a refund or get rid of it altogether. Step 6: Never Dust Again Well, not really. But be careful about the kind of dust you stir up. Much of the thick brown haze you see over large urban areas is a combination of dust from construction sites, smoke from factories and the emissions from cars mixed together. While you might not be able to control the number of cars on the road or the types of factories that operate, you can watch your yard for dry patches and do your part to eliminate dust. ur hot water and have enough left over to sell back to the utility company. This is especially important if you use a lot of chemical fertilizers or other treatments on your patch of ground because those chemicals will mix with others once airborne and could cause even greater health problems. If you have a large non-landscaped area of your yard, make sure it stays damp and is not allowed to completely dry out, creating dust. If you are not ready to plant, sprinkle the area with water every few days to keep the dust in check. Better yet, cover with plastic sheeting to keep the ground from drying out while generating your own solar watering system at the same time. Step 7: Get Cozy Since electrical plants contribute to both carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, the burning of coal and petroleum generates ground-level ozone and sulfur dioxides, and the use of gas-powered heating systems can raise interior carbon monoxide levels to dangerous levels. Instead of turning on the heat, why not put on a sweater? Put another blanket on your bed during colder winter months. Keep cozy sweatshirts and plush chenille throws near the sofa for those evenings in front of the television. Snuggle next to someone to keep warm. Simple changes can make a huge difference in the amount of air pollution you are exposed to. Start small and build on your successes. Pretty soon, we will all be breathing a sigh of relief. How "Green" Are You? They say it's not easy being green, but we beg to differ. In this day and age, conservation is key. As

the ozone layer whittles away, the water supply dries up and the environmental bleeding continues, many people are taking a stand and going green. Do you know what it takes to do your part? Take our quick environmental quiz and find out. How To Recycle. 1. Turn off lights when leaving a room (even in public). 2. Changing light bulbs to CFL's. 3. Turning off power strips. 4. Carpool. 5. Reduce waste. 6. Plant more trees. 7. Compost 8. Recycle 9. Reduce using car(oun) to public 10. Prevent Burning Fuel and Plastics, Smoking, and using a lot of eletricity, and gas. 11. Reduce Cars import. 12. Use outdoors light (eg. sunlight ) rather than using electricity (except for night) 13. Reduce Slash and burn. 14. Recycing is the process and processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution(from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to virgin production.[1][2] Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle"waste hierarchy. There are some ISO standards relating to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice. 15. Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and electronics. Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste such as food or garden waste is not typically considered recycling.[2] Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials bound for manufacturing. 16. In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same materialfor example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used foamed polystyrene into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials (e.g.,paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to

their intrinsic value (e.g., lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components), or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from various items). 17. Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits of recycling over its costs, and suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costsand energy used in collection and transportation detract from (and outweigh) the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the jobs produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging, mining, and other industries associated with virgin production; and that materials such as paper pulp can only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling. Proponents of recycling dispute each of these claims, and the validity of arguments from both sides has led to enduring controversy.

Recycling Industrial waste

Edit

Although many government programs are concentrated on recycling at home, a large portion of waste is generated by industry. The focus of many recycling programs done by industry is the cost-effectiveness of recycling. The ubiquitous nature of cardboard packaging makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product by companies that deal heavily in packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, and distributors of goods. Other industries deal in niche or specialized products, depending on the nature of the waste materials that are present. The glass, lumber, wood pulp, and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled materials. However, old rubber tires may be collected and recycled by independent tire dealers for a profit. Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published reports on metal stocks that exist within society[10] and their recycling rates.[11] The Panel reported that the increase in the use of metals during the 20th and into the 21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal stocks from below ground to use in applications within society above ground. For example, the in-use stock of copper in the USA grew from 73 to 238kg per capita between 1932 and 1999. The report authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, the metals stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. However, they found that the recycling rates of many metals are very low. The report warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.

The military recycles some metals. The U.S. Navy's Ship Disposal Program uses ship breaking to reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create an artificial reef. Uranium is a very dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and titanium for many military and industrial uses. The uranium left over from processing it intonuclear weapons and fuel for nuclear reactors is called depleted uranium, and it is used by all branches of the U.S. military use for armour-piercing shells and shielding. The construction industry may recycle concrete and old road surface pavement, selling their waste materials for profit.

Air pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Bad air quality" redirects here. For the obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. "Air quality" redirects here. For the measure of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. Not to be confused with Qualities of air.

Air pollution from a World War II wartime production plant

Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution (see Airlog) and urban air quality are listed as two of the Worlds Worst Toxic Pollution Problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]

Sources

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Controlled burning of a field outside ofStatesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories which are: Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.[5][6] "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc. Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement. Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarettesmoking. Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compoundsto produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[7] Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

[edit]Emission

factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Industrial air pollution emissions

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that people attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms

of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages. There are 12 compounds in the list of POPs. Dioxins and furans are two of them and are intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. The POPs are also endocrine disruptor and can mutate the human genes. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[8] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[9][10][11][12]

Health effects
See also: Neuroplastic effects of pollution Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed] The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[14] The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[15] "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[16] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[17] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents.[18] A 2005 study by the European Commission calculated that air pollution reduces life expectancy by an average of almost nine months across the European Union.[19] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.[20] The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes indiesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000

fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation needed] The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the current 75-ppb standard. The agency projects the stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.[21][22] The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[23] Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from abiological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation needed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[24] A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[25][26][27] Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[28][29] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulates air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. [edit]Effects

on cardiovascular health

A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). PMID 19235364. Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.[30] A 2007 study found that in women air pollution is associated not with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.[31] Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.[32] [edit]Effects

on cystic fibrosis

Main article: Cystic fibrosis

A study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near and around particulates air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function.[33] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency.[clarification needed] During the time of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function.[34] [edit]Effects

on COPD and asthma

Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[35] Researches have demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma [36] and COPD[37] from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hosptializations and mortality from asthma and COPD.[38][39] A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[40] It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[41] [edit]Links

to cancer

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of nonaccidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase.PMID 19235364

Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per a 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). PMID 19235364 The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes (increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall nonaccidental deaths. PMID 19235364 The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions. In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.[42] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.[43] [edit]Effects

on children

Around the world, children living in cities with high exposure to air pollutants are at increased risk of developing asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. Risks of low initial birth weight are also heightened in such cities. The World Health Organization reports that the greatest concentrations of particulates are found in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population growth rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. However even in the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living innon-attainment areas regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.[44] These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "peasoup" smog.[45] [edit]Health

effects in relatively "clean" areas

Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce a $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.[46] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) effects.

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