Scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid observations,

how to interpret results, and how to generalize those results. The scientific method allows researchers to independently and impartially test preexisting theories and prior findings, and subject them to open debate, modifications, or enhancements. Scientific Method consists of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data G.A Lundburg. Scientific Method is a set of rules comprising operational definition, generally, controlled observation, repeated observation, confirmation and consistency. Barry F Anderson. The scientific method must satisfy four characteristics: Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results. Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with such precision that others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test that theory. Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven. Theories that cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories and any such knowledge is not scientific knowledge. A theory that is specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts are not accurately measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore not scientific. Sigmund Freuds ideas on psychoanalysis fall into this category and is therefore not considered a theory, even though psychoanalysis may have practical utility in treating certain types of ailments. Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must always accept the simplest or logically most economical explanation. This concept is called parsimony or Occams razor. Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and relationships that may explain everything but nothing in particular. Any branch of inquiry that does not allow the scientific method to test its basic laws or theories cannot be called science. For instance, theology (the study of religion) is not science because theological ideas (such as the presence of God) cannot be tested by independent observers using a replicable, precise, falsifiable, and parsimonious method. Similarly, arts, music, literature, humanities, and law are also not considered science, even though they are creative and worthwhile endeavors in their own right. The scientific method, as applied to social sciences, includes a variety of research approaches, tools, and techniques, such as qualitative and quantitative data, statistical analysis, experiments, field surveys, case research, and so forth. Most of this book is devoted to learning about these different methods. However, recognize that the scientific method operates primarily at the empirical level of research, i.e., how to make observations and analyze and interpret these observations. Very little of this method is directly pertinent to the theoretical level, which is really the more challenging part of scientific research.

Characteristic Features of Scientific Methods There are certain features which are found in scientific methods, and which play important role in making such methods scientific. Some of the important features inherent in scientific methods are as follows:

Empirical: Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are observable through sensory experiences. It generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or observation. Some of the realities could be directly observed, like the number of students present in the class and how many of them are male and how many female. The same students have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and commitments. These are also realities which cannot be observed directly, but the researchers have designed ways to observe these indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to sensory experience directly or indirectly (existence of heaven, the Day of Judgment, life hereafter, Gods rewards for good deeds) does not fall within the domain of scientific method. Cumulative: Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan through the literature and see that their study is not a repetition in ignorance. Instead of reinventing the wheel the researchers take stock of the existing body of knowledge and try to build on it. Also the researchers do not leave their research findings into scattered bits and pieces. Facts and figures are to be provided with language and thereby inferences drawn. The results are to be organized and systematized. Nevertheless, we dont want to leave our studies as standalone. A linkage between the present and the previous body of knowledge has to be established, and that is how the knowledge accumulates. Every new crop of babies does not have to start from a scratch; the existing body of knowledge provides a huge foundation on which the researchers build on and hence the knowledge keeps on growing.
Objective: In their approach, scientific methods are found to be quite objective. Such methods do not rely on any kind of biases and prejudices, but they are based on the foundation of scientific facts and proofs.

Verifiable: Scientific methods give more importance or consideration to the proper verification of the facts. Conclusions are drawn on the basis of only such facts for which there are valid and proper proofs available. In case of non-availability of such valid proofs, no beliefs or opinions will be used as basis of conclusions. Definite: Although some experts are of the view that scientific methods are indefinite in nature, but still there is content of definiteness in the processes which are being employed in such methods. It is as a result of this feature of scientific methods that conclusions drawn from such methods are found to be more reliable and valid and are consider to be free from all kinds of biases and truthlessness. Predictable: An important feature of outcomes or conclusions drawn from the use of such methods is that they cannot be used to guide in the present time, but on their basis, future predictions can be made by the observer. Through the properly generalized results of the scientific method, one can predict in the present that what will happen in a given situation under the known circumstances to

particular object or phenomena in the future. It is because of this reason that such methods are widely used by scientists and researchers. General: The conclusions drawn from making use of scientific methods consist of marked featured of generality in them. This statement has two implications. First, that inductive method is being used in making generalizations out of the particular happenings or events. Secondly, principles established through scientific methods are universal in nature by which they can be applied generally in other situations of similar kinds. Modifiable: An important feature of results or conclusions drawn from making use of scientific methods are that they cannot be considered as final at any time. The main reason of this is that they are non- static in nature. Such conclusions are open to continuous verification and further studies. On the basis of information obtained through new innovations and experiments, the information or fact what is considered to be true today can prove to be wrong tomorrow or in the near future. Thus, there is content of non-rigidity in the process adopted for discovering facts. Not only this, these methods do not stand in the ways of bringing desired modifications and changes in the scientific laws and principles which were being established earlier. From the features of scientific methods discussed above, one can conclude that all of them are also found in science. It is because of this reason that sometimes people consider science and scientific methods as interchangeable terms. However, in reality, both these concepts are complementary to each other. Whatever progress is taking place in the scientific pursuit is all due to the adoption of various scientific methods. While on the other hand, scientific methods help human beings to understand the facts and principles of science and to apply them in their practical life, as a result of which our life has become very comfortable and smooth in comparison to earlier times.

Steps in Scientific Method

Scientific method mainly works on 3 Steps

Elements Of Scientific Method:

Science extends our fields of knowledge day by day. The goal of science focuses on not only to acquire knowledge but also to sort out those acquired knowledge. This process of collection and analysis is called scientific method. Scientific method becomes dynamic through a set of elements. These elements help to analyze a fact and give an empirical logic behind those facts and phenomena. There are various elements of scientific method as follows:

1. Fact 2. Concept 3. Variable 4. Hypothesis 5. Assumption 6. Theory Fact: In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and for all practical purposes is accepted as true. Truth in science, however, is never final and what is accepted as a fact today may be modified or even discarded tomorrow. the scientific concept of fact sometimes referred to as empirical evidence is central to building scientific theories and fundamental questions regarding the natural phenomena of Nature, scientific method, scope and validity of scientific reasoning. In the most basic sense, a scientific fact is an objective and verifiable observation, in contrast with a hypothesis or theory, which is intended to explain or interpret facts. Facts must not be believed for what they are, but for what they explain. What has not been refuted can be considered a scientific fact. This is a functional definition and pays tribute to the 'fact' that knowledge changes with time. Goode and Hatt described scientific fact in their book Methods in social research. They said A fact is an empirically verified statement about phenomena. They also said, A fact is a logical construct of concepts. Phenomena is something that exists and can be seen, felt, tested etc. or something whose cause or origin is a subject of scientific or other interest. There is an intricate relation between theory and fact. A fact is regarded as an empirically verifiable observation. A theory refers to the relationship between facts or to the ordering of them in some meaningful way. Facts of science are the product of observations that are not random but meaningful, i.e., theoretically relevant. Therefore we cannot think of facts and theory as being opposed rather they are interrelated in many complex ways. The development of science can be considered as a constant interplay between theory and fact. A presentation of how important a fact can be are given bellow: ( 1) Facts help to initiate theories. (2) They lead to the reformulation of existing theory. (3) They cause rejection of theories that do not fit the facts. (4) They change the focus and orientation of theory and (5) they clarify and redefine theory.

