Automation in Manufacturing

Automation of manufacturing processes Manual Soft automation Computer aided Numerical control Direct NC Computer NC Adaptive control AC constraint AC optimization Material handling Flexible fixturing Hard automation Transfer machines Sensors

Programming

Robots

Assembly

Manipulators, automated guided vehicles

Design for assembly, disassembly, and service Fixed sequence, variable sequence, playback, NC, intelligent

FIGURE 14.1 Outline of topics described in this chapter.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

History of Automation
Date 1500-1600 1600-1700 1700-1800 1800-1900 1808 1863 1900-1920 1920 1920-1940 1940 1943 1945 1947 1952 1954 1957 1959 1960 1965 1968 1970s 1980s 1990-2000s Development Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips. Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator. Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press. Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators. Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in looms. Automatic piano player (Pianola). Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottle-making machine. First use of the word robot. Transfer machines; mass production. First electronic computing machine. First digital electronic computer. First use of the word automation. Invention of the transistor. First prototype numerical control machine tool. Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool); adaptive control. Commercially available NC machine tools. Integrated circuits; rst use of the term group technology. Industrial robots. Large-scale integrated circuits. Programmable logic controllers. First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with robots; microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; exible manufacturing system; group technology. Articial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing cells. Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing networks; fuzzy-logic devices; articial neural networks; Internet tools; virtual environments; high-speed information systems.

TABLE 14.1 Developments in the history of automation and control of manufacturing processes. (See also Table 1.1.)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Flexibility and Productivity

Conventional job shop Flexible manufacturing system Manufacturing cell Stand-alone NC production Flexible manufacturing line Conventional flowline Transfer line Soft automation Increasing productivity Hard automation

FIGURE 14.2 Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap between the systems, which is due to the various levels of automation and computer control that are applicable in each group. See also Chapter 15 for more details.
Type of production Experimental or prototype Piece or small batch Batch or high quantity Mass production Number produced 1-10 < 5000 5000-100,000 100,000+ Typical products All types Aircraft, machine tools, dies Trucks, agricultural machinery, jet engines, diesel engines, orthopedic devices Automobiles, appliances, fasteners, bottles, food and beverage containers

Increasing flexibility

TABLE 14.2 Approximate annual quantity of production.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Characteristics of Production
Type of production
Job shop General purpose Batch production Equipment Production rate Production quantity Process Plant layout Labor skill Part variety Flow line Mass production Special

FIGURE 14.3 General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop, batch production, and mass production.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Transfer Mechanisms
Power heads Power heads

Workpiece Workpiece Pallet Rotary indexing table (a) (b)

FIGURE 14.4 Two types of transfer mechanisms: (a) straight, and (b) circular patterns.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Transfer Line
Start Machine 1: Mill Machine 2: Machine 3: Drill, ream, Mill, drill, ream, plunge plunge mill mill Machine 11: Drill, ream, bore Machine 10: Bore Wash Machine 15: hone, wash, gage, bore, mill Machine 4: Drill, bore Machine 5: Drill, bore Machine 6: Drill, ream, bore, mill

Machine 12: Bore

Machine 9: Mill, drill, ream

Machine 8: Mill

Machine 7: Drill, ream, bore End Air test

Wash

Machine 14: Machine 13: Finish hollow mill, Ream, tap finish gun ream, finish generate

Assemble

Assemble

Assemble

FIGURE 14.5 A traditional transfer line for producing engine blocks and cylinder heads. Source: Ford Motor Company.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Dimensioning Example

+ + + + +

+ +

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 14.6 Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown: (a) absolute dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b) incremental dimensioning, made sequentially from one hole to another; and (c) mixed dimensioning, a combination of both methods.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Numerical Control
Computer: Input commands, processing, output commands Position feedback Drive signals

Limit switches

FIGURE 14.7 Schematic illustration of the major components of a numerical control machine tool.
Spindle

Work table
Work table Machine tool

Pulse train

Stepping motor

Gear Leadscrew (a)

FIGURE 14.8 Schematic illustration of the components of (a) an open-loop, and (b) a closed-loop control system for a numerical control machine. (DAC is digital-to-analog converter.)

Input

1 Comparator 2 DAC
DC

Work table servomotor Gear Leadscrew Feedback signal (b) Position sensor

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Displacement Measurement
Machine column Worktable Scale Machine bed Sensor

(a)

Ball screw Rotary encoder or resolver

Worktable Rack and pinion

Rotary encoder or resolver (b) (c)

Linear motion

FIGURE 14.9 (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool worktable. (b) and (c) Indirect measurement methods.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Tool Movement & Interpolation

Workpiece 1 2 Holes Workpiece 3 4 Cutter path Cutter radius Cutter

Machined surface

FIGURE 14.10 Movement of tools in numerical control machining. (a) Point-to-point system: The drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is then retracted and moved to position 2, and so on. (b) Continuous path by a milling cutter; note that the cutter path is compensated for by the cutter radius. This path can also compensate for cutter wear.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.11 Types of interpolation in numerical control: (a) linear; (b) continuous path approximated by incremental straight lines; and (c) circular.

y Quadrant 3 2 1 x (a) (b) x (c) 4 5 x Segment Full circle

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

CNC Operations
Point-to-point Drilling and boring Point-to-point and straight line Milling

Workpiece 2-axis contouring with switchable plane 2-axis contour milling 3-axis contouring continuous path 3-axis contour milling

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.12 (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling operations with various cutter paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a ve-axis numerical control machine. Source: The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Adaptive Control
Velocity Position Resolver Part manufacturing data CNC Commands Servo drives Machine tool Tachometer Spindle motor

% Spindle load Spindle speed Torque Parameter limits AC Vibration

FIGURE 14.13 Schematic illustration of the application of adaptive control (AC) for a turning operation. The system monitors such parameters as cutting force, torque, and vibrations; if they are excessive, AC modies process variables, such as feed and depth of cut, to bring them back to acceptable levels.

Readout

FIGURE 14.14 An example of adaptive control in slab milling. As the depth of cut or the width of cut increases, the cutting forces and the torque increase; the system senses this increase and automatically reduces the feed to avoid excessive forces or tool breakage. Source: After Y. Koren.

Cutter

Workpiece Feed per tooth

Adaptive control Conventional Cutter travel (c)

Variable depth of cut (a)

Variable width of cut (b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

In-Process Inspection
Gaging head Control unit

Cutting tool

Workpiece

Machine tool

Final work size control

FIGURE 14.15 In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a turning operation. The system automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting tool in order to machine the correct diameter.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Self-Guided Vehicle

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.16 (a) A self-guided vehicle (Tugger type). This vehicle can be arranged in a variety of congurations to pull caster-mounted cars; it has a laser sensor to ensure that the vehicle operates safely around people and various obstructions. (b) A self-guided vehicle congured with forks for use in a warehouse. Source: Courtesy of Egemin, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Industrial Robots
5 4 6 2500 mm 3000 mm

1 1200 mm 1075 mm (a) (b) 2025 mm

FIGURE 14.17 (a) Schematic of a six-axis KR-30 KUKA robot; the payload at the wrist is 30 kg and repeatability is 0.15 mm (0.006 in.). The robot has mechanical brakes on all of its axes. (b) The work envelope of the KUKA robot, as viewed from the side. Source: Courtesy of KUKA Robotics.

Vacuum line Robot arm Suction cup Workpiece Nut driver

Small power tool

FIGURE 14.18 Various devices and tools that can be attached to end effectors to perform a variety of operations.

Deburring tool (a) (b) (c)

Electromagnet Sheet metal (d) (e)

Dial indicator Gripper Object (f)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Robot Types & Workspaces

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 14.19 Four types of industrial robots: (a) Cartesian (rectilinear); (b) cylindrical; (c) spherical (polar); and (d) articulated, (revolute, jointed, or anthropomorphic). Some modern robots are anthropomorphic, meaning that they resemble humans in shape and in movement. These complex mechanisms are made possible by powerful computer processors and fast motors that can maintain a robot's balance and accurate movement control.
Rectangular
Work envelope

Cylindrical
Work envelopes

Spherical

FIGURE 14.20 Work envelopes for three types of robots. The selection depends on the particular application (See also Fig. 14.17b.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Robot Applications

FIGURE 14.21 Spot welding automobile bodies with industrial robots. Source: Courtesy of Ford Motor Co.

FIGURE 14.22 Sealing joints of an automobile body with an industrial robot. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Robots and Transfer Lines

Robots

Remote center compliance Circular transfer line Linear transfer line Torque sensor Visual sensing

Programmable part feeder

FIGURE 14.23 An example of automated assembly operations using industrial robots and circular and linear transfer lines.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Advanced End Effectors

Toolholder Inductive transmitter On-board electronics to process signals Chuck Drill Strain gages

FIGURE 14.24 A toolholder equipped with thrustforce and torque sensors (\it smart tool holder), capable of continuously monitoring the machining operation. (See Section 14.5). Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 14.25 A robot gripper with tactile sensors. In spite of their capabilities, tactile sensors are now being used less frequently, because of their high cost and low durability (lack of robustness) in industrial applications. Source: Courtesy of Lord Corporation.

Applications of Machine Vision

Controller Controller Camera 1 Camera 2 Camera Good Good Good

Reject (a) Camera view 1 Robot controller Workpiece Camera Vision view 2 controller

Reject (b)

Reject

Reject

Paint spray Workpieces Camera Vision controller with memory Robot (d)

(c)

FIGURE 14.26 Examples of machine vision applications. (a) In-line inspection of parts. (b) Identifying parts with various shapes, and inspection and rejection of defective parts. (c) Use of cameras to provide positional input to a robot relative to the workpiece. (d) Painting of parts with different shapes by means of input from a camera; the system's memory allows the robot to identify the particular shape to be painted and to proceed with the correct movements of a paint spray attached to the end effector.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Fixturing
Relay Microcomputer

Clamp Amp Hydraulic line Solenoid valve Work table ADC Strain gage Workpiece

Hydraulic cylinder

FIGURE 14.27 Components of a modular workholding system. Source: Carr Lane Manufacturing Co.

FIGURE 14.28 Schematic illustration of an adjustable-force clamping system. The clamping force is sensed by the strain gage, and the system automatically adjusts this force. Source: After P.K. Wright and D.A. Bourne.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Design for Assembly

Select the assembly method

Analyze for manual assembly

Analyze for high-speed automatic assembly

Analyze for robot assembly

Improve the design and re-analyze

FIGURE 14.29 Stages in the design-for-assembly analysis. Source: After G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Indexing Machines
Parts feeder Stationary workhead Work carriers Parts feeder Stationary workhead Completed assembly Work carriers indexed

Indexing table (a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.30 Transfer systems for automated assembly: (a) rotary indexing machine, and (b) inline indexing machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Vibratory Feeder Guides

Narrowed track Bowl wall V cutout Bowl wall

To delivery chute (a)

Widthwise parts rejected while only one row of lengthwise parts pass

Part rejected if resting on its top To delivery chute (b)

Slotted track

Bowl wall

Pressure break

Wiper blade

Bowl wall

Scallop Wiper blade

Screws rejected unless lying on side Screws rejected unless in single file, end-to-end, or if delivery chute is full (c)

To delivery Slot in track chute to orient screws

To delivery chute

Parts rejected if laying on side Cutout rejects cup-shaped parts standing on their tops (d)

FIGURE 14.31 Examples of guides to ensure that parts are properly oriented for automated assembly. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Robotics Example: Toboggan Deburring

Robot Cutouts

Toboggan

Deburring tool

Fixture

FIGURE 14.32 Robotic deburring of a blow-molded toboggan. Source: Courtesy of Kuka Robotics, Inc. and Roboter Technologie, GmbH.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7