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IB Biology Syllabus Notes Standard Level

Topic 1: Statistical Analysis 1.1.1: State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data.

Error bars can be used to show either the range of the data or the standard deviation.

1.1.2: Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values.

Students should specify the standard deviation, not the population standard deviation.

1.1.3: State that the term standard deviation is used to summarise the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

For normally distributed data, about 68% of all values lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean. This rises to about 95% for 2 standard deviations.

1.1.4: Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples.

A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean.

1.1.5: Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables.

For the t-test to be applied, the data must have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of overlap.

1.1.6: Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a casual relationship between two variables. Topic 2: Cells 2.1.1: Outline the cell theory.

Living organisms are composed of cells Cells are the smallest unit of life Viruses are not made of cells and thus are not living Cells come from pre-existing cells Schleiden and Schwann stated Cell Theory in 1838 Robert Hooke coined the term cell in 1655 Living cells were first observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1674

2.1.2: Discuss the evidence for the cell theory.


Muscle fibres contain several hundred nuclei Fungi consist of long threads, hyphae, which are multinucleated Red blood cells do not contain nuclei after maturation

2.1.3: State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.

Metabolism - the synthesis of ATP through respiration Response - a reaction to a change in environment Homeostasis - the maintenance and regulation of internal conditions Growth - an increase in cell or the organisms size and volume Reproduction - cell division (largely asexual) in unicellular organisms Nutrition - the synthesis of organic molecules or absorption of organic matter

2.1.4: Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit.

2.1.5: Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification.

2.1.6: Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

Volume effects the rate of heat production, waste production and resource consumption. Surface area effects the rate of exchange of materials and energy As the size increases, the volume increases faster than the surface area leading to a decrease in the surface area to volume ratio

2.1.7: State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.


Differentiation may occur in multicellular organisms, which allows for cells to serve specific functions, allowing for emergent properties Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

2.1.8: Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialised functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

Multicellular organisms gain emergent properties by individual cells specialising to carry out individual functions Cells specialise/differentiate by switching off unused genes and switching on/expressing genes that are necessary to carry out specialist functions These specialised cells form tissue, which come together to form organs These organs, the parts, then work for the system, the whole, so that the organism can function Tissue - a group of cells working together to perform a common function Organ - a group of tissues working together to perform a common function System - a group of organs working together to perform a common function

2.1.9: State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways.

Hayflict limit - the number of times a cell can divide (roughly 52) Totipotent - non-specialised stem cells, found in embryos before they reach the blastocyst stage Pleuripotent - specialised (adult) stem cells Stem cells have not yet differentiated and so retain the ability to divide countless times, they have no hayflict limit (like cancerous cells)

2.1.10: Outline therapeutic use of stem cells.


Lymphoma Lymphoma is a form of blood cancer, whereby white blood cells divide more rapidly or live for a longer duration of time There are two forms of Lymphoma, Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Bone marrow can be extracted from the patient before treatment, to ascertain adult (pleuripotent) stem cells Peripheral stem cells can also be found through the filtration of blood Chemotherapy that supplies toxic drugs to the body, or radiation is used to kill the cancerous cells. The two are often used together to prevent the cancer cells adapting to either treatment Healthy blood tissue is also destroyed in the process The healthy stem cells that were removed before can then be transplanted back to produce new blood cells Healthy stem cells can also be found in the umbilical cord of babies with matching tissue type Embryonic Stem Cell Therapy An embryo is created and from the blastocyte that is formed, the inner cell mass is removed These cells (totipotent) are then placed in a culture with nutrients and growth factors The blastocyte is then discarded Growth factors induce the stem cells to change into different cell types Tissues grown by this method can then be used in replacing damaged tissues Therapeutic Cloning Taking the nucleus from an adult patient's cell, transferring it into a enucleated human egg cell This is then stimulated to divide forming a clone Stem cells are then extracted from the inner mass of the blastocyte that is formed These are then stimulated to differentiate into the desired cell type, which can then form tissues such as muscle, nerves or skin This method has the benefit of not being rejected by the body as the new tissue has the same immune system identity

2.2.1: Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.

2.2.2: Annotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure. 2.2.3: Identify structures in electron micrographs of E. Coli. 2.2.4: State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.

As the cell grows, the DNA replicates and separates to two different sides of the cell The cell then divides into two in a process called binary fission

2.3.1: Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

Lysosomes - Contain hydrolytic enzymes to break down components of cells

Plant Cells Chloroplasts - Contain their own DNA and 70S ribosomes within a double membrane - Sites of photosynthesis Vacuole - Makes the cell turgid and firm - Contains water and salt Cell wall - Composed of cellulose and carbohydrates such as lignin and pectin - Provide support and rigidity

2.3.2: Annotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure. 2.3.3: Identify structures in electron micrographs of liver cells. 2.3.4: Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Differences Naked DNA vs. DNA associated with proteins DNA in cytoplasm vs. DNA enclosed in a nuclear envelope Mesosomes vs. mitochondria or chloroplasts 70S vs. 80S ribosomes No Golgi apparatus vs. Golgi apparatus No centriole vs. centriole Cell wall vs. no cell wall

Similarities Ribosomes DNA Cell membrane Vesicles (for storage) Flagellum or cilia (optional)

2.3.5: State all three differences between plant and animal cells.

Differences Cell wall vs. only cell membrane Chloroplast vs. no chloroplast Starch vs. glycogen (as carbohydrate stores) Vacuole vs. no vacuole (except for small temporary vacuoles) Fixed shape vs. ability to change shape No centriole vs. centriole

2.3.6: Outline two roles of extracellular components.


The plant cell wall maintains cell shape, prevents excessive water uptake, and holds the whole plant up against the force of gravity. Animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix. This functions in support, adhesion and movement.

2.4.1: Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

2.4.2: Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

Hydrophobic (water-hating) tails are positioned in the middle of the membrane and provide fluidity to the membrane. Hydrophilic (water-loving) heads are present on the surface of the membrane where water is present.

2.4.3: List the functions of membrane proteins.


Hormone binding sites Immobilised enzymes Cell adhesion Cell-to-cell communication Channels for passive transport Pumps for active transport

2.4.4: Define diffusion and osmosis.


Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

2.4.5: Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

Passive transport - Requires no energy

- Particles move by way of a concentration gradient

2.4.6: Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes. 2.4.7: Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

Materials for export are made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum They are transported to the Golgi apparatus where they are processed After processing they are contained within a plasma membrane, called a vesicle

2.4.8: Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis 1. Part of the cell membrane is pulled inwards, forming a pit, and surrounds the liquid (pinocytosis) or solid (phagocytosis) 2. The cell membrane starts to move around the material 3. The sides of the membrane (pseudopods) then pinch together around the material 4. This produces a vesicle containing the material Exocytosis Exocytosis happens in the opposite direction, with the vesicle fusing to the cell membrane The flexibility and fluidity of the membrane is what allows for these two processes to happen

Both uptake of materials and secretion require ATP because of the movement of the cell membrane

2.5.1: Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis.

2.5.2: State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.

Uncontrolled cell division can result in a growth of cells that continue to carry out mitosis

This growth is called a tumour (containing cancerous cells) Benign tumours are restricted to a particular tissue or organ, whereas malignant tumours may migrate to other tissues

2.5.3: State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts. 2.5.4: Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase). 2.5.5: Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei. 2.5.6: State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis. Topic 3: Chemistry of Life 3.1.1: State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

HONC - Hydrogen - Oxygen - Nitrogen - Carbon

3.1.2: State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulphur, calcium, phosphorous, iron and sodium.

Carbon - base for almost all life Silicon - forms base for alternative forms of life Sodium and Potassium - important for the nervous system and in plants for water balance Magnesium - essential in chlorophyll and muscle contraction Calcium - used in bones, teeth and in shells Nitrogen - manufacture of proteins and amino acids Phosphorous - cell membranes and DNA/RNA Sulphur - strong boning in proteins (due to sulphur bridges that are created, such as in hair) Iodine - used for growth hormones Iron - present in blood haemoglobin Copper and Zinc - present in reptilian/amphibian blood, resulting in a blue/turquoise colour Transition Metals (V, Mn, Ni, Co etc) - used in enzymes

3.1.3: State one role for each of these elements. 3.1.4: Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show their polarity and hydrogen bond formation.

3.1.5: Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water.


Thermal Lots of energy is required to break the hydrogen bonds in water, resulting in a high specific heat capacity This means it can absorb or give off a lot of heat energy without its temperature changing very much In the human body it is used in sweat as a coolant and in blood to transfer heat from warmer to cooler parts of the body Cohesive Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are responsible for its cohesive properties This means water can be drawn up xylem of plants and cohesion is also responsible for surface tension Solvent Water is known as the universal solvent and most of the reactions that take place in life occurs in the medium of water It may dissolve any polar molecule such as sodium or chloride which are inorganic, or organic molecules such as amino acids It can thus be used to transport substances in xylem/phloem or in blood

3.1.6: Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium.

3.2.1: Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.

Compounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms (except hydrogen carbonates (HCO3-), carbonates (CO32-) and oxides of carbon (CO2 or CO)) are regarded as organic.

3.2.2: Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure.

3.2.3: List three examples each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.


Glu-ma-starch Ga-la-gly Fru-su-ce Glucose, galactose and fructose Maltose, lactose and sucrose Starch, glycogen and cellulose

3.2.4: State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants.

Animals
o Glucose - respiration o Lactose - milk sugar (energy source) o Glycogen - insoluble, storage of glucose

Plants

o Fructose - fruit sugar (attracting animals to aid in seed dispersal) o Sucrose - soluble yet metabolically inactive, transported in phloems (energy source) o Cellulose - insoluble, structural fibres of cell walls

3.2.5: Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between fatty acids, glycerol and triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides.

Condensation Monomers join together to form a polymer Water is also produced from the reaction where the two molecules join Eg. two glucose molecules reacting to produce maltose and water Eg. three fatty acid chains reacting with glycerol to produce a triglyceride and water Hydrolysis A polymer is broken down into smaller monomers where water is used up Eg. a protein being broken into two smaller peptide chains or amino acids

3.2.6: State three functions of lipids.


Lipids contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates so they are a lighter energy source Lipids may reduce heat loss and is vital for animals which live in cold conditions Lipids are non-polar and hence are not affected by osmosis

3.2.7: Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage.


Carbohydrates can be digested more easily than lipids, making them more readily available sources of energy However lipids do contain almost twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates and so are lighter for the same amount of energy

3.3.1: Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate.

3.3.2: State the names of the four bases in DNA. 3.3.3: Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single stand.

DNA nucleotides are linked together by forming a phosphodiester bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3' carbon of the next nucleotide The phosphate groups form a bridge between the two sugars 5' carbons and 3' carbons

3.3.4: Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds.

Complementary base pairs, A with T and C with G, form hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands (A with T forming two hydrogen bonds, C with G forming three hydrogen bonds) Hydrogen bonds hold the double helix together The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions and are said to be antiparallel

3.3.5: Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA. 3.4.1: Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase.

3.4.2: Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA.

Complementary base pairing between the daughter and mother strands of DNA ensure that genetic information is successfully copied, with little inaccuracies, for use in new cells and in the next generation

3.4.3: State that DNA replication is semiconservative.

Semiconservative - the two copies of DNA produced from replication, are comprised of one daughter (new) and one mother (old) strand of DNA

3.5.1: Compare the structure of RNA and DNA.


DNA has deoxyribose sugar in the backbone, whereas RNA is comprised of ribose sugar The four RNA bases are the same as DNA except for Uracil which is used in place of Thymine DNA is a double-stranded molecule but RNA is a single-stranded molecule

3.5.2: Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase.

DNA double helix RNA polymerase - Breaks the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases in the DNA strand - Links the free nucleotides together to form the single strand of mRNA - Binds the two DNA strands back together again at the end of transcription Free nucleotides

- Diffuse into the appropriate position because of the hydrogen bond attractions they make with the template/anti-sense strand Sense strand - Essentially the strand that is being copied into the mRNA chain Anti-sense strand - The strand which is used as a template to produce an mRNA copy of the sense strand mRNA strand - A single strand of mRNA that is later used in translation

3.5.3: Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases.

The genetic code is made up of codons, triplets of bases, which code for 20 naturally occurring amino acids There are 43, 64, possible triplets and because they only code for 20 amino acids, the code is degenerate, meaning several codons can code for the same amino acid Because it is a degenerate code, it allows for some mutations to occur without creating a phenotypic change in an organism

3.5.4: Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation.

Ribosome - Contain binding sites for mRNA and tRNA molecules - Bonds amino acids together, in peptide bonds, forming a polypeptide mRNA - Strand of RNA that was created in transcription and transported to the ribosome via nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope tRNA - Consists of an anticodon on one end and an amino acid which it is bound to on the other Codon - Triplet of bases found on the mRNA strand - AUG is the start codon for translation Anticodon - Triplet of bases that is complementary to that of the codon on the mRNA Amino acid - The monomer that builds polypeptide chains, proteins - Methionine is the starting amino acid of translation

3.5.5: Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide.

Previously one gene was thought to code for one protein however after the 1940s it was proposed that one gene in fact codes for one polypeptide Several polypeptides may come together to form one protein; eg. haemoglobin is made from two different polypeptides and therefore two genes

3.6.1: Define enzyme and active site.


Enzyme a globular protein that functions as a biological catalyst that speeds up reactions, whilst remaining unchanged by the end of the process Active site a specially shaped region on an enzyme which is where the substrates bind and are either broken apart or bonded together

3.6.2: Explain enzyme-substrate specificity.

3.6.3: Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity.

Temperature - A higher temperature is preferable to allow for substrates to have enough energy to react - However past a certain temperature, about 37C for most enzymes, the bonds that hold the protein together start to break and the enzyme will begin to denature - At extreme temperatures the enzyme will denature completely resulting in them no longer functioning pH - At room temperature pH 7 is neutral and provides the best environment for most enzymes to function, exceptions being enzymes such as pepsin in the stomach - At extreme pH levels, either highly acidic (lots of H+) or highly alkaline (lots of OH-), the enzyme starts to denature from the bonds within it breaking; resulting in denaturation Substrate concentration - A higher concentration of substrates in solution will lead to a greater likelihood of enzymesubstrate complexes forming and hence increase the rate of reaction - However when the concentration exceeds the maximum rate at which the enzyme can function, the rate plateaus at a point called Vmax

3.6.4: Define denaturation.


Denaturation is a structural change in a protein that results in the loss (usually permanent) of its biological properties It can be caused by exposure to extreme temperatures, heavy metals or pH

3.6.5: Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk.


Milk from mammals contains the sugar lactose which is digested in the animals intestine by the enzyme lactose The digestion of lactose produces glucose and galactose which can be absorbed by the body Some people are lactose intolerant, which means they do not produce the enzyme lactase and cannot digest the lactose For such people, lactose-free milk is produced by adding the enzyme lactase to the milk before hand The lactase can be derived from yeast so that the milk contains no lactose Lactose-free milk also tends to be sweeter and smoother in texture because of the glucose and galactose it contains

3.7.1: Define cell respiration.

Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds, such as glucose, in cells to form ATP

3.7.2: State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP.

Enzymes in the cytoplasm of a cell breakdown glucose in a process called glycolysis, which produces two pyruvates and two molecules of ATP Glycolysis can be carried out anaerobically

3.7.3: Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP.

Pyruvate is converted into lactate (lactic acid) in animal cells when there is not a sufficient supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration A build-up of lactate in muscles is what provides us with the sensation of cramps Pyruvate is converted into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide in organisms such as yeast This process of anaerobic respiration may also be referred to as fermentation

3.7.4: Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP.

In aerobic respiration pyruvate is transported into mitochondria where it undergoes a link reaction and the Krebs cycle Aerobic respiration produces a higher yield of ATP (energy) and the glucose is broken down completely into carbon dioxide and water

3.8.1: State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

Sun provides energy for almost all life on Earth through the capture of light by producers (plants and other photosynthetic organisms) Photosynthesis converts the light energy into chemical energy such as that stored in molecules like glucose

3.8.2: State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colours).

Visible light is composed of various colours which have different wavelengths Red is a longer wavelength of light whilst violet is a shorter wavelength The colour of an object is dependent on which light it reflects and absorbs; leafs are green because they reflect green light

3.8.3: State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment.


The green colour in plants is due to chloroplasts (where photosynthesis takes place) that contain chlorophyll Chlorophyll is a green pigment which absorbs red and blue light, but reflects green light The absorption of these wavelengths of light are what provide the energy for photosynthesis to take place

3.8.4: Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll a and b function more preferably, resulting in a higher rate of photosynthesis, when absorbing red (650nm) and blue (500nm) wavelengths of light Carotenoids absorb all light except the orange light (>550nm) which is what gives carotenoids an orange colour

3.8.5: State that light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen.

In the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis light absorbed by chlorophyll provides the energy to produce ATP and to split water into oxygen and hydrogen, in a process called photolysis

3.8.6: State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules.

ATP and hydrogen that is produced from the light-dependent reactions, that occur in the thylakoid of chloroplasts, are used in the light-independent reactions in the stroma of the chloroplast ATP provides the energy for the reactions which combine hydrogen with carbon dioxide from the air to produce molecules such as glucose, this process is known as carbon fixation

3.8.7: Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass.

The rate of photosynthesis may be measured in three different ways, either by measuring the carbon dioxide used; or the oxygen, or the glucose produced pH of the water surrounding aquatic plants can be measured as the decline in carbon dioxide levels lead to a rise in pH over time The volume of oxygen bubbles that aquatic plants produced can also be measured over a period of time Biomass of terrestrial plants can be used to determine the increase in biomass over time as photosynthesis has occurred

3.8.8: Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis.

Temperature - Increasing temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis as molecules are given more energy to collide and with greater frequency - However enzymes start to denature after reaching an optimum temperature leading to a rapid decline in the rate of photosynthesis Light intensity - As light intensity increase so too does the rate of photosynthesis - The rate does however reach a maximum when the two other factors limit photosynthesis as well as the rate of light absorption by chlorophyll, preventing the rate of photosynthesis rising further Carbon dioxide concentration - Increasing carbon dioxide increases the rate of reaction as it is a vital raw material for the process - However this too plateaus when it reaches other limiting factors

Topic 4: Genetics 4.1.1: State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.

Before and after mitosis, when a cell is in interphase, which it spends most of its life in, chromosomes are in the form of chromatin (long and thin strands of DNA) The DNA in these chromosomes is associated with proteins which holds it together and are responsible for holding it together in its condensed form

4.1.2: Define gene, allele and genome.


Gene - a heritable factor that control a specific characteristic Allele - one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the same gene Genome - the whole of the genetic information of an organism

4.1.3: Define gene mutation.


Gene mutation - a change in the base sequence of DNA that may or may not result in a change in the characteristics of an organism A mutation occurs in DNA replication when either a base is missed, added, or where the wrong one is inserted

4.1.4: Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, using the example of sicklecell anaemia.

Base substitution mutation is when an incorrect base is added to a gene Such mutations may be harmless because of the degenerate code, however some may result in a different polypeptide being produced Sickle-cell anaemia is where CTC on the DNA strand is present as CAC as a result of base substitution This leads to GAG changing to GUG on the coding mRNA stand which in turn results to the amino acid valine being used in the polypeptide chain instead of glutamic acid Haemoglobin is comprised of four subunits, two alpha-units and two-beta units

As a result of sickle-cell anaemia, two of these subunits contain a different amino acid which leads to haemoglobin acting in a very different way The haemoglobin molecule is a different shape that is less soluble and carries less oxygen than normal haemoglobin They can result in problems such as jaundice, kidney problems and enlargement of the spleen

4.2.1: State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei.

Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes, (eg. sperm and eggs) Cells start with a diploid nucleus and through the cell division produce four haploid nulei each in their own cell

4.2.2: Define homologous chromosomes.


Homologous chromosomes a pair of chromosomes coding for the same genes, but with differing alleles of those genes Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 homologous pairs (23 chromosomes from our mother, 23 chromosomes from our father)

4.2.3: Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells.

Interphase Growth 1 (G1) - the cell grows from the small product of a previous cell division Synthesis (S) - the DNA replicates itself, in preparation for cell division - After each chromosome has replicated it forms two sister chromatids, attached by a centromere Growth 2 (G2) - the cell grows further as well as manufacturing more proteins such as the centrioles, that are required for cell division Meiosis I Prophase I (P1) o Centrioles (replicated in G2) move towards either end of the cell o DNA condenses/coils up to form visible strands o Nuclear membrane breaks down o Spindle fibre network (SFN) established and attaches to centromere, the point at which sister chromatids are attached o Two corresponding pairs of sister chromatids (a homologous pair) come together to form a bivalent o A chiasma may form between chromosomes in a homologous pair, allowing for crossing over to occur; increasing genetic variety Metaphase I (M1) o Homologous chromosomes/bivalents align on the equator of the cell Anaphase I (A1) o SFN contracts and separates the homologous pairs o This is the reduction division where the cells go from diploid to haploid o Replicate chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, are drawn towards either pole Telophase I (T1) o SFN breaks down

o New nuclear membranes form o DNA de-condenses

Cytokinesis (C) The separation of the cytoplasm into two separate haploid cells Meiosis II Prophase II (P2) o Centrioles (replicated in the short interphase) move towards either end of the cell, perpendicular to the poles they formed in meiosis I o DNA condenses/coils up to form visible strands o Nuclear membrane breaks down o Spindle fibre network (SFN) established and attaches to centromere, the point at which sister chromatids are attached Metaphase II (M2) o Replicate chromosomes/sister chromatids align on the equator of the cell Anaphase II (A2) o SFN contracts and separates the sister chromatids, and the centromeres holding them together o Each chromatid is now called a chromosome o Chromosomes are drawn towards either pole Telophase II (T2) o SFN breaks down o New nuclear membranes form o DNA de-condenses Cytokinesis (C) The separation of the cytoplasm into four separate haploid cells

4.2.4: Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

Non-disjunction is a failure of homologous pairs to separate in meiosis Gametes therefore either have one too few or one too many chromosomes Gametes with one too few chromosomes rarely survive, but those with one extra may go on to produce a zygote The tesulting zygote will have three chromosomes of the same type, which is called trisomy When this occurs in chromosome 21 in humans, it results in Downs syndrome (trisomy 21) Usually the female gamete will contain 24 chromosomes in place of 23 and will produce a baby with 47 instead of 46 chromosomes

4.2.5: State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure.

Chromosomes are stained with dyes during prophase so that each chromosome can be arranged in order of its size Karyotyping can be used in prenatal diagnosis to check for chromosome abnormalities such as trisomy 21

4.2.6: State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities.

Cells from unborn children can be analysed through chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis Chorionic villus sampling takes a sample of cells in the chorionic villi (what forms the placenta) between 8 and 10 weeks Amniocentesis involves taking a sample of amniotic fluid between weeks 14 and 16 of a pregnancy The procedure is used when there is concern about potential chromosome abnormalities Mothers over the age of 35 more commonly produce chromosome abnormalities and so are normally tested The procedure has a small risk of damaging the fetus After testing, parents may be offered the option to terminate the pregnancy if abnormalities are discovered

4.2.7: Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether nondisjunction has occurred. 4.3.1: Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross.

Genotype - the alleles of an organism Phenotype - the characteristics of an organism Dominant allele - an allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state. Recessive allele - an allele that only has an affect on the phenotype when present in the homozygous state. Codominant alleles - pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote. Locus - the particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene. Homozygous - having two identical alleles of a gene. Heterozygous - having two different alleles of a gene. Carrier - an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for this allele. Test cross - testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive.

4.3.2: Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid.

Labels should include parental genotypes, gametes, and both offspring genotype and phenotype.

4.3.3: State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles). 4.3.4: Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles.

In codominance, both alleles have an affect on the phenotype The ABO human blood grouping is an example of codominance and multiple alleles The three different alleles, IA, IB and i, result in four different genotypes, A, AB, B and O

4.3.5: Explain how the sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans.

Each person has one pair of sex chromosomes, called autosomes

Human females have two X chromosomes whereas males have on X and one Y chromosome There is therefore a 50% chance that a child will be a boy and 50% chance that it will be a girl

4.3.6: State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans.

Sex chromosomes contain genes that control gender but also carry sex linked or X-linked genes These genes are only present on the X chromosome and not on the shorter Y chromosome Females can therefore be heterozygous or homozygous for these sex linked genes, whereas males only contain one allele, so the recessive allele will always be expressed

4.3.7: Define sex linkage.

Sex linkage - the pattern of inheritance that is characteristic for genes located on the X chromosome

4.3.8: Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and haemophilia as examples of sex linkage.

Colour blindness and haemophilia are produced by a recessive sex-linked allele on the X chromosome A person with colour blindess can not distinguish between red and green XB and Xb are the notation for the dominant and recessive allele of colour blindness Haemophilia is a condition where the blood of an affected person does not clot normally XH and Xh are the notation for the dominant and recessive allele of haemophilia Both genes are inherited in a similar way with males becoming more likely to express either condition

4.3.9: State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes. 4.3.10: Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles.

Females may be heterozygous for a sex linked gene, in which case they do not express the gene phenotypically, but have a 50% chance of passing the recessive gene onto their offspring

4.3.11: Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance. 4.3.12: Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts. 4.4.1: Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.

The polymerase chain reaction takes a sample of DNA and copies the DNA numerous times over until there is a sufficient amount of DNA to produce a DNA profile It is done by placing the DNA in solution with DNA polymerase and kept at a high temperature so that the enzymes can function at an optimum level

4.4.2: State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size.

Gel electrophoresis separates fragments of DNA according to their size and electrical charge Restriction enzymes are initially used to cut DNA, multiplied through the polymerase chain reaction, into fragments at specific points The position of these cutting sites varies from individuals because they have their own unique DNA, producing a mixture of different length fragments Fragments are then placed at one end of a plate of gel where an electrical field is applied DNA has a small negative charge and so it will move away from the negative side of the plate where it starts and towards the positive side Smaller fragments move further over time, whilst the large ones remain close to the start point The fragments are stained after allowing them to separate and this produces a pattern of bands called a DNA profile

4.4.3: State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. 4.4.4: Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations.

DNA profiling can be used in determining who committed a crime through compairing several suspects DNA to that found at the crime scene It may also be used in paternity tests to identify a likely father by comparing the suspected fathers DNA to that of the childs and mothers

4.4.5: Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations. 4.4.6: Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome.

The Human Genome Project was started in 1990 as an international collaboration and finished sequencing the human genome in 2003 As a consequence of the Human Genome Project - Diseases may be diagnosed earlier, eg. in prenatal checks - Better identification of carriers of genetic conditions - Gene therapy which aims to repair/replace a faulty gene - Pharmacogenomics where the drug is tailored to an individual

4.4.7: State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal. 4.4.8: Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase.

Isolation of human gene mRNA from human cells is taken and isolated It is then mixed with free nucleotides and reverse transcriptase to produce the DNA that codes for the polypeptide

The DNA is the cut with restriction enzymes so it can be added to a plasmid Preparation of a vector Plasmids (small loops of DNA) can be removed from E. coli Restriction enzymes can cut the plasmid open to provide a space for the new genes to be added Isolated DNA can then be added to the plasmid and spliced together using ligase Recombinant plasmids can then be inserted into new host cells

4.4.9: State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals.

Synthesis of beta-carotene (vitamin A precursor) in rice - Golden Rice is a genetically modified rice that contains vitamin A to supplement those whose diet is low in vitamin A, which can often cause blindness Herbicide resistance in crop plants - Genes from soil bacteria have been transferred into maize plants to make them resistant to the herbicide glyphosate - This enables farmers to spray their fields with the herbicide and kill weeds whilst leaving the maize unaffected Reducing pollution - Pigs fed on grains and soybean meal produce a lot of phosphate in their manure because they are unable to digest the phosphate into phosphorous - The gene that produces the enzyme, phytase, in E. coli has been placed in genetically modified pigs so that their saliva contains the digestive enzyme - This allows the pigs to be better nourish and reduces the phosphate found in their manure Factor IX (human blood clotting) in sheep milk Salt tolerance in tomato plants

4.4.10: Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification.

Potential benefits Modifying plants can increase yield to feed a growing population Plants can be made tolerant to salt or other conditions so that they can grow in places they previously could not Plants can be made disease resistant, reducing the need for pesticides to be used Substances which humans may not be able to produce such as insulin can be produced in modified organisms Harmful effects Animals could be harmed by having genes inserted People/animals could be harmed by consuming genetically modified plants Modified organisms may have their genes escape into the environment where they spread into other organisms It leads to food crops being controlled by biotechnology companies Modified plants/seeds may be more expensive and lead to a bigger divide in wealth It may lead to a decline in natural biodiversity

4.4.11: Define clone.

Clone - a group of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells derived from a single parent cell.

4.4.12: Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells.


Differentiated cells are extracted from the organism which is being cloned The cells primarily have to have their genes switched on to allow them to become pleuripotent again Eggs are then harvested from a female and have their nuclei removed The nucleus of the adult cell is then added to an empty egg cell in vitro This egg cell then develops into an embryo which can be implanted into the same or normally a different female for pregnancy to take place

4.4.13: Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.


Therapeutic cloning is the creation of an embryo to supply embryonic stem cells for medical use These stem cells can be used to repair damaged parts of the body because they can grow into any number of tissues Pleuripotent stem cells mean that the stem cells can be used to produce any type of cell in the body As it uses the patients own DNA, it eliminates risks of immunological rejection It may also reduce waiting times for organ transplants if they can be produced in laboratories When research is carried out using embryos, there are concerns that scientists are playing with and destroying life

Topic 5: Ecology and Evolution 5.1.1: Define species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem and ecology.

Species - a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring Habitat - the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism Population - a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time Community - a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area Ecosystem - a community and its abiotic environment Ecology - the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment

5.1.2: Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph.


Autotroph - an organism that synthesises its organic molecules from simple inorganic substances Heterotroph - an organism that obtains organic molecules from other organisms

5.1.3: Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs.


Consumer - an organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed Detritivore - an organism that ingests non-living organic matter Saprotrophs - an organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion

5.1.4: Describe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms).

Grass --> Grasshopper --> Meerkat --> Eagle Alga --> Mayfly Nymph --> Dragonfly Nymph --> Stickleback

Phytoplankton --> Krill --> Chinstrap Penguin --> Leopard Seal

5.1.5: Describe what is meant by a food web. 5.1.6: Define trophic level.

Trophic level - refers to the feeding level of an organism in a food chain or web

5.1.7: Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.

Place organisms at level of producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer etc

5.1.8: Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms using appropriate information. 5.1.9: State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities. 5.1.10: Explain the energy flow in a food chain.

Energy in a food chain is lost through heat that is produced from respiration and also transpiration in plants Energy is also lost through food that is not consumed (only some parts of organisms are eaten) or assimilated (only some parts of organisms are digested and absorbed)

5.1.11: State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

Transfers between trophic levels are normally only 10% efficient with 90% of energy going to waste. Secondary and tertiary consumers may be up to 20% efficient

5.1.12: Explain reasons for the shape of pyramids of energy.


A pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in a community The units of pyramids of energy are, therefore, energy per unit area per unit time, for example, kJ m-2 yr-1

5.1.13: Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled.

Energy enters ecosystems as light energy from the sun, however it will eventually leave the system through heat energy generated from respiration Nutrients such as nitrogen must be recycled; decomposers (saprotrophic bacteria and fungi) are essential for this process Eg. Nitrate (absorbed by plant, used to produce an amino acid) --> Amino acid (passes into an animal and is excreted as urea) --> Urea (converted back into nitrate by bacteria) --> Urea

5.1.14: State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. 5.2.1: Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

5.2.2: Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records.

CO2 0.03% as of 1950 CO2 0.04% as of 2010

5.2.3: Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Sunlight (shorter-wave radiation) is allowed to pass through the atmosphere and is then converted into heat (longer-wave radiation), which is trapped inside the atmosphere - heating the Earth As the concentrations of greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, oxides of nitrogen, and fluorocarbons - increase the amount of heat trapped inside the atmosphere

5.2.4: Outline the precautionary principle.

The precautionary principle holds that, if the effects of a human-induced change would be very large, perhaps catastrophic, those responsible for the change must prove that it will not do harm before proceeding This is the reverse of the normal situation, where those who are concerned about the change would have to prove that it will do harm in order to prevent such changes going ahead

5.2.5: Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

5.2.6: Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on artic ecosystems.


Increased rates of decomposition of detritus previously trapped in permafrost Expansion of the range of habitats available to temperate species Loss of ice habitat Changes in distribution of prey species affecting higher trophic levels Increased success of pest species, including pathogens

5.3.1: Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration.

Natality and immigration increase population size, whilst mortality and emigration decrease population size

5.3.2: Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

5.3.3: Explain the reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases. 5.3.4: List three factors that set limits to population increase.

Shortage of food or prey Predation and parasitism Disease Accumulation of waste

Shortage of space

5.4.1: Define evolution.


Evolution - the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population If we accept not only that species can evolve, but also that new species arise by evolution from pre-existing ones, then the whole of life can be seen as unified by its common origins Variation within our species is the result of different selection pressures operating in different parts of the world, yet this variation is not so vast to justify a construct such as race having a biological or scientific base

5.4.2: Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures.

Fossils - Fossils are the preserved remains of an organism - Fossils can be dated from the formation of the rocks and then they may be sequenced to show the gradual change of an organism over time - Most records contain gaps until subsequent discoveries can be made Selective breeding - Selective breeding occurs when an animal has a desired characteristic and it is selected and encouraged to breed so that its characteristics may be passed on to the future generation - The hope is then that future generations will have the characteristic present in a higher frequency Homologous structures - Homologous structures are similar structures found in different organisms - Derived traits can be found in closely related organisms, and are inherited from common ancestors o The pentadactyl limb is an example in which the humerus, radius and ulna have been adapted through enlargement or reduction to suit the locomotion of the animal o Divergence - the adaptation from a common ancestor, eg. the pentadactyl limb o Convergence - two organisms with different ancestors whose limbs perform the same function, eg. wings of birds and insects

5.4.3: State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. 5.4.4: Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival.

The production of a surplus of offspring leads to a struggle for survival amongst a species This creates intraspecific competition for resources where the fitter individuals (free from disease, food availability etc) are more likely to successfully reproduce Those with advantageous traits will be naturally selected for and will survive to reproduce more This leaves the next generation with a higher frequency of advantageous alleles

5.4.5: State that the members of a species show variation.

Populations show variance which can be one of two kinds: o Discontinuous - the characteristic is controlled by one to two genes o Continuous - the characteristic is controlled by numerous genes (polygenic)

5.4.6: Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.


Meiosis creates 2n new combinations of chromosomes in the next generation, where n = the haploid number of chromosomes Random fertilisation increases the variation to 22n Variation is increased further by cross-over in meiosis, estimated at another 23

5.4.7: Explain how natural selection leads to evolution.

Greater survival and reproductive success of individuals with favourable heritable variations can lead to change in the characteristics of a population o Variation must be present for natural selection to act upon o Overproduction of offspring leads to better adapted alleles being passed on

5.4.8: Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Staphylococcus aureus o The bacteria can be found in two different forms, methicillin-resistant and methicillin susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA and MSSA respectively o Over a time period of several years, MRSA has been selected for and has become more frequent in the populations of S. aureus o This is because antibiotics have been introduced as a selection pressure, when medicine attempts to treat sick patients o The antibiotics have lead to MSSA being selected against because it is not resistant to the drug and so MRSA has become more frequent in the bacteria's population Industrial melanism o The peppered moth, Biston betularia, is a night-flying moth that rests on tree bark during the day o Two variations of the moth are present in populations, the light speckled moth and the black moth o In the mid 1990s the population of black moths grew as the environmental pressures selected for it over the light peppered moths o These black moths camouflaged better to the tree bark during this time period because of the amount of industrial pollution that caused the darkening of tree bark o However in recent years we have seen a rise in the population of light speckled moths as trees have become lighter again due to the Clean Air Act which was implemented in 1956

5.5.1: Outline the binomial system of nomenclature.


Organisms are named by their genus and species Eg. Homo sapiens written in italics or underlined

5.5.2: List seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa - kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species - using an example from two different kingdoms for each level.

Lemon tree Plantae

Angiospermata Dicoyledoneae Geraniales Rutaceae Citrus limonia Polar bear Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Ursidae Ursus maritimus Human Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Homo sapiens

5.5.3: Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta.

Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts) o No leaves or vascular system o Reproduce through spores, contained in capsules o No roots; just rhizoids (root like) Filicinophyta (club mosses, horsetails and ferns) o Roots, stems, leaves and internal structures o Supported through woody tissue o Reproduce through spores Coniferophyta (conifers - shrubs and trees) o Reproduce through pollen o Produce seeds, found in cones o Needle-like leaves with waxy cuticle Angiospermophyta (flowering plants) o Roots, stems, leaves and internal structures o Plants that develop into shrubs and trees have woody stems o Flowers which produce pollen o Produce seeds found in fruits or nuts

5.5.4: Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda.

Porifera (sponges)

o No real organisation or symmetry o May produce a skeleton of calcium carbonate or silicon o Food is filtered out through pores in the body wall o No nerves or muscular tissue o No mouth or anus

Cnidaria (jelly fish, sea anemones, coral) o 2 layer body plan with radial symmetry o Single entrance for respiratory gases and nutrients o Stinging cells with toxins called nematocysts Platyhelminthes (flatworms) o 3 layer body plan o One entrance to the gut o Largely parasitic Annelida (segment worms) o 3 layer body plan with bilateral symmetry o Ringed segments with some specialisation o Skin used for gas exchange o Separate mouth and anus Mollusca (snails, slugs, octopus) o Bilateral symmetry o Foot - a muscular structure for movement and burrowing o Central visceral mass - containing vital organs o Mantle - surrounds tissues and creates a cavity containing a gill o Mantle may also secrete a calcified shell o Separate mouth and anus Arthropoda (insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, millipedes) o Exoskeleton composed of chitin o 3 layer body plan with bilateral symmetry o Jointed body segments o Jointed appendages o Separate mouth and anus

5.5.5: Apply and design a key for a group of up to eight organisms.

A dichotomous key should be used

Topic 6: Human Health and Physiology 6.1.1: Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential.

Digestion allows for longer insoluble molecules to be broken down into smaller soluble molecules, so that they may be absorbed

6.1.2: Explain the need for enzymes in digestion.


To increase the rate of digestion, enzymes allow for the lowering of the activation energies required and hence increase the rate of digestion By using enzymes, these reactions may occur at body temperature; where the temperature would have to rise without the presence of enzymes

6.1.3: State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.

Salivary Amylase o Secreted by the salivary gland o Breaks starch down into maltose o pH 7 Pepsin o Secreted by gastric glands in the stomach (activated by hydrochloric acid) o Breaks proteins down into smaller polypeptide chains o pH 2 Pancreatic Lipase o Secreted from the pancreas o Breaks lipids (triglyceride) into glycerol and fatty acids o pH 7

6.1.4: Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system.

6.1.5: Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.

Stomach
o Peristalsis in the stomach by smooth muscle mixes food and enzyme molecules o Gastric glands secrete enzymes, hydrochloric acid and mucus o Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid which maintains a pH of 1.5-2, killing

microorganisms
o Chief cells produce pepsinogen which is activated by hydrochloric acid and turned

into pepsin

o Goblet cells secrete mucus to protect the interior of the stomach for the acids and

enzymes Small Intestine o Chyme is a mixture of bile from the gall bladder and liver, and pancreatic juices from the pancreas o Bile is added to add emulsifiers whilst pancreatic juices contain enzymes, trypsin, lipase and amylase o Villi increase the surface area of the intestine wall o Microvilli of the epithelial cells increase the surface area further o Lipids travel though lacteals into the lymphatic system o Absorbed molecules enter blood vessels in the intestine wall o Muscles in the intestine wall carry out peristalsis to mix the products of digestion Large Intestine o Contains mutualistic organisms that gain nutrients that we dont absorb whilst synthesizing vitamin K for the human host o Reabsorbs water and mineral ions o The remains of the original food are now referred to as faeces and is egested o Egestion the process by which undigested material leaves the body

6.1.6: Distinguish between absorption and assimilation.


Absorption - materials are absorbed by the lining of the gut (intestines), into the blood Assimilation - materials are absorbed into cells for storage or use, from the blood

6.1.7: Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion.

6.2.1: Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart.

6.2.2: State that the coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. 6.2.3: Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.

Atrial systole Muscles in the walls of both atria contract, pushing blood through the atrioventricular valves, into the ventricles Ventricular systole As the blood pressure in the ventricles becomes greater than that in the atria, the atrioventricular valves close and the blood starts to flow into the arteries through the semilunar valves The ventricles contract generating more pressure to pump the blood through into the arteries Diastole Both parts of the heart are relaxed and blood starts to flow in through the veins The semilunar valves close as the pressure in the arteries is greater than that inside the ventricles Blood continues to flow through the atria into the ventricles before a new heart cycle

6.2.4: Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenalin).

Cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes without stimulation for the nervous system and is said to be myogenic Contractions are initiated by pacemakers called the sinoatrial node (SAN) and the atrioventricular node (AVN) Atrial systole is caused by the SAN which also sends a signal to the AVN The AVN then triggers the contraction of the ventricles in ventricular systole The nervous system sends signals to the SAN controlling the rate at which contractions occur When performing exercise, the medulla oblongata in the brain sends signals via the sympathetic nerve to the SAN causing the heart to beat faster The parasympathetic nerve from the medulla have the opposite effect Hormones such as adrenalin may also increase heart activity

6.2.5: Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.

6.2.6: State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets.

Blood is composed of plasma as well as Erythrocytes (red blood cells) that carry oxygen Leucocytes (white blood cells) which fight disease Platelets (cell fragments) which are needing in blood clotting

6.2.7: State that the following are transported by the blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat.

Blood is used to transport nutrients and oxygen to cells so that they may grow and respire It also transports anitbodies to fight off disease Carbon dioxide and urea are transported to the lungs and the kidneys so that they can leave the body Whilst hormones and heat are also carried through the blood to various parts of the body

6.3.1: Define pathogen.

Pathogen - an organism or virus that causes a disease

6.3.2: Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.

Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways found in prokaryotes rather than in eukaryotes. They target features that may only be found in bacteria and other eukaryotes such as 70s ribosomes and hence antibiotics do not affect eukaryotes. Viruses differ from other pathogens because they utilise the host cell's metabolic pathways. The host cell in this instance is a eukaryote and so the virus goes unaffected by antibiotics.

6.3.3: Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens.

Skin - Provides a tough outer layer called the epidermis made up of several layers of cells - Natural oil secreted onto the skin lowers the pH of the skin making it unfavourable for pathogens Mucous membranes - Tears, mucus and saliva form barriers at openings of the skin like the eyes and nose - They each contain lysozymes which attack cell walls of bacteria

6.3.4: Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues.

Phagocytic leucocytes respond to pathogens by engulfing them in a process called phagocytosis The leucocyte detects the bacterium and attaches to receptors on the bacteriums membrane It then engulfs the bacteria forming a vacuole inside the leucocyte Lysosomes in the cell fuse with the vacuole and hydrolytic enzymes destroy the cell Any chemicals that are not absorbed, are egested through exocytosis The antigen marker is then presented on the phagocytic leucocytes so that helper T-cells can become active

6.3.5: Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.


Antigens - antibody generating substances that are found embedded in cell membranes of cell walls or in the protein coat of viruses Antibodies - protein molecules that are produced in response to a specific antigens

6.3.6: Explain antibody production.


Many different types of lymphocytes exist Each type recognises one specific antigen and responds by dividing to form a clone This clone then secretes a specific antibody against the antigen Macrophage (phagocyte) ingests pathogen and presents the antigen on its surface Specific helper T-cell binds to the macrophage and is activated The activated helper T-cell divides to form two types of clones: memory cells, used if the same pathogen ever invades the body again, and active helper T-cells B-cell with matching antibody ingests the pathogen and presents the antigen Active T-cell binds to presented antigen and activates the B-cell The activated B-cell then divides to form two types of clones: memory cells and active B-cells Active B-cells then produce antibodies which are released into the bloodstream Antibodies then clump pathogens together, cause their cells to rupture, or deactivating toxins

6.3.7: Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.

HIV infects helper T-cells and after a latent period of months or years, starts destroying the cells

As their numbers fall, communication between cells in the immune system deteriorates and the bodys ability to fight infection decreases This then leads to AIDS where a person is no longer able to fight off disease

6.3.8: Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.


Cause AIDS results from HIV which infects the helper T-cells in an individuals immune system This leaves the individual susceptible to secondary infections from other pathogens Transmission HIV is transmitted through blood, vaginal secretions, semen, breast milk and across the placenta Normally passed on through sex or through the use of non-sterile syringe needles Social implications The number of people living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa and South and South East Asia was estimated at 25 and 8 million respectively, in 2008 AIDS is the main cause of death in these countries often leaving the elderly to care for children This can lead to productivity decline as less people are well enough to work; resulting in less food, smaller incomes and expensive health care

6.4.1: Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration.


Ventilation - the process of breathing in and out to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide Gas exchange - the diffusion of oxygen into the blood capillaries and carbon dioxide into the lungs Cell respiration - the reaction that occurs in cells to produce ATP for use inside cells

6.4.2: Explain the need for a ventilation system.

A ventilation system is needed to maintain high concentration gradients in the alveoli

6.4.3: Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.

6.4.4: Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

6.4.5: Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.

Inhalation External intercostal muscles raises the ribs Contraction of the diaphragm lowers the floor of the thorax This lowers the pressure inside the lungs, drawing air in Exhalation Internal intercostal muscles contract lowering the ribs The diaphragm relaxes whilst abdominal muscles contract to push it upward, reducing the volume of the thorax Pressure increases inside the lungs, forcing air out

6.5.1: State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses.

The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for processing stimuli and making responses The peripheral nervous system are the network of nerves that carry information from the body to the CNS Neurons are nerve cells that carry these signals from one part of the body to another via electrical impulses

6.5.2: Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

6.5.3: State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.

Receptors produce a signal from a stimulus which is sent along a sensory neuron The sensory neuron transmits the information to relay neurons in the CNS and then into motor neurons from the CNS Motor neurons send the signal from the CNS to the effectors which produce a response

6.5.4: Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and repolarisation).

Resting potential - the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron that is not conducting an impulse Action potential - the reversal and restoration of the resting potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron as an electrical impulse passes along it

6.5.5: Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron.


Depolarization - sodium channels in the axon membrane are opened allowing sodium ions to flow into the axon Excess sodium ions flow in causing the inside of the axon to become positively charged closing the sodium channels

Repolarization - potassium ions leave the axon through the now open potassium channels, establishing the resting potential An excess of potassium ions move across the membrane , where the potential difference falls below the resting potential Both channels close and the resting potential is establish by sodium-potassium pumps Sodium-potassium pumps move three sodium ions out of the axon for every two potassium ions they move into the axon Refractory period - the phase after an action potential where a region of the axon is still carrying out repolarisation

6.5.6: Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.


Two neurons meet at a synapse which is a gap of about 20nm called the synaptic cleft Action potentials are transmitted across the cleft by the release of neurotransmitters Calcium ions flow into the pre-synaptic neuron as an impulse arrives This causes vesicles in the pre-synaptic cell release the neurotransmitter into the cleft, which diffuses across and binds to receptors on the posy-synaptic cell This results in sodium ions flowing into the post-synaptic neuron and the creation of the action potential Neurotransmitters are then deactivated, broken down and reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron where it is remade inside vesicles

6.5.7: State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood.

The nervous system and endocrine system are involved in homeostasis Homeostasis controls factors including water balance, blood glucose concentration, blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration and body temperature The endocrine system consists of ductless endocrine glands which release hormones to control these factors

6.5.8: State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance.

The internal environment consists of blood and tissue fluid

6.5.9: Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.

Negative feedback stabilizes the internal environment by reversing changes within it Eg. if blood temperature rises too high, sensors in the hypothalamus signal for heat production to slow down or to increase heat loss

6.5.10: Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.

Body temperature is meant to stay at approximately 36.7C Receptors in the skin send signals to the hypothalamus that monitors the temperature If body temperature fluctuates too high then a response brings the temperature back to normal via cooling the body Vasodilation allows heat to be lost through blood flowing through skin capillaries

More sweat is produced, evaporating to cool the skin Muscles remain relaxed Metabolic rate may decrease If body temperature fluctuates too low then a response brings the temperature back to normal via warming the body Vasoconstriction retains heat so it isnt lost to the surface No more sweat is produced Muscular activity such as shivering generates heat Thyroxine increases metabolic rate

6.5.11: Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and alpha and beta cells in the pancreatic islets.

Beta cells in the pancreatic islets produce insulin when blood glucose levels are high, eg. after eating The hormone triggers the conversion of glucose into glycogen which is then stored in the liver and muscles Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets produce glucagon when blood glucose levels are low The hormone triggers the hydrolysis of glycogen into glucose

6.5.12: Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes.


Type I - beta cells do not produce sufficient insulin or may be under attack from the patient's immune system Injections of insulin are used to control blood glucose concentrations Type II - target cells, responsible for turning glycogen into glucose, do not respond to insulin Blood glucose concentrations are controlled through low carbohydrate diets

6.6.1: Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems.

6.6.2: Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), oestrogen and progesterone. 6.6.3: Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and thickening of the endometrium.

6.6.4: List three roles of testosterone in males.


Pre-natal development of male genitalia Development of secondary sexual characteristics Maintenance of sex drive

6.6.5: Outline the process of in vitro fertilisation (IVF).


Hormones from the pituitary gland are suppressed to interrupt the menstrual cycle. FSH is injected into the female so that the ovaries are stimulated to develop egg cells. Several egg cells will have matured and are removed using a laparoscope. Semen is provided by a male and their sample is processed to concentrate the healthiest sperm. Eggs and sperm are then mixed in a dish and examined to ensure fertilisation. Zygotes (fertilised eggs) are then incubated at body temperature for 2-3 days and checked to confirm they've reached the 4-8 cell (embryo) stage. Up to three embryos (blastocysts) are transferred into the uterus.

6.6.6: Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF.


In favour

Enables infertile couples to have children Embryos can be screen to ensure they are healthy IVF has led to further understanding of human reproductive biology Against Unused embryos are frozen and then destroyed Humans are choosing embryos that are implanted which go on to survive Infertility is natural whereas IVF is not It may be passing on infertility through genes leading to a dependency on IVF

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