Concept :
The ultimate goal of science is to investigate information with a neutral attitude. This investigative work can be multi-dimensional. I order to help the neutral investigation and to label the characteristics of acquired results, concept is important. So it can be said that, concept is one of the basic elements of scientific method. A concept is a verbal abstraction drawn from observation of a number of specific cases. Its formally and logically developed ideas about classes of phenomena that a researcher seeks to study; the "building blocks" of theory. Concept helps to summarize the acquired knowledge and phenomena. And it is used in every field of study. Concept also creates new vocabulary for science and newfound knowledge. According to M.H Gopal, A concept is a word, a phrase symbolizing the phenomena and helping to communicate the findings. For instance, we can observe a number of particular instances where individuals receive varying amounts of money for the work they have done over a given period of time. From these particulars we distill an abstraction and label it income. Similarly, we observe individuals and find some of them short, some tall and more of them in between; from these observations we generate the concept height. Features of a good concept: Concept is very dynamic element of scientific research, so it is used in various causes in various reasons. Sometimes, a concept is being used in various field for defining various reasons and bears various meaning. It also creates new vocabulary for science. So a good researcher must choose a good concept to define his research. A good concept must have some features, such as: 1. A good concept should be clear, free of ambiguity and precise. 2. A good concept should be clear and comprehensible in respect of formation. 3. A good concept should convey the exact context when the concept is coined. Classification of Concept: F. S. C. Northrop, in 1947 , in his two book The meeting of east and west and The logic of the sciences and the humanities classified the theory of concept. He divides all concepts into two kinds: intuition and postulation. For Northrop, the source of the meaning of the concept is the source of its difference. This can be seen from the definitions of these concepts. Concept by intuition: A concept by intuition is one which denotes, and the complete meaning of which is given by something that is immediately apprehended. Northrop gives blue in "the sense of the sensed color" as an example of a concept by intuition. Concept by postulation: The other kind is concepts by postulation. A concept by postulation is one the meaning of which in whole or in part is designated by the postulates of the deductive theory in which it occurs. A concept by postulation changes its idea with the change of field of study and theory, because sometimes same concept is used in various theory. Blue in the sense of the

frequency or wavelength in electromagnetic theory is a concept by postulation. According to Northrop, these two types of concepts exhaust the available concepts (i.e., providing terms with meanings) from which any scientific or philosophical theory can be constructed and therefore provides a means to do comparative philosophy, analyze and solve the problem of world peace, tame nations, provide a philosophical anthropology, explain why economists from Smith to Marx were incapable of providing a dynamics to supplement their statics, and to ground art and religion as well as legal and ethical theory. Northrop substantiates these claims in his The Logic of the Sciences and the Humanities. Hypothesis What is a hypothesis? When we set our aims, we try to achieve them first of all by means available for us, by our knowledge. If we succeed, it was simply a task, since we only applied our existing knowledge. It often happens, however, that in our background knowledge there are no proper tools to achieve the aim, our knowledge is not enough, and we face a problem. Problems occurring in science are calling for a mental search, the subject of which is some new knowledge that is suitable for solving the problem. In order to find this knowledge, instead of searching for it only at random, we must have some preconception, some idea about what we are looking for. Conjecture in fact means anticipating a possible solution to the problem. A hypothesis (in Greek 'hipothesis', meaning 'foundation' or 'basis') is a particular kind of conjecture that clearly formulates a suggestion about the solution to a certain problem. It includes surplus knowledge by which we move beyond the previous level of knowledge. In a hypothesis a new idea is formulated; in other words, every hypothesis includes something new and original, an element of imagination and guessing. For this advantageous feature, however, we must pay by taking the risk of error. Hypothesis - a conjecture or proposition about the solution to a problem, the relationship of two/more variables, or the nature of some phenomenon (i.e. an educated guess based on available fact). A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between at least two events, characteristics, or variables. Hypotheses usually come from theories; when planning an experiment, a researcher finds as much previous research on the topic of study as possible. From all of the previous work, the researcher can develop a theory about the topic of study and then make specific predictions about the study he/she is planning. It is important to note that hypotheses should be as specific as possible since you are trying to find truth, and the more vague your hypotheses, the more vague your conclusions. According to GA Lundberg, The hypothesis is a tentative justification, the validity of which remains to be tested. According to Goode and Hatt, Hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect. In any event, however, it leads to an empirical test.

According to Nachmias and Nachmias, Hypotheses are tentative answers to research problem. They are expressed in the form of relationship between independent and dependent variables. A good hypothesis should: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. state an expected relationship between two or more variables be based on either theory or evidence (and worthy of testing) be testable be as brief as possible consistent with clarity be stated in declarative form be operational by eliminating ambiguity in the variables or proposed relationships

Characteristics of Hypothesis: Conceptual clarity Empirical knowledge based Precise statement Connection with methods and techniques Relationship with body of theory Decision oriented proposition Brief and indicative statement

Types and Forms of Hypotheses A. Research (Substantive) Hypothesis - simple declarative statement of the hypothesis guiding the research. B. Statistical Hypothesis: 1. A statement of the hypothesis given in statistical terms. 2. A statement about one or more parameters that are measures of the population under study. 3. A translation of the research hypothesis into a statistically meaningful relationship. C. Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis stated specifically for testing (which reflects the no difference situation). In other words, the null hypothesis is the proposition that implies no effect or no relationship between phenomena. The null hypothesis is popular because it can be tested and found to be false, which then implies there is a relationship between the observed data. Examples: "Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar." is an example of a null hypothesis. If the hypothesis is tested and found to be false, using statistics, then a connection between hyperactivity and sugar ingestion may be indicated. D. Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative to the null hypothesis that reflects a significant difference situation. Examples: "Hyperactivity is related to eating sugar." is an example of a alternative hypothesis. E. Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis that implies the direction of results. F. Non directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis that does not imply the direction of results.

G. Foreshadowed Problems - (in ethnographic research) statements of specific research problems that provide a focus for the research. They identify factors for the researcher to consider without Theory: A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported with repeated testing. If enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next stepknown as a theoryin the scientific method and becomes accepted as a valid explanation of a phenomenon. When used in non-scientific context, the word theory implies that something is unproven or speculative. As used in science, however, a theory is an explanation or model based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning, especially one that has been tested and confirmed as a general principle helping to explain and predict natural phenomena. According to Goode and Hatt, Scientific theory refers to that relationship between facts, or to the ordering of them in some meaningful way. Any scientific theory must be based on a careful and rational examination of the facts. In the scientific method, there is a clear distinction between facts, which can be observed and/or measured, and theories, which are scientists explanations and interpretations of the facts. Scientists can have various interpretations of the outcomes of experiments and observations, but the facts, which are the cornerstone of the scientific method, do not change. A theory must include statements that have observational consequences. A good theory, like Newtons theory of gravity, has unity, which means it consists of a limited number of problemsolving strategies that can be applied to a wide range of scientific circumstances. Another feature of a good theory is that it formed from a number of hypotheses that can be tested independently. A scientific theory is not the end result of the scientific method; theories can be proven or rejected, just like hypotheses. Theories can be improved or modified as more information is gathered so that the accuracy of the prediction becomes greater over time. Theories are foundations for furthering scientific knowledge and for putting the information gathered to practical use. Scientists use theories to develop inventions or find a cure for a disease. A few theories do become laws, but theories and laws have separate and distinct roles in the scientific method. A theory is an explanation of an observed phenomenon, while a law is a description of an observed phenomenon. Roll of theory: Theory is a tool of science in these ways 1. It defines the major orientation of a science, by defining the kinds of data that are to be abstracted. 2. It offers a conceptual scheme by which the relevant phenomena are systematized, classified and interrelated.

3. It summarizes facts into empirical generalizations and systems of generalizations. 4. It predicts facts and 5. It points to gaps in our knowledge. Theory and fact: There is an intricate relation between theory and fact. The popular understanding of this relationship obscures more than it illuminates. They are generally conceived as direct opposites. Theory is confused with speculation and theory remains speculation until it is proved. When this proof is made, theory becomes fact. Facts are thought to be definite, certain, without question and their meaning to be self-evident. Science is thought to be concerned with facts alone. Theory is supposed to be realm of philosophers. Scientific theory is therefore thought to be merely summation of facts that have been accumulated upon a given subject. However if we observe the way scientists actually do research, it becomes clear 1. Theory and fact are not diametrically opposed but inextricably intertwined.2. Theory is not speculation.3.Scientists are very much concerned with both theory and facts. A fact is regarded as an empirically verifiable observation. A theory refers to the relationship between facts or to the ordering of them in some meaningful way. Facts of science are the product of observations that are not random but meaningful, i.e., theoretically relevant. Therefore we cannot think of facts and theory as being opposed rather they are interrelated in many complex ways. The development of science can be considered as a constant interplay between theory and fact. There is interplay between theory and fact. Although popular opinion thinks of theory as being opposed to fact since theory is mere speculation, observation of what scientists actually do suggests that fact and theory stimulate each other. The growth of science is seen is seen in new facts and new theory. Facts take their ultimate meaning from the theories which summarize them, classify them, predict them, point them out and define them. However theory may direct the scientific process, facts in turn play a significant role in the development of theory. New and anomalous facts may initiate new theories. New observations lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory or may demand that we redefine our theories. Concepts which had seemed definite in meaning are clarified by the specific facts relating to them. The sociologist must accept the responsibilities of the scientists who must see fact in theory and theory in fact. This is more difficult than philosophic speculation about reality or the collection of superficial certainties but it leads more surely to the achievement of scientific truth about social behavior. Variable: Understanding the nature of variable is essential to scientific method. Different data types demand discrete treatment. Using the appropriate statistical measures to both describes your data and to infer meaning from your data require that you clearly understand distinguishing characteristics. Variable - a characteristic that takes on different values/conditions for different individuals. A quantity which varies from one individual to another is known as a variable or variate. It is a description or a value of the individual which is capable of being expressed in numerical terms. In other words, variable is a quantity that may take any set of values, that is, it can have any numerical value. Statistical data are the result of successive observations of some characteristics of a group. The characteristics being observed is the variable. The observations, which are recorded as differences in magnitude or number are the values of the variable or attributes. According to P.V Young, A variable is any quantity or characteristic which may possess different numerical values or categories. According to Seville, A variable is a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties.

Types of variable: There are various types of variable. According to their characteristics, variables are two types. Qualitative variable: When the characteristic of variable being studied is non-numeric, it is called a qualitative variable. Examples of qualitative variables are gender, religious affiliation, type of automobile owned, state of birth, and eye color. Quantitative variable: When the variable studied can be reported numerically, the variable is called a quantitative variable. Examples of quantitative variables are the balance in your checking account, the ages of company presidents, the life of an automobile battery (such as 42 months), and the number of children in a family. Quantitative variables are two types. Discrete variable: Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values. A discrete variable cannot take the value of a fraction between one value and the next closest value. Examples of discrete variables include the number of registered cars, number of business locations, and number of children in a family, all of of which measured as whole units (i.e. 1, 2, 3 cars). Continuous variable: Continuous variables can take a value based on a measurement at any point along a continuum. The value given to an observation for a continuous variable can include values as small as the instrument of measurement allows. Examples of continuous variables include height, time, age, and temperature. On the basis of causation, Variable is also two types. Independent variable: A variable which is not dependent or can be manipulated by other variables is called independent variable. Dependent Variable: A variable which is dependent and in fact can be manipulated by independent variables is called dependent variable. Research In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge. Reading a factual book of any sort is a kind of research. Surfing the internet or watching the news is also a type of research. However, science does not use this word in the same way, preferring to restrict it to certain narrowly defined areas. Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes. Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. For example, we know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health; heroine is addictive; cow dung is a useful source of biogas; malaria is due to the virus

protozoan plasmodium; AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV (Human Immuno deficiency Virus). How did we know all these? We became aware of all these information only through research. More precisely, it seeks predictions of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them. According to greenwood, Research is definable as the use of standardized procedures in the search for knowledge. According to Mary E. McDonald, Research may be defined as systematic investigation intended to add to available knowledge in a form that is communicable and verifiable. What are the Objectives of Research? The prime objectives of research are: (1) To discover new facts (2) To verify and test important facts (3) To analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship (4) To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and non-scientific problems (5) To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and (6) To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

Characteristics of Research: Certain terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any research depends on these terms. These terms determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices and subjective errors or not. 1. Reliability is a subjective term which cannot be measured precisely but today there are instruments which can estimate the reliability of any research. Reliability is the repeatability of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to be a reliable research. Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of separation between parents on class performance of the children. If the results conclude that separation causes low grades in class, these results should have to be reliable for another sample taken from similar population. More the results are similar; more reliability is present in the research. 2. Validity is the strength with which we can call a research conclusions, assumptions or propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of research. Validity of the research instrument can be defined as the suitability of the research instrument to the research problem or how accurately the instrument measures the problem. Some researchers say that validity and reliability are co-related but validity is much more important than reliability. Without validity research goes in the wrong direction. To keep the research on-track defines your concepts in the best possible manner so that no error occurs during measurement. 3. Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument and tool is related to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been

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selected in best possible manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not. For example if a research has to be conducted on the trans-gender people, several data collection tools can be used depending on the research problems but if you find that population less cooperative the best way is to observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in questionnaire either they will give biased responses or they will not return the questionnaires at all. So choosing the best data collection tool improves the accuracy of research. Credibility comes with the use of best source of information and best procedures in research. If you are using second-hand information in your research due to any reason your research might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake because secondary data has been manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in research. A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if primary source is not available but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary data can be gathered is least credible. When researcher give f in research the credibility of research increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of research. Generalizability is the extent to which a research finding can be applied to larger population. When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population and from this population he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is representative of the whole population so the findings should also be. If research findings can be applied to any sample from the population, the results of the research are said to be generalizable. Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and is based on real life experiences. Quantitative research is easier to prove scientifically than qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur. Systematic approach is the only approach for research. No research can be conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research therefore should follow a procedure. Controlled-in real life experience, there are many factors that affect an outcome. A single event is often a result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the broader nature of factors that affect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors while others are tested for possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to be controlled rigorously. In pure sciences it is very easy to control such elements because experiments are conducted in laboratory but in social sciences it becomes difficult to control these factors because of the nature of research.

Types of research: Research is an investigative and exploratory process. Sometimes it aims to know the unknown, sometimes to verify the known event. According to purpose, Research is divided into two major types. These are

1.Basic Research 2.Applied Research Basic Research: Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. The purpose of this research is to understand and explain, i.e. the research is interested in formulating and testing theoretical construct and propositions that ideally generalize across time and space. This type of research takes the form of a theory that explains the phenomenon under investigation to give its contribution to knowledge. This research is more descriptive in nature exploring what, why and how questions. Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did applied research, we would still be making better spears !" Applied Research Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition. The purpose of this research is to help people understand the nature of human problems so that human beings can more effectively control their environment. In other words, this type of research pursues potential solutions to human and societal problems. This research is more prescriptive in nature, focusing on how questions. For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

improve agricultural crop production treat or cure a specific disease improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources. There have been many historical examples in which applied research has had a major impact on our daily lives. In many cases, the application was derived long before scientists had a good, basic understanding of them underlying science. A classic case of serendipity (chance discovery) took place in 1928. Sir Alexander Fleming was trying to find chemicals that behaved as antibiotics, substances that kill bacteria. A Penicillium mold accidentally contaminated one of his bacterial cultures. He observed that the bacteria could not grow near the mold, suggesting that the mold was producing a natural anti-bacterial agent. After years of research to isolate and purify the substance, our first true antibiotic, penicillin reached the marketplace. Fleming stated that "nature created penicillin. I only found it."

There are two types of applied research. 1) Action research, 2) Evaluation research Action research is a research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. It sometimes called participatory action research. Action research involves the process of actively participating in an organization change situation whilst conducting research. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their community improve its work practices. Action research is a form of research in which practitioners reflect systematically on their practice, implementing informed action to bring about improvement in practice. As one widely accepted definition describes it: Action Research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of (a) their own social or educational practices, (b) their understanding of these practices, and (c) the situations in which the practices are carried out. (Carr and Kemmis 1986) In its focus on practice, action research is rooted in the concerns of practitioners in real-world settings and in disciplined self-evaluation and reflection. In empirical forms of research, the researcher does research on other people; in action research, the researcher does research on him or herself. In the M.Sc. program, participants use the action-research process to reflect systematically on their educational practice in order to bring about improvement and contribute to new knowledge. They define areas for improving learning, develop action plans, act on those plans, gather data, assess their learning, and redefine areas of further improvement. The main characteristics of action research are: 1. It is cyclical; 2. It requires separate but mutually dependent steps; 3. It is participativeboth the researcher and subject are active participants in the research process; 4. It generates data that is generally of a qualitative nature; 5. It is a reflective process. Although the processes by which action research may vary, there is a common emphasis on critical and democratic social theory and a departure from unengaged research as the appropriate enquiry path for practitioners in practical situations.

Evaluation Research: Evaluation research basically is a research which is done in order to evaluate the effectiveness of any programs undertaken. There is no uniformly accepted definition of what constitutes evaluation research. At perhaps its narrowest point, the field of evaluation research can be defined as "the use of scientific methods to measure the implementation and outcomes of programs for decision-making purposes" (Rutman 1984, p. 10). A broader, and more widely accepted, definition is "the systematic application of social

research procedures for assessing the conceptualization, design, implementation, and utility of social intervention programs" (Rossi and Freeman 1993, p. 5). A much broader definition is offered by Scriven (1991), who suggests that evaluation is "the process of determining the merit, worth and value of things". In the latter definition, the notion of what can be evaluated is not limited to a social program or specific type of intervention but encompasses, quite literally, everything. A distinction must be made between the stage in the policy process that analysis is utilized: ex post is done after the policy is formulated and implemented and ex ante is done early in the formulation stage. While some methods, like benefit-cost analysis can go either way, evaluation research methods are applied after a program is implemented. During the policy formulation stage, methods may also be brought to bear, but this is to help analyze the best course of action, not determine whether the policy or program is actually working effectively. Evaluation research helps to find out unwanted things in the program. If we are to find out the objective of evaluation research, we will find two aspects of it. 1. Outcome evaluation. 2. Process evaluation. Both of them are self-explanatory. But no matter what the objective is, this type of research is able to quantify the success and failure of any program. And according to the readings, measures can be taken. Because of all this benefit, this research is considered as feedback mechanism. There can be different types of evaluation procedures in evaluation research. Such as: 1. Continuous evaluation 2. Phase wise evaluation 3.Final/Post-program evaluation. In fact for the efficiency of it, evaluation research is used to evaluate programs of national, international, public and private organizations. It is also used for predicting the goal and objectives and to change the process of programs etc. Exploratory research: Exploratory research is conducted into an issue or problem where there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation. Exploratory research is a form of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist. Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. Researchers employ exploratory research when little is known about the topic and previous theories or ideas do not apply. For example, if you wanted to study how to get students to use the computer lab in a college environment, you might first have to do exploratory research to figure out which students might need the lab and what appeals to this demographic. Exploratory research clarifies problems, gathers data and creates initial hypothesis and theories about subjects. The primary point of exploratory research is to give researchers pertinent information and help them to form initial hypotheses about the subject. When the purpose of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or acquire new insight into

it in order to formulate a more precise problem or develop hypothesis, the exploratory studies (also known as formative research ) come in handy. If the theory happens to be too general or too specific, a hypothesis cannot to be formulated. Therefore a need for an exploratory research is felt to gain experience that will be helpful in formative relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many". Research as a Scientific method: research is an excellent way to know the unknown and discover answers to questions. As a process, research is logical and methodical way and come to conclusion by experience and experiments. There may be various technics and process varying form one research to another but there are some characteristics present within almost all type of research. These are: 1. Systematic investigation: Research is an investigative process which manage to work in systematic way. Because of this reason, a researcher has to work on his way into various specific steps of scientific methods and complete his research. These steps are scientific and this systematic process is an excellent way to create any scientific knowledge and any scientific investigation. 2. Goal oriented effort: Research is not a goal-less effort. Every research is goal or objective driven. So to set an objective is considered as one of the most important step of research. The goal of research determines what is to do & what is not. The goal is set in order to discover new truth or sometimes to evaluate other researches. So research cant be scientific if it is anything but a goal oriented effort. 3. Objectivity: The objectivity of research is very important. The goal of any research is primarily to create something new or to evaluate something. In its effort to do a research, a researcher must be careful. Any personal ideology, ethics, choices and preference of researchers should not interfere with research. Because of this research is universal and objective and responsible for being a scientific method. 4. Ethical Neutrality: A research must be ethically neutral, because it is a scientific method. The findings of any research are universal so any ethical reasoning should not affect any research. If a research is measured in ethical scale, it cant be accepted as a scientific method because ethics and morality varies from time and places. 5. Empirical base of knowledge: The gathering of discovered knowledge is called science. But the knowledge of science is not myth or prejudice or any fiction. Science is empirical and firmly based on research and experiments. Just like that there is no place for fiction in research. For research everything has to experimented and tested beyond doubt, otherwise it cant be regarded as scientific method. 6. Generalization: Research is always conducted in a systematic process. So the result is considered as true and fact. If any researcher wishes, he can again test it and generalize it which by the way shows the characteristics of science.

7. Accuracy and Precision: Not only a research collects information for knowledge, it makes the subject measurable. Measurement is the best way to test any research. Finding which is more accurate is considered as a result. Beacause of accuracy and measurement research has become a scientific method.

SOCIAL RESEARCH Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques, aims to discover new factory verify a test old facts, analyze their sequence interrelationship and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilities reliable and valid study of human behavior. According to PV young social research the systematic method of discovering news facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, casual explanation and the natural laws which governs them. Prof C.A Mosr defines social research as systematized investigation to give new knowledge about social phenomena and surveys. Rummel defined social research as it is devoted to a study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutes and ethics. Mary Stevenson defined social research as social research is a systematic methods of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematized techniques, aims to: 1. Discover new facts or verify and test old facts 2. Analyze their sequence, interrelationships, and casual explanations which were derived within an appropriate theoretical framework of reference. 3. Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior. Social research is a systematic method of exploring analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful and correct the misconceived facts of social life. Social work research: In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It provides information that can be taken into consideration by social workers prior to making decision that affect their clients, programs or agencies such as use of alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of program/client/objectives and so forth. Social work research may be defined as systematic investigation into the problems in the field of social work. The study of concepts, principles, theories underlying social work methods and skills are the major areas of social work research. It involves the study of the relationship of social

workers with their clients; individuals, groups or communities on various levels of interaction or therapy as well as their natural relationships and functioning within the organizational structure of social agencies. While on the theoretical side, social work research re-examines the special body of knowledge: concepts and theories, where as in the area of social work practice it tries to evolve a systematic theory and valid concepts, to know the efficacy of different methods / interventions of social work as to search for alternate innovative interventions and treatments. Social work research, therefore, concerns itself with the problems faced by social workers. It encompasses those questions which are encountered in social work practices or in planning or administering social work services which can be solved through research and which are appropriate for investigation under social work auspices. RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK: Social work is a practice profession. As such, the major objective of social work research is to search for answers to questions raised regarding interventions or practice effectiveness. In other words social work research attempts to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the attainment of social work goals. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to problems or difficulties faced by social work practitioners in the practice of their profession. Ultimately it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and practice. Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social workers, social work agencies and community in its concern with social work functions. In other words in social work research the problems to be investigated are always found in the course of doing social work or planning to do it (Dasgupta,1968). It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is from the point of view of social work and that of professional social work. The designing of research problems, data collection and its interpretation will have to be attempted in a manner as would be useful to professional social work which would add new knowledge to the social work theory and practice and improve the efficiency of professional social workers. Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research concepts, methods, techniques and strategies to provide information related to the objectives of social work programs and practices. Thus the unit of analysis of social work research could be individuals, groups, families or program of the agency. That is, social work research typically focuses on assessment of practitioner's work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or programs that involve the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As such, the research design, data collection and analytic strategies in social work research vary as a function of unit of analysis and program of agencies of social work practitioner. Social work research is the use of the scientific method in the search of knowledge, including knowledge of alternate practice and intervention techniques, which would be of direct use to the social work profession and thus enhance the practice of social work methods. Social work research focuses on or confines itself to select aspects of behavior and alternate models of behavior modifications. Social work research helps to find ways and means to enhance social functioning at the individual, group, community and societal levels. Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one of the reasons that social work research is also understood as evaluative research. Under social work research, varieties of evaluative researches are undertaken. Some of the researches are on impacts or effects, efficacy and effectiveness. Evaluation of agencies and its projects and programs are some of the specialized areas of social work research.

Methods of Social Research Just like any other research, a social research has to follow a specific methodical way for research, which is called scientific method. Method is a planned process of doing anything. These are various methods of Social Research. In the context of goals and objectives of social research, methods are undertaken. It needs to be said that in a social research, its may not possible that all method will work. Because of this, there are various methods used in social research. These methods are: Social Survey Case Study method Content analysis method Experimental method Anthropological method Focus group method

These methods are discussed below. Social Survey The social survey technique seems to be very popular in sociology. In fact, the man in the street

particularly associates the social survey with sociologists. This he does, probably because, this he thinks to be the only available technique that sociologists have for collecting information. This is especially so in the Western context. The social survey is certainly a very important way of assembling data, but it is by no means the only way. Meaning and Definition: 1. Duncan Mitchells: Dictionary of Sociology defines social survey this way: The social survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific geographic, cultural, or administrative area. 2. Bogardus: A social survey is the collection of data concerning the living and working conditions, broadly speaking, of the people, in a given community. 3. Ian Robertson: Surveys are frequently used in sociological research, either simply for the purpose of gathering facts {such as the political opinions of college students,) or for finding out about the relationship between facts (such as how sex, parental opinions, or social class, influence students political views) 4. E.W. Burgess:

A social survey of a community is the scientific study of its conditions and needs for the purpose of presenting a constructive program of social advance Characteristics of Social Survey Its a method of Social research. Its a recognized method of social research for collecting authentic data about various social aspects. It can be done in Sample or random technique. Social survey is also regarded as research itself. Its an investigative process in large scale. Its based on interview and observation.

Purpose of Social Survey: Social surveys are usually for dealing with many related aspects of a social problem. They provide the data for administration, rather than for the illustrative or descriptive material. They are generally quantitative and the history of the social survey is intimately bound up with the development of statistics. The social survey method has the ultimate goal of seeking social facts. It normally involves the following steps: Enunciating the object or purpose of the survey; definition of the problem under study; the delimitation of the area or scope of study; examination of the available evidences or sources relating to the problem; preparation of questionnaire schedule; field work to collect data; arrangement, tabulation and statistical analysis of the data; interpretation of results; deduction and graphic expression. The social survey is concerned with the collection of data relating to some problems of great social importance with a view to find out an effective solution for it. The survey is normally limited to a fixed geographic area or confined to a defined population. The basic procedure is that people are asked a number of questions focused on that aspect of behavior in which the sociologist is interested. The focal point could be students participation in politics, or Opinions of highly educated scheduled caste and scheduled tribe people regarding reservation, any such topic or issue of social interest. The total group of people whose attitudes, opinions or behavior, the sociologist is interested in is called the population. The people are carefully selected so that they become representative of the population being studied. They are asked to answer exactly the same questions, so that the replies of different categories of respondents may be examined for differences. In some cases, it is possible to survey the entire population, but time and expense make their procedure impracticable unless the population is a small one and confined to limited area.

In most cases it is necessary to survey a sample, a small number of individuals drawn from the larger population. This type of survey is often called sample survey. The sample must exactly represent the population in question. If it does not, then any conclusions are valid only for the actual people who were surveyed (that is, the respondents) and cannot be applied to the entire population from which the sample was drawn. One of the major virtues of the survey is that a large number of respondents can be included in it. For the very same reason both the method of getting the questionnaires completed, and the formulation of the questions to be asked, must be very carefully worked out. Survey can be conducted in Various Ways: 1. One type of survey lies on contacting the respondents by letter and asking them to complete the questionnaires themselves before returning it. 2. Another variation in the procedure is that, an assistant of the surveyor delivers the questionnaires to the respondents, requests them to complete it, and makes an arrangement to pick them up later. 3. Sometimes questionnaires are not completed by individuals separately but by people in a group under the direct supervision of the research worker. For example: a class of students in a college or a group of women at a meeting of the Mahila Samaj and so on, may be asked to respond to the questionnaire together. 4. In some other surveys a trained interviewer asks the questions and records the responses on a schedule for each respondent. It should be noted, these alternative procedures have different strengths and weaknesses. Social surveys, as it is clear from the above, may depend either on questionnaires which are self-administered, or on schedules which are completed by trained interviewers, or by the research worker personally. Social surveys involves same amount of home-work or office work. For example, schedules must be prepared with sample identifications (example, the addresses of houses or firms). If a mail questionnaire is to be used, the envelopes have to be addressed, stamped and posted. If the enquiry is based on interviews, the interviewers will have to be very carefully briefed. When the schedules are completed and returned, they are processed in such a manner that they could be provided for computer analysis.

Limitation of Social Surveys: Though social surveys provide very useful information about our social life, its intricacies and problems, there has been a good deal of controversy about it. Limitations are as follows: (1) The reliability and validity of results obtained from social surveys may be biased. (2) Another objection is regarding the extent to which individual characteristics may be assumed to relate to social properties. (3) Yet another doubt is concerning the validity of the replies to questions which are obtained in social surveys. (4) Social survey needs a huge population for collecting data. Its very time consuming and needs lots of population. (5)A lot of manpower is needed for conducting social surveys. (6) If a social survey is done by sampling process, there always will be chance of having sampling error. Though these objections have an element of truth in them, sociologists are trying their level best to make social surveys free from these controversies. They use different means to collect data to suit the sort of information they require for their study.

Case Study
Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23). According to PV Young, A comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community is called a case study. Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in the literature.

Characteristics of Case study method: Case study is considered as an representative unit of same classed subjects. It analyzes the topic under study from all available aspects. Case study in fact, considers the qualitative aspects of data and gives a deep interpretation of research problem. By analyzing the selected unit, it proceeds to generalization. Case study methods is not bound by goals and objectives, so a researcher can collect data independently.

Steps of Case study method: Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used: Determine and define the research questions Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques Prepare to collect the data Collect data in the field Evaluate and analyze the data Prepare the report

These are discussed below Step 1: Determine and Define the Research Questions The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and answers the research questions. Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.

Step 2: Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each cases conclusion can then be used as information contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the case. The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed. A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical artifacts. The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Technique such as cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again. Step 3: Prepare to Collect the Data As because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.

Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring. After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original set of research questions. Step 4: Collect Data in the Field The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are made, they are documented systematically. Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis. Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of the study.

Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check a fact. Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases. Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply. Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions. Step 6. Prepare the report Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the readers confidence that all avenues have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special attention to conflicting propositions. Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the document review audience include a

journalist and some suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study. Weaknesses of Case Study method: Inherent subjectivity can be stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods. Investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines and their investigations as having insufficient precision, objectivity and rigor (yin 1989). Time consuming take time to include different research methods in order to get an inclusive case study. High investment involve learning more about the subjects being tested since it emphasize on deep data, it can take a budget of Taka 10,0000 to examine 200 subjects. Ethical consideration the personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and biases of the investigators. Common complaint investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Non availability of documents: Sometimes historical documents, records are very hard to get, because those are either not available or outdated. Qualitative research only: Case study is only for qualitative data. It cant be converted in quantitative data or measured, hence the pinpoint measurement for testing is not possible.

Content Analysis Bernard Berelson defined Content Analysis as "a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of communications" (Berelson, 74). According to Hans Raj, Content analysis is a method of analysis with which an attempt is made to convert the symbolic behavior into scientific data. According to Fred N kerlinger, The content analysis is a method for studying and analyzing communications in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner to measure variables. Content analysis is a research tool focused on the actual content and internal features of media. It is used to determine the presence of certain words, concepts, themes, phrases, characters, or sentences within texts or sets of texts and to quantify this presence in an objective manner. Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. To conduct a content analysis on a text, the text is encoded or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels-word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis. The results are then used to make inferences about the messages within the text(s), the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. For example, Content Analysis can indicate pertinent features

such as comprehensiveness of coverage or the intentions, biases, prejudices, and oversights of authors, publishers, as well as all other persons responsible for the content of materials. Characteristics of content analysis For content analysis, there is no need to question or interview anybody. The point out the nature of data, both qualitative and quantitative analysis method is taken into account in this method. Various books, journal, newspapers and other important sources are taken for data collecting sources in this method. This method can carry out a social research without disturbing anybody. This method chooses various manifest, latent and symbolic data of selected subject to analyze. This method helps to create a prospect of hypothesis. This method creates a chance of comparative discussion upon measuring the relative significance of various published review of selected subject for research.

Aims of Content analysis: Like other methods, content analysis method also collects data and analyzes data by a research design. The main aim of content analysis is to collect data form various published sources and analyze it in a quantitative process. However Bernerd Berelson classified aims of content analysis into various types. Aims regarding characteristics of Subject: To point out the aptitude of communication medium To find out reliability of medium of communication medium To find out the standard of communication. To unearth the publicity tactics and editing style.

Aims regarding implementing Subject: To find out the goals and characteristics of communicator. To investigate the existence of publicity.

Aims regarding effect of Subject: Attitude of mass people toward communicator To describe the attention, attitude, perceptions, eagerness of mass people to communicator

Steps of Content analysis method: Various writers gave various steps of content analysis, but carefully reviewing each of them, some basic steps are given below, which are present in every content analysis process. These are: 1. Selection of Research Problem

2. Specification of the Source of Information: Anything published in public medium of communication such as: documentary film or any written, spoken or visual medium of communication. 3. Sampling: Sometimes sampling is needed if a researcher wishes to sort out which medium of communication he is interested to research. In this regard, sampling is done by creating a sampling structure. Various sampling process can be used such as: Systematic sampling, Cluster sampling, stratified sampling etc. 4. Categorization: Categorization is process of classifying subjects according to their characteristics and merits for data collection. It is done for the efficiency of Research process. In this process of categorization, every category is fully autonomous and free form each others effect. Because of this process is linked with researchs objectives, a researcher has to carefully categorize the subjects and have clear understanding of subjects or else he will categorize them wrong. 5. Determination of unit of analysis: In content analysis method, the unit of research is mainly seen in 2 dimension, these are: a. Recording unit , b. Context unit. Recording unit: There are five types of recording unit, a. Word or Symbol b. Theme c. Character d. Sentence or paragraph e. Item Context unit: Any word become meaningful as an unit in contextual sense when it signifies its use. As example: empowerment is not understood because we dont know why it is used, but women empowerment has a contextual meaning and can be described as a context unit. 6. Determination of the process of enumeration: In Content analysis method, collected data are enumerated in to quantitative unit. There are mainly 4 process are used for this, which are: a. Simple dual-result question, such as: yes/no. b. Using frequency distribution for classifying data c. Counting the spread of any class covering any medium of communication. d. Estimating the depth and significance of any class which is presented.

7. Analysis of Findings: For analyzing data, various process is used, which are: a. Frequency Analysis b. Valence and Intensity Analysis c. Contingency Analysis d. Analysis based on meaning.

Some Advantages of Content Analysis It Can Be Unobtrusive One problem with surveys and some experimental methods is that evaluators and their informants can interact during data collection in ways other than how they would naturally react. For example, a content analysis of the hearing transcripts might be more useful than interviews with federal officials about what took place during public hearings on proposed environmental regulations. The officials might leave out important points, unconsciously or purposely, in order to protect themselves, but the transcripts provide the complete record. Thus, bias can be reduced during data collection. Similarly, the evaluator can eliminate from analysis survey questions that might be inappropriate because they invaded a respondents privacy. It Can Deal With Large Volumes of Material Content analysis has explicit procedures and quality control checks that make it possible for only a few or a great number of evaluators to analyze large volumes of textual data, Furthermore, the explicit procedures and quality control checks allow two or more groups of analysts to work on the same kind of data in different geographic locations, and computer software may be used to perform many of the required steps. It Is Systematic Content analysis can help evaluators learn more about the issues and programs they examine because it is systematic. It has structured forms that allow evaluators to extract relevant information more consistently than if they were reading the same documents only casually. It Can Corroborate Other Evaluation Methods When the findings from content analysis are not the main evidence in an evaluation, they can still be used to help corroborate other findings, such as responder from closed-ended surveys or from economic measures. For example, Webb and colleagues have described how investigators can use multiple operations to increase confidence in their findings, although we do not discuss them in this paper. (Web: et al., 1981)

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to gather together people from similar backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is guided by a moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the group to participate in a lively and natural discussion amongst them. The strength of FGD relies on allowing the participants to agree or disagree with each other so that it provides an insight into how a group thinks about an issue, about the range of opinion and ideas, and the inconsistencies and variation that exists in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their experiences and practices. FGDs can be used to explore the meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained statistically, the range of opinions/views on a topic of interest and to collect a wide variety of local terms. In bridging research and policy, FGD can be useful in providing an insight into different opinions among different parties involved in the change process, thus enabling the process to be managed more smoothly. It is also a good method to employ prior to designing questionnaires. According to Gupta, Focus group discussion, as a qualitative research method with a definite goal, is essentially a group discussion taking place between people of more or less identical age, socioeconomic status, sex and other common characteristics.

Characteristics of Focus group discussion: 1. FGD is a subject based and objective oriented group discussion. 2. With the help of a moderator or group leader, discussions are kept relevant with the objectives. 3. In this process by selecting a group of 6-12 people, data are gathered from them. 4. In a FGD, people of same socio-economic status, sex, age and other qualities take part. 5. It is qualitative research method.

Steps of Focus Group Discussion: FGD is an objective oriented group discussion. In order to make it efficient and fruitful, it must follow certain steps of research methodology. Various steps within FGD are given below: A. Goal Oriented Plan: At First, a FGD has to select their objective before proceed further. This task is done by Chief investigator or researcher himself. A FGD can be used in two ways in a research. 1. As a method itself 2. As a helping or supporting method of other method. In any case however, a FGD has to manage their objectives. B. Orientation to personnel: FGD is a group process so, the functionality of group is necessary and it needs of course an amount of people. A FGD always has a researcher, a facilitator and a rapporteur. In order to achieve the objective , researcher has to introduce every member of FGD so that they connect themselves and carry out their tasks.

C. Preparations of Guidelines: As FGD is a group process, it doesnt need personal interview or questionnaire or such task. However in this process, a facilitator conducts the group discussion process by following a series of guidelines which is set earlier. These guidelines are prepared by researcher himself in order to carry out the FGD carefully. D. Determining the group: Determining the people for FGD is very important. Normally upon considering the objectives carefully, researcher finds the target population and select people by sampling method. A FGD generally consists of 6-12 people. Researcher carefully chooses them so that they can be from same socioeconomic, sex, age and other background. Generally a FGD become more multidimensional if group members are unknown to each others. E. Fixation of Venue and time for discussion: It is important to fix the time and venue of a FGD. Because if group member cant take part because of time and venue, the objectives of FGD will be unfulfilled. Venue: A venue will be: 1. Suitable for all member of group. 2. Communicable for all members. 3. Environmentally secure. 4. Can be indoor or outdoor, depends upon members. Time: Time should be set: 1. Certain period of day: morning or evening. 2. Certain period of month: first half or last half. 3. Should be selected considering the hour and season of members occupation 4. Should not be lengthy. F. Arrangement for holding discussion session: At first, a facilitator welcomes all members and starts by orientation of members. Then facilitator states the objectives of their particular FGD and start FGD by a lighter topic. Facilitator carefully measures the attitudes of members and dig deeper to the topic. Facilitator must ensure that all members get their chance to express their view freely. All responses and question of FGD session will be documented and recorded for research. After discussion, facilitator will present a summary of their discussion and amend it with their objection in order to make it final. Then facilitator will thank them members and end the session. G. Outcome analysis and interpretation: Researcher has to categorize the data collected from FGD into subjects and then publish a final report after analysis. The advantages of focus groups discussion:

The Authority Role Of The Moderator: The face-to-face involvement of a qualified moderator can ensure that the conversation is always on track, and encourage participants engagement without one individual dominating the meeting.

The Ability Of Group Participants to Interact With Each Other: When participate are stimulated to discuss, the group dynamics can generate new thinking about a topic which will result in a much more in-depth discussion. The Dynamic Nature of The Methodology: Due to the dynamic environment the moderator can modify the topics, which are prepared before the session to make the topic more suitable for the purpose. The Ability to Involve the Client Personnel in the Research Process: In traditional focus groups it is possible for the client personnel to watch the whole discussion behind a one-way mirror. The client personnel can provide their thinking to the moderator, which may help the moderator better handle the direction of discussion, and improve the quality of output. The Capability To Utilize Non-Verbal Behavior As A Research Input: The expression, attitude of individual, the intensity of the conversation etc. can be perceived by the researcher, which can modify the moderators decision and also can be counted in the research result. The Level of Participant Involvement in The Research: Because every participant is under observation by the moderator and everybody know the process has been videotaped, it is easy to make participants fully engage even during nondiscussion time. The Greater Security Associated With Traditional Focus Group Research: The possibility to screen each participant lets the researcher know who have been involved. This ensures that for example your competition is not involved.

The disadvantages of focus groups Focus groups are not the optimal technique for all research situations, the criticisms below have been mentioned by people who promote some other qualitative research methods.

Focus Groups tend to become influenced by one or Two Dominant People in The Session Thus Making the Output Very Biased: The moderator plays an essential role in handling the situation, but if the moderator is not experienced enough, it is very easy for the whole discussion to be dominated by a few people. Focus Groups Are Not As Effective As IDIs In Dealing with Sensitive Topics: It is difficult to have the participants share their real feelings towards some sensitive topics publicly. This can in turn influence the output data. Focus Group Output Is Not Projectable: If a great deal of consistency in the results from a series of focus groups has been identified and it is very likely that the results from these sessions probably can represent a larger number of people. We cant

expect focus groups to be projectable in the same way as quantitative study findings can be. Furthermore, traditional focus groups can only be held in a few cities, unlike some internet and telephone focus groups which could be organized in various situations without limitation of time and location. This also makes data from focus groups less representative of the total universe.

Focus Groups Are A Very Artificial Environment Which Can Influence The Responses That Are Generated: This is frequently the argument that ethnographers will use when recommending their methodology versus focus groups. Because researchers using the ethnographic technique will situate themselves in the real environment, that is unreachable for focus groups. In focus groups people are collected in a meeting room thus they might behave differently from how they behave when they are not watched and it will affect the quality of research results.

Steps in Social research

Research is a methodological and systematic process. Social research being a kind of research, it is not different at all. Social research has to follow recognized and very specific steps in order research any problem. These steps are closely related to each other. According to Kothari research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the derived sequencing of those steps. Various writers gave various social research processes. However, in review of Kothari and K.D Bailey, here are 8 precise steps which common to almost any social research. These are. Selection of Research Problem Review of literature Formulation of Hypothesis Preparing Research design Collection of Data Data processing Data analysis Presentation of findings

Selection of Research Problem

No scientific research start without any logic. In order to research, we need to have a research problem. Sometimes the curiosity starts the research; sometimes the gap in information triggers it. Rationale for selecting a research problem: There are various reasons that constitute a research problem. These are: 1. A gap in knowledge. 2. Contradictory findings of the research works carried out previously. 3. To explain an unexplained issue. Issues to be considered while selecting a research problem: There few issues thats needs to be considered while researcher selects a research problem. These are: Practicability: From theoretical and applied viewpoint whether the problem is practical or not. Feasibility: Whether researcher have required tools and technologies for conducting research on selected research problem. Manageability: Whether the required itinerary such as manpower, time, funds etc. are manageable for the research or not. Competence of researcher: Whether the researcher is competent enough to research the selected problem under study.

Review of literature
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment (sometimes in the form of an annotated bibliography--see the bottom of the next page), but more often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas: 1. Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books 2. Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.

A literature review must do these things: 1. Be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing. 2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known 3. identify areas of controversy in the literature 4. formulate questions that need further research In another words, a literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period. A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant. Research Design A research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing of a piece of research, design from translating a general scientific model into varied research procedures. The design has to be geared to the available time, energy and money: to the availability of data: to the extent to which it is desirable or possible to impose upon persons and social organization which might supply the data. In other words, a study design is tentative. As the study progresses, new aspects, new connecting links in the data come to light and it is necessary to change the plan as circumstances demand. The most meaningful and revealing studies are those that are conceived from a definite point of view, but the views are modified as necessary in the process of study, as well as those that are dominated by a definite set of scientific interests which can be enlarged or curtailed, as the study in process requires. Purpose of Research Design: For smoothly operating research pattern a routine procedure which is at one and the same time practical for administrative purposes in applied research and rigorous as to scientific prescription: 1. Prompt attention to problem needing study. 2. Personal contacts and discussion with top executives involve in the problems of study. 3. Scouting around in order to observe, inspect, examine, and survey in a preliminary and later in a general way the problems and situations of the study.

4. Informal interviews with enlisted men in selected camps. 5. Discussions with staff about the data obtained by them. 6. Drafting questionnaires and schedules. 7. Presenting questionnaire and schedules. 8. Examination of results of pretests to detect and eliminate inconsistencies, obscurities and vagueness. 9. Drafting revised questionnaire and schedules. 10. Conference with initiator of request for a study to ensure clearness and completeness and proposed study. 11. Drafting final questionnaires and schedules 12. Outlining field interviews 13. Analyzing collected data 14.Drafting final report.

Collection of Data
Data can be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary Data Primary data mean original data that have been collected specially for the purpose in mind. Secondary Data Secondary data are data that have been collected for another purpose and where we will use Statistical Method with the Primary Data. It means that after performing statistical operations on Primary Data the results become known as Secondary Data Primary Data Collection In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it. There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include: questionnaires interviews focus group interviews observation case-studies diaries critical incidents Portfolios.

The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature (usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you can make

counts of words used). We briefly outline these methods but you should also read around the various methods. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and oftenrequire many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced. Advantages: Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey. Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed. Can cover a large number of people or organizations. Wide geographic coverage. Relatively cheap. No prior arrangements are needed. Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent. Respondent can consider responses. Possible anonymity of respondent. No interviewer bias.

Disadvantages: Design problems. Questions have to be relatively simple. Historically low response rate (although inducements may help). Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned. Require a return deadline. Several reminders may be required. Assumes no literacy problems. No control over who completes it. Not possible to give assistance if required. Problems with incomplete questionnaires. Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other. Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not.

Interviews Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for peoples attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping center, or some other agreed location. Personal interview Advantages: Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information. Good response rate.

Completed and immediate. Possible in-depth questions. Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem. Can investigate motives and feelings. Can use recording equipment. Characteristics of respondent assessed tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc. Can use props. If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach. Used to pilot other methods.

Disadvantages: Need to set up interviews. Time consuming. Geographic limitations. Can be expensive. Normally need a set of questions. Respondent bias tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly. Embarrassment is possible if personal questions are asked. Transcription and analysis can present problems subjectivity. If many interviewers, training required.

Types of interview Structured: Based on a carefully worded interview schedule. Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off. Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or thought provoking. Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.

Semi-structured: The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length.

Unstructured This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondents initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration Why do you say that? or, Thats interesting, tell me more or, would you like to add anything else? being typical probes.

The following section is a step-by-step guide to conducting an interview. You should remember that all situations are different and therefore you may need refinements to the approach.

Planning an interview: List the areas in which you require information. Decide on type of interview. Transform areas into actual questions. Try them out on a friend or relative. Make an appointment with respondent(s) discussing details of why and how long. Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed.

Conducting an interview: Personally - arrive on time be smart smile employ good manners find a balance between friendliness and objectivity At the start - introduce yourself re-confirm the purpose assure confidentiality if relevant specify what will happen to the data. The questions - speak slowly in a soft, yet audible tone of voice control your body language knows the questions and topic ask all the questions. Responses - recorded as you go on questionnaire written verbatim, but slow and time-consuming summarized by you taped agree beforehand have alternative method if not acceptable consider effect on respondents answers proper equipment in good working order sufficient tapes and batteries minimum of background noise. At the end - ask if the respondent would like to give further details about anything or any questions about the research thank them.

Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner. Observational methods may be: structured or unstructured disguised or undisguised natural or contrived personal mechanical non-participant Participant, with the participant taking a number of different roles.

Structured or unstructured: In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the

measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified. In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. The potential for bias is high. Observation findings should be treated as hypotheses to be tested rather than as conclusive findings. Disguised or undisguised: In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers. In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect people behave differently when being observed. Natural or contrived Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet. In contrived observation, the respondents behavior is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session. Personal: In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. The observer may or may not normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely records what takes place. Mechanical: Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed. These devices may or may not require the respondents direct participation. They are used for continuously recording on-going behavior. Non-participant The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she does not participate. Participant In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated. Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and practices of that culture. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology (development, nature and laws of human society) and anthropology (physiological and psychological study of man). Organizations can be viewed as tribes with their own customs and practices. Role of Observer The role of the participant observer is not simple. There are different ways of classifying the role:

Researcher as employee. Researcher as an explicit role. Interrupted involvement. Observation alone.

Projective Techniques Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques help the respondents to project their own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys. Various Projective techniques are discussed below: Rorschach inkblot test:

The Rorschach inkblot test is a psychological projective test of personality in which a subject's interpretations of ten standard abstract designs are analyzed as a measure of emotional and intellectual functioning and integration. The test is named after Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922) who developed the inkblots, although he did not use them for personality analysis.

The test is considered "projective" because the patient is supposed to project his or her real personality into the inkblot via the interpretation. The inkblots are purportedly ambiguous, structure less entities which are to be given a clear structure by the interpreter. Those who believe in the efficacy of such tests think that they are a way of getting into the deepest recesses of the patient's psyche or subconscious mind. Those who give such tests believe themselves to be experts at interpreting their patients' interpretations.

What evidence is there that an interpretation of an inkblot (or a picture drawing or sample of handwriting--other items used in projective testing) issues from a part of the self that reveals true feelings, rather than, say, creative expression? What justification is there for assuming that any given interpretation of an inkblot does not issue from a part of the selfbent on deceiving others, or on deceiving oneself for that matter? Even if the interpretations issued from a part of the self which expresses desires, it is a long jump from having desires to having committed actions. For example, an interpretation may unambiguously express the desire to have sex with the therapist, but that does not imply either that the patient has had sex with the therapist or that the patient, if given the opportunity, would agree to have sex with the therapist.
Thematic Appreciation test: The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective psychological test. Proponents of this technique assert that a person's responses reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people. Historically, it has been among the most widely researched, taught, and used of such tests. The TAT was developed by the American psychologist Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at the Harvard Clinic at Harvard University during the 1930s. A widely held belief is that the idea for the TAT emerged from a question asked by one of Murray's undergraduate students, Cecilia Roberts. She reported that when her son was ill, he spent the day making up stories about images in magazines and she asked Murray if pictures could be employed in a clinical setting to explore the underlying dynamics of personality. Murray wanted to use a measure that would reveal information about the whole person but found the contemporary tests of his time lacking in this regard. Therefore, he created the TAT. The rationale behind the technique is that people tend to interpret ambiguous situations in accordance with their own past experiences and current motivations, which may be conscious or unconscious. Murray reasoned that by asking people to tell a story about a picture, their defenses to the examiner would be lowered as they would not realize the sensitive personal information they were divulging by creating the story. Murray and Morgan spent the 1930s selecting pictures from illustrative magazines and developing the test. After 3 versions of the test (Series A, Series B, and Series C), Morgan and Murray decided on the final set of pictures, Series D, which remains in use today. After World War II, the TAT was adopted more broadly by psychoanalysts and clinicians to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth. The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique because it uses a series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject is asked to tell a story. The TAT manual provides the administration instructions used by Murray, although these procedures are commonly altered. The subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented, including the following:

what has led up to the event shown what is happening at the moment what the characters are feeling and thinking what the outcome of the story was

If these elements are omitted, particularly for children or individuals of low cognitive abilities, the evaluator may ask the subject about them directly. Otherwise, the examiner is to avoid interjecting and should not answer questions about the content of the pictures. The examiner records stories verbatim for later interpretation.

The complete version of the test contains 32 picture cards. Some of the cards show male figures, some female, some both male and female figures, some of ambiguous gender, some adults, some children, and some show no human figures at all. One card is completely blank and is used to elicit both a scene and a story about the given scene from the storyteller. Although the cards were originally designed to be matched to the subject in terms of age and gender, any card may be used with any subject. Murray hypothesized that stories would yield better information about a client if the majority of cards administered featured a character similar in age and gender to the client. Although Murray recommended using 20 cards, most practitioners choose a set of between 8 and 12 selected cards, either using cards that they feel are generally useful, or that they believe will encourage the subject's expression of emotional conflicts relevant to their specific history and situation. However, the examiner should aim to select a variety of cards in order to get a more global perspective of the storyteller and to avoid confirmation bias (i.e., finding only what you are looking for). Many of the TAT drawing consists set of themes such as success and failure, competition and jealousy, feeling about relationships, aggression and sexuality. These are usually depicted through picture cards.

Word Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to mind. The association can take the shape of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list of words is given and you dont know in which word they are most interested. The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word Fair with Complexion. Sentence Completion Test: In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind. Design of a sample survey: 1. Research Title 2.Introduction 3.Rationale 4.Oajnective of the study 5.Methodology Main method. Research location. Population and Unit of analysis. Technique of data collection. Processing analysis and interpretation of data. Publication of research report. Details of Budgetary provisions for the study 1. Planning and preparation stage. 2. Implementation stage. 3. Expenditure related to research

Barriers to social research in Bangladesh: