Yield line analysis Yield line analysis is a familiar technique for determining the bending strength of concrete bridge

slabs (Johansen 1962; Clark 1983) but is generally not used in practice, probably because it is an upper bound method and also because many possible mechanisms ha ve to be investigated in order to find the critical one. Many engineers find it both t edious and unnecessarily complex. However, providing that the slab is of a simple geometry and possesses sufficient ductility for a mechanism to form, it could be used whe n conventional elastic techniques indicate inadequate bending strength. A separate check is req uired for shear using the conventional elastic approach. Middleton (1997) argues passionately for the use of yield-line analysis for both slab and beam-and-slab bridge decks and has produced a collapse analysis program called COBRAS (Concrete BRidge ASsessment). It uses up-to-date graphics and 3D modellin g techniques which, it is claimed has the ability to analyse rigorously realistic configurations of loading, bridge geometry, support fixity, and failure mechanis ms, without the need to derive mathematical expressions describing the interrelation ships between these parameters . A typical bridge assessment can be completed in a couple of minutes . The program has been calibrated against published analytical solutions; results from a NLFE analysis, and from test results on 13 model bridge slabs. In all but two ca ses, the yieldline method gave conservative estimates of strength. Assessments have also been carried out on 21 short span bridges for various bridge authorities and consulta nts and in every case the plastic rating from COBRAS exceeded the rating obtained using ela stic methods. Fifteen were found to have a 40 t capacity whilst having failed their o riginal assessment, which was in one case only 3 t! It should be noted that all but thre e of the bridges were simply supported and the failure mechanism under the HA(normal) assessment load was, in most cases, a full-width transverse yieldline at mid spa n the analysis, of which, could have been done by hand, also in a couple of minutes . The method clearly has potential for short span slab bridges, but whether there is a need for a sophisticated program such as COBRAS is open to debate. For simply support ed short span slab bridges it should be possible to choose a set of probable failur e mechanisms to enable the work equations to be formulated in order to find the st rength of the bridge deck. A collapse analysis is then performed by assuming a unit virtual displacement, a nd the work done by the applied live loads (WL) is compared with the work done in the r otation of the yield lines (WY) to obtain the load factor against collapse, such that:

Load Factor (LF) = WY/WL (3.16) The failure mode which gives the lowest calculated load factor is then selected as that governing collapse. The critical mode can then be used in a reliability analysis (section 3.6) in order to determine a probability of failure. This may be compared with a n accepted target value to decide whether the bridge is safe or not. Ibell and Middleton (1998) have addressed the problem of plastic shear capacity to be used in conjunction with yield-line analysis. Many laboratory tests were carried out in order to investigate failure mechanisms for various quantities of flexural and t ensile reinforcement, and to study the enhancement of the shear strengths of internal b eams due to the restraint offered by the surrounding structure. This has led to the devel opment of a three-dimensional collapse analysis method which has now been incorporated into a computer program suite called BaSiS (Beams-and-Slabs in Shear). The program is recommended for use as an assessment tool in reinforced concrete beam-and-slab b ridges but it does rely on the presence of ductility in the form of stirrups (or links) and the need to assume an effectiveness factor ? for use in the analysis.