Race-Thinking Before Racism

Race-Thinking before Racism Author(s): Hannah Arendt Reviewed work(s): Source: The Review of Politics, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan.
, 1944), pp. 36-73 Published by: Cambridge University Press for the University of Notre Dame du lac on behalf of Review of Politics Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1404080 . Accessed: 27/02/2013 20:08
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BeforeRacism Race-Thinking
ByHannahArendt I or Ideology. Opinion F race-thinking as it is now sometimes werea German invention, thatmay be) was then"German asserted, (whatever thinking" theNazis world victorious in many of the spiritual longbefore parts its exercised Hitlerism their at world started illfated conquest. attempt the 'thirties international and inter-European appeal during strong had been in state doctrine a because racism, only Germany, although warThe Nazi political in public trend a powerful opinion. everywher? tanks in 1939German when machine had longbeenin motion began was calwarfare-racism since-inpolitical of destruction, their march or anysecret to be a more culated allythananypaid agent powerful of the of fifth columnists. experiences by Strengthened organization confident were Nazis the in thevarious twodecades almost capitals, from racialpolicy wouldbe their thattheir best"propaganda" itself, had broken and other they promises, which, compromises many despite new a was neither Racism never drifted awayforexpediency's sake.1 this had it beenusedwith before never nora secret though weapon, consistency. thorough-going withits is thatrace-thinking, of the matter truth The historical simulthe 19th the 18th in roots century during emerged century, deep ideolthe hasbeen powerful Racism countries. in all Western taneously It certainly of ourcentury. sincetheturn policies ogyof imperialistic race of the old all which, revived and has absorbed opinions patterns wouldhavebeenable to create or,for however, hardly by themselves or an as a "Weltanschauung" intoracism to degenerate thatmatter, of in the not does race of the For history belong '"idea" ideology. and were last theendofthe century dignity imporand notuntil ideas,
1 During the German-Russian pact, Nazi propaganda stopped all attacks on but nevergave up the race-line. "Bolshevism"
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RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM
37
ithadbeen tance itas though oneofthe accorded conmajor spiritual tributions ofthe Western world.2 ofthe"scramble for Africa," Up to thefateful days race-thinking had beenone of themany free within thegeneral which, opinions framework of liberalism, andfought with to hadargued oneanother wintheconsent ofpublic Andifit is true that theanarchy opinion. of competing the for deformation of ideas the opinions paved way and theformation of ideologies, that is so only theaimof because since the ancient times ofthe hasbeen towin every opinion, Sophists, theconsent of themultitude. The ancient with concerned Sophists, for moment the the "universal art of alone,invented persuasion the mind is Insofar as the human mind enchanting byarguments."3 concerned with to of had the human truth, they destroy dignity thought. Andthough nature arechanging andarevalid opinions very bytheir "atthe time ofthe andas long as the only agreement agreement lasts"4 theSophists "from because and comes succeeded, opinion persuasion notfrom truth."5 Therefore the didnoteven the bother with Sophist of he that was in convinced not did truth; truth, any event, problem for andwasuseless hispurpose. promote persuasion Themost difference the ancient andmodem striking opinbetween ion-holders is that theformer were satisfied with thepassing victory of a single at thecostof truth, whereas thelatter a want argument more of of or events presentations lasting victory arbitrary past present at thecostof reality. forthesakeof argument as theSophist Just thedignity of human so themodem the destroyed thought, Sophist, the which of facts him into for destroys ideologist, dignity degenerate ofhisopinion. Facts nolonger areheld tobepart andparcel examples ofthe or world interpretation canchange to past present anything
2 The besthistorical accountof race-thinking in the pattern of a "history of ideas" is: Erich Voegelin,Rasse und Staat (Tuebingen 1933). Up to the middleof the last were still judged by the yardstick of political reason. Wrote century, race-opinions doctrines: Tocquevilleto Gobineauaboutthelatter's "Je les croisbien vraisemblablement fausseset trescertainement de Alexis de Tocquevilleel de Arthur Lettres pernicieuses." de Cobineau. In Revue des Deux Mondes (1907), Tome 199, Letterof November 17, 1853. 3 Plato, Phaidros,261. 4 Plato, Theaetetos, 172. 5 Plato, Phaidros,260.
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THE REVIEW OF POLITICS
suit an opinion,no factis securefromreceiving tomorrow an entirely
newandunexpected ifit isexpedient. Themodern meaning, propagan-
distdoesnotbother with thequestion of reality, he is conbecause

- just as the Greek vincedof the utterworthlessness of knowledge of theutter of truth. uselessness In morerecent Sophistwas convinced First since the and World times, War, thisbeliefhas especially during receiveda tremendous reenforcement knows that because everybody even scholars, the greatconservators of facts,at different timesand in different countries have providedpartyor state propagandawith as as themostdivergent linesdemanded.6 manyfactsand figures political And whilefor the Sophiststruth itselfwas nothing but one opinion scholars seem that modern convinced among opinions, knowledgeis one but among interpretations. nothing interpretation Justas the ancient rhetors, the mastersof logic, were willingto lend theirart to the masters of facts,have shown defendany case, so modern scholars, themselves to their to help any willingenough give away knowledge new ideology.
of freeopinions whichwereallowedto enter Among the multitude of into freecompetition the era only a fewbecame during liberalism,7 whichwere based upon one full-fledged ideologies,that is, systems that provedstrongenough to attractand persuadea single opinion the various of peopleand broad enoughto lead themthrough majority of an averagemodem life.For an ideology and situations experiences the key differs from a simpleopinionin thatit claimsto possesseither or the solutionof all the "Riddles of the Universe,"or the of history, of the hiddenuniversal laws whichare supposed intimate knowledge fewhave won enoughpromto rulenature and man.Amongideologies
6 Two rather may be quoted outstanding examplesfromscholarsof good standing of art, of "scholarship" as characteristic duringWorld War I. The Germanhistorian
Ukrainians. Persians,HunArmenians, the Nordic race to be composedof Germans, Bulgarsand Turks (pp. 306-307). The Societyof Medicineof Paris not only garians, publisheda reportabout the discoveryof "polychesia" (excessive defecation) and forthedetec"bromidrosis" urinanalysis (body odor) in theGermanrace,but proposed
Iran undVolieeruanderung inhisAltai, (Leipzig, 1917)discovered Strzygowski Josef
was"found" to contain urine of German tion 20% non-uric nitrogen spies;German

as against 15% for other races. (See: Jacques Barzun, Race (New York, 1937),
p. 239.) 7 Forthe of 19th see: Carlton A host conflicting opinions J. H. Hayes, century Ceneration ofMaterialism 1941), (NewYork, pp.111-122.
39
ofpersuasion, the inence tosurvive hard andonly competitive struggle all others: the outon topand essentially twohavecome defeated as an economic of classes, which interprets ideology history struggle of The that as a natural andtheother races. interprets fight history to was that able of both to masses so were appeal large strong they themselves national obtain state as official docandestablish support which classtrines. in Butfar the boundaries and beyond race-thinking ofthought, free have into patterns developed obligatory public thinking hasadopted them an extent that notonly intellectuals tosuch opinion butgreat masses ofpeople willno longer of accept anypresentation or facts that is not in with views. past present agreement these The tremendous ofpersuasion inherent in themain ideolopower is notaccidental. is notpossible Persuasion without giesofourtimes to either or in other words to immediate appeal experiencesdesires, - racism it is futile to argue with needs. political Though ideologies hassurvived ofrefutations libraries anexplanation beextremely may fruitful on their which meets theideologies ownground, on thebasis from this which have basis is neither And formed they grown. byscientific ofDarwinists as thevarious brands liketo haveus would facts, nor the historical as historians intheir efforts believe, by laws, pretend, todiscover the lawaccording towhich civilizations rise andfall. Every as a hasbeencreated, continued andimproved full-fledged ideology theoretical It somenot as a true that and doctrine. is political weapon - an ideology - andsuch is the casewith racism times haschanged but without contact itsoriginal immediate with sense; political political Their scientific is life ofthem beimagined. none could aspect secondary for from thedesire to provide and arises first, watertight arguments, their because alsoofscientists, andsecondly, power persuasive gothold their in their research-results butleft were whono longer interested their to the interoff to new multitude and laboratories hurried preach "scientific" We oweittothese oflife andworld.8 preachers pretations
8 "Huxley neglected of his own fromthe '70's onward,so busy research scientific and biting at theologians." was he in theroleof'Darwin'sbulldog' barking Hayes, op. cit., results scientific whichwas at least as p. 126. ErnstHaeckel's passionforpopularizing Nazi has been stressed as his passionforscienceitself, recently by an applauding strong In: Ernst Haectel, Ein Wegbereiter H. Bruecher, writer, biologischen Staatsdenlkens. Monalshefte, (1935), Heft 69. Nationalsozialistische
40
rather thanto anyscientific results that is left no single science to-day intowhose has notdeeply categorical system penetrated. race-thinking Thisagainhasstimulated some ofwhom havebeentempted historians, to make science forrace-thinking, to mistake certain either responsible or biological research forcausesinstead of conseresults philological of quences race-thinking.9 If it is unjust to make forpseudoscience anyparticular responsible to reconstruct scientific it is directly harmful thehistory superstition, of Nazismin sucha wayas to provide it with an excellent genealogy. From Platoto Nietzsche is hardly a philosopher there left whohas not - or accused beeneither foespraised byNazi intellectuals bytheir ofhaving Machiavelli oftheir monstrosities. beena forerunner Recently of from thedubious honor inoneofthevery articles wasfreed beautiful was rightly Maritain;1and someyears Jacques ago, evenNietzsche
9 This quid pro quo partlywas the result of the zeal of students who wantedto in whichrace has been mentioned. singleinstance Therebytheymistook put down every authors forwhomexplanation harmless by race was a possibleand sometimes relatively racists. in themselves were Such opinions, harmless, fascinating opinionfor full-fledged as starting-points of theirinvestigations. A typical advancedby theearlyanthropologists of Paul Broca, notedFrenchanthropologist of themiddle instance is thenaivehypothesis to do with race and of the last century, who assumedthat"the brain has something of the brain" the measured shape of the skull is the best way to get at the contents without (quoted afterJacquesBarzun,op. cit.,p. 162). It is obviousthatthisassertion of thenature of man,is simply ridiculous. the support of a conception of the early 19thcentury, whose conceptof "Aryanism" As for the philologists or has seduced almosteverystudent of racismto countthemunderthe propagandists as innocent can be. When they even inventosof race-thinking, theyare as innocent it was becausethey wantedto includein thesame thelimits of pure research overstepped as many nationsas possible. In the words of Ernest Seilliere, culturalbrotherhood La Philosophiede l'Impe'rialisme (4 vols. 1903-1906) "Ce futalors une sorted'enivreses titres de famille.... et l'organisme ment:la civilisation moderne crutavoir retrouve toutesles nations dont langue presentait naquit, unissantdans une mime fraternite sanscrites." quelques affinitis (Preface, Tome I, p. xxxv.) In otherwords,thesemen and sharedits enthusiasm of the 18thcentury traditicn stillbelongedto the humanistic aboutstrange people and exoticcultures. errorof the few scholarswho common On the otherside, it has been a rather to place a greatdeal of respontruehumanism, to racism becauseof their were immune or biologicaloutlookon life. But the on the naturalistic for modern bestiality sibility that As a matter of fact,the doctrine oppositewould have come closer to the truth. (fromthe 17thto the 19th) untilit had conMightis Rightneeded severalcenturies And if, to of thefittest. scienceand producedthe"law" of thesurvival querednatural as the of De Maistreand Schellingaboutsavage tribes the theory take another instance, devicesas well of former political peopleshad suitedthe 19thcentury decayingresidues we would probablyhave neverheard muchof "primitives" of progress, as the theory link" between would have wastedhis timelookingforthe "missing and no scientist ape on certain and man. The blame is not to be laid on any science as such, but rather became hypnotized who in no lesser degree than their fellow-citizens scientists by ideologies. 10 See, Review of Politics,January, 1942.
RACE-THINKING BEFORERACISM
41
in a shown father of this"master-race" notto havebeenthespiritual Karl But book of theGerman philosopher Jaspers."1 very courageous has mankind in themeanwhile, thenumber of victims spiritual among Caththem he was a become Thomas is because Aquinas among legion. olicand authoritarian, Luther because he was a Protestant and a Jewhe idolized Kantbecause he wasa Prussian, and Hegel because hater, theState.To be sure, there arestilla fewleft whohavenotyetbeen their stillawait slandered side;they "interpreter." byeither The fact that racism is themainideological of imperialistic weapon is so obvious to thatit seems as though students politics prefer many track about avoidthebeaten ofa truism. an old Instead, misconception racism a kindof exaggerated nationalism is stillgiven being currency. Valuable works in ofstudents, who have that France, especially proved racism is notonlya quitedifferent but to tends destroy phenomenon thebodypolitic of the nationare generally overlooked. Witnessing thegigantic between for and class-thinking competition race-thinking dominion overtheminds of modern to some have been inclined man, in see theformer theexpression ofnational theexpresandin thelatter sion of international to believe the former to be the mental trends, fornational wars and thelatter to be theideology forcivil preparation wars. This has beenpossible of thelastwar'scurious because mixture of old national a mixture and newimperialistic in which old conflicts, national still to a far to slogansproved possess greater appeal the masses ofall countries In this involved than aims. war, anyimperialistic with itsQuislings it and collaborationists should however, everywhere, be clearthat racism has stirred in every and up civilconflicts country, thatracism has proved to be themostingenious forpreparing device civil hasever warthat beeninvented. For thetruth is thatrace-thinking thesceneof active entered politheEuropean ticsat thevery moment when had prepared, and peoples to a certain extent thenewbodypolitic of thenation. had realized, Fromthevery racism cut acrossall national deliberately beginning, or linguistic whether theseweredefined boundaries, by geographical or any otherstandards, or traditional and deniednational-political
it Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche,(Berlin, 1938).
42
existence hasbeen as such. than rather class-thinking, Race-thinking, of the theever-present which the shadow accompanied development of European until it finally to be thepowerful nations, comity grew for the destruction those of nations. weapon speaking, Historically of havea worse racists of patriotism than all representatives record other were theonly ones international and they ideologies together, who the which national denied upon principle organigreat consistently ofpeoples of the ofequality zations arebuilt, andsolidarity principle allpeoples ideaofmankind. bythe guaranteed II A "race" a "nation" ofaristocrats ofcitizens. against
forthe The birth of thenation enthusiasm anda steadily rising most thecharacandeven hadbeen different, peoples savage strange It time ChinofFrance the was teristics 18th the when century. during when oneofthe most famous esepaintings were admired andimitated, ofthe travellers' wasnamed Lettres Persanes andwhen works century The the favorite of made and reports reading society. honesty simplicity were to thesophisticaofthesavage anduncivilized opposed peoples the19th before with itstretion ofculture. andfrivolity century Long the possibilities brought non-European mendously enlarged travelling French of the of every intothehome world citizen, average society 18th tograsp thecontent ofcultures and hadtried century spiritually A boundaries. enthusiasm far countries that European great lay beyond thehearts of the of mankind" for"newspecimens (Herder)filled with theFrench who nation Revolution heroes ofthe French together wherever the French of color liberated flagflew. people every every in the forstrange countries andforeign culminated Thisenthusiasm to it hadbeeninspired because of fraternity, bythedesire message the of mankind" old in new and say"specimen surprising prove every lesclimats." estde tous "La raison ingofLa Bruyere: It still andthesame is the same humanitycentury nation-creating the first ofwhat back to trace we have to which germs country loving and the to become later humanity-annihilatnation-destroying proved who first author the fact that It is a remarkable ofracism.12 power ing
BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM
43
thecoexistence of different assumed with in different peoples origins first to elaborate class-thinkwasat the time the same definite France, The French at a who wrote de nobleman Comte Boulainvilliers, ing. thebeginning of the18th whose works were and published century after hisdeath, of of France thehistory as thehistory interpreted two ofwhich ofGermanic different nations theone, conhad origin, theolder the"Gaules," hadimposed inhabitants, quered uponthem itslaw, their hadtaken andhadsettled down as the class, lands, ruling the whose the of rested "peerage" supreme rights upon "right conquest" andthe ofobedience duetothe "necessity always strongest."'3 Engaged inhisarguments Tiers the of the Etat and political power against rising their the "nouveau formed et de spokesmen, corps" by"gens lettres de too the monarchy had to wagewar against lois,"Boulainvilliers the French because no to the as wanted represent peerage king longer inter the a in the but nation as for a whole; him, while, primus pares newrising classhadfound itsmost In order to powerful protector. the of the uncontested Boulainvilliers regain primacy nobility, proposed tohisfellow noblemen todeny that a common with shared they origin the French ofthe tobreak nation an andtoclaim people, upthe unity therefore and eternal much than bolder distinction.14 original Being most of thelater of nobility, defenders Boulainvilliers denied any connection with the that the have Gaules soil;heconceded predestined been inFrance, that the "Francs" were andbarbarians. longer strangers hisdoctrine on theeternal of (op cit.p. 38.) He based solely right no in and found that . .. has "Friesland conquest difficulty asserting been the true ofthe French cradle nation" before (ibid. 17). Centuries theactual of imperialistic theinracism, development following only herent of he the his saw in inhabitants of France concept, original logic natives inthe or in his own modern terms sense, "subjects" notof
12 Francois Hotman,French 16th century authorof Franco-Callia sometimes is racial doctrines, held to be a forerunner of 18thcentury as by ErnestSeillibre, op. cit. "Hotmanse presente Againstthismisconception, TheophileSimarhas rightly protested: non pas commeapologiste des Germains, mais comme d&fenseur du peuple opprime par de la doctrine des Races au 18e et son la royaute."(Elude Critiauesur la Formation au 19e siecle (Bruxelles,1922) p. 20. expansion 13 Histoirede r'AncienCouvernement de la France, (1727) Tome 1, p. 33. 14 That the Comte Boulainvilliers' was meantas a politicalweapon against history theTiers Etat was statedby Montesquieu, Espritdes Lois, XXX, Chap. X.
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from theKing- butof all those whohad theadvantage to descend theconquering ofbirth were whobyright to becalled"Frenchpeople, men."(ibid,33). Boulainvilliers was deeply influenced mightby the 17thcentury he of themost consistent doctrines was one and right disciples certainly of Spinozain hisdays,whose he translated and whose Ethics Traite he In his of and theologico-politique analyzed. reception application was coninto and ideas,might changed Spinoza'spolitical conquest about as acting as a kindof uniquejudgment questwas considered we men In this natural human of and and nations. qualities privileges the first of the naturalistic detect traces later transformations may which themight-right was to go through. This viewis really doctrine the fact was one oftheoutstanding corroborated that Boulainvilliers by of histime, that freethinkers on the Church and hisattacks Christian were motivated alone.15 hardly byanti-clericalism Boulainvilliers' stilldeals withpeoplesand not however, theory, with it the the of on a historical races; bases right deed, superior people not on a the and historical deed fact, conquest, physical although has already a certain influence on the natural of the conqualities within thetwodifferent Francein quered people.It invents peoples to counteract thenewnational order as itwasto a ceridea,represented tainextent in alliance with theTiersbtat. by theabsolute monarchy when theidea of nationhood Boulainvilliers is anti-national at a time wasfelt as to be a newand revolutionary but one, had notyetshown, it did in theFrench with a how it was connected Revolution, closely form of government. Boulainvilliers his country Republican prepared forcivil war warbutwithout what civil He is symptomeant. knowing matic of many of thenobility whodid notregard as reprethemselves of thenation, sentative but as a separated castewhich might ruling havemuch a foreign the in common with of "same more society people It has been,inits compatriots. and condition" (ibid.30) thanwith in the their influence thatexercised trends deed, theseantinational
15 From the noted Spinoza scholar Adolph S. Oko I learned that Boulainvilliers was the most competent exponent of Spinoza of his day and that he was an avid collector of unorthodox MSS which were circulated clandestinely.
RACE-THINKING BEFORERACISM
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absorbed and did notsubside until became milieux of theimigres they new the 19th racial andoutspoken doctrines latein by century. It wasnotuntil forced theactualoutbreak of theRevolution great numbers oftheFrench to seek inGermany andEngland, nobility refuge that their Boulainvilliers' as a political In ideasshowed weapon. utility themeanwhile, hisinfluence hadbeenkept upontheFrench aristocracy aliveas canbe seen the works of another the Comte DubuatComte, by who to tie French even to its wanted closer continobility Nangay,16 nentalbrothers. On the eve of the Revolution, of thisspokesman French that feudalism felt so insecure of a he hopedfor"thecreation kindof Internationale of aristocracy of barbarian and since origin,""17 theGerman wastheonlyone whose be nobility helpcouldeventually learn that we the French true of the nation is expected, again origin identical with thatof theGermans and thattheFrench lower classes, no longer are not free but by "affranchisseslaves, though by birth ofthose whoarefree A few ofnobility. ment," bygrace bybirth, years later and theFrench exiles of tried to form an internationale actually in order aristocrats to getridof therevolt to of those considered they be a foreign enslaved And the more side of people. although practical theseattempts suffered the spectacular of Valmy, disaster "emigres" likeCharles de who 1800 about Villiers, Frangois Dominique opposed the"gallo-Romains" to theGermanics, or likeWilliamAlterwhoa decadelater dreamt of a federation of all Germanic never peoples,18 It probably admitted defeat. never to them that occurred they actually were so firmly were that convinced theFrench Revolution traitors, they - as Frangois wasa "warbetween Guizot much later foreign peoples" putit. in thecalmfairness WhileBoulainvilliers of a lessdisturbed time hadbasedtherights ofnobility on the of without solely rights conquest thevery nature of the other directly depreciating nation, conquered theComte de Montlosier, oneof therather dubious personages among theFrench exiles his contempt forthis"newpeople openly expressed
16 Les Originesde l'Ancien Couvernement de la France, de l'Allemagneel de l'ltalie (1789). 17 Seillire, op. cit.,p. XXXII. 18 See: Rend Maunier,SociologieColoniale (Paris, 1932), Tome II, p. 115.
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risen from slaves ... (a mixture) Times ofall races andall times."19 to an had who no and noblemen obviously changed belonged longer to the so had old idea, race, also, unconquered up change. They gave dear to Boulainvilliers that andeven to Montesquieu, alone, conquest of desarmes," thedestinies The Valmy ofmen. determined "fortune noble come had when Abbe in the his famous Sieyes ideologies pamtoldtheTiers back theforests ofFranconia 1tatto "send into phlet all those whopreserve theabsurd families of being depretension the their scended race and of to succeeded from conquering having the to thestandards ofthese thereafter, rights;" gentlemen, according - namely, Tiers Ptat return as the true would as noblesse conquerors.20 It is a rather French that from these times when curious fact early that noblemen intheir the class discovered bourgeoisie against struggle to another another and had nation, they belonged genealogical origin, were the soil caste than with more an international tied upwith closely or theGermanism ofFrance, have all French racial theories supported their own counthe as of Nordic the atleast peoples against superiority themselves men Revolution identified Forifthe oftheFrench trymen. it to "Gerwas not because with were Rome, they opposing the mentally "Latinism" the because but a oftheir manism" nobility of bourgeoisie, This heirs of Roman thespiritual themselves felt Republicans. they ofthe tribal tothe identification claim as contrasted historical nobility, from which thecauses been have "Latinism" prevented among might as At any ofitsown. doctrine as a racial event, paradoxical emerging orEnglishFrenchmen earlier than Germans the fact is that itsounds, Nordid ofGermanic onthis men were toinsist superiority.2' fixe id&e of after thePrussian defeat consciousness racial ofGerman the birth of racial the course the as it was directed French, 1806, change against theforties ofthelastcentury, in France. Augustin During ideologies
19 Montlosier thoughin exile was closely connectedwith the French chief of conditions of a refugee. thesad financial Later, police,Fouche,who helpedhimimprove he servedas a secretagent for Napoleon in Frenchsociety.See: JosephBrugerette, Le Cone IdeMonllosier(1931), and Simar,op. cit.,p. 71. 20 Qu'est-ce-quele Tiers Plat? (1789) published of before the outbreak shortly Translation the Revolution. quoted afterJ. H. Clapham, The Abbe' Sidyes (Londen, 1912) p. 62. 21 "L'Aryanismehistorique du 18e siecle,s'est appuye sur est partidu feodalisme du l9e siicle" observes Seillibre, le germanisme op. cit.,p. II.
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still ofclasses totheidentification anddisadhered andraces Thierry a between "Germanic a "celtic and tinguished nobility" bourgeoisie,"'2 a nobleman, the Comte Germanic andalso, de Rimusat, the proclaimed of the the Comte de Gobineau origin European Finally, aristocracy. the an within French developed opinion already accepted generally intoa full-fledged historical to havededoctrine, nobility claiming thesecret lawof thefallof civilization and to haveexalted tected to thedignity science. Withhimrace-thinking of a natural history whose itsfirst itssecond influences andbegan completed stage, stage were tobefelt until the twenties ofour century. III Raceunity as substitute national for emancipation. Racethinking inGermany ofthe before the didnot defeat develop oldPrussian It owed its rise tothe Prussian army byNapoleon. patriots andpolitical than the rather to their and romanticism, spokesnobility men. In sharp contrast to theFrench of race-thinking as a brand for civil war the andfor German nation, weapon splitting race-thinking wasinvented to unite thepeople inan effort dominaagainst foreign tion. Itsauthors not look did for allies the frontiers but wanted beyond toawake inthe a consciousness of common This people origin. actually thenobility excluded with their relations notoriously cosmopolitan were less characteristic ofthe Prussian of than which, however, Junkers the rest ofthe at it excluded the rate, European nobility;any possibility of this itself on themost exclusive classof the race-thinking basing people. SinceGerman thelongfrustrated ataccompanied race-thinking to unite thenumerous German it remained so closely states, tempts initsearly with more national that connected, stages, general feelings, it is rather difficult to distinguish between mere or even nationalism, andclear-cut Thisparticular condition ischanged racism.23 chauvinism,
22 Considirations sur l'histoire de France (1840). 23 This original situation in whichharmless nationalsentiments confusing expressed in what we know today to be racial terms, themselves has caused a certainconfusion whc by identifying the Germanbrand of racism withspecific German amonghistorians nationalism have strangely and much against theirwill helped to underestimate the immense international appeal of Hitlerism.
48
after of thenation had taken when, 1870,theunification only actually dewith German racism, placeand German fully together imperialism, From not a few these there survived however, veloped. earlytimes, Gercharacteristics which forthespecifically haveremained significant manbrand.of race-thinking. In contrast to be to France, felttheir interests Prussian noblemen theposition of theabsolute connected with and,at monarchy closely least as thelegitsince thetime ofFrederick II, they sought recognition imate of of the the a With nation as whole. representatives exception thefew ofPrussian thePrussian nobilreforms (from 1808-1812), years have not of a class that was the rise might ity by bourgeois frightened haveto fearan to takeoverthe government, nor did they wanted The house. immoral coalition between themiddle-classes and theruling of the country, landlord Prussian King, up to 1809 the greatest Raceall of the inter efforts remained reformers. paresdespite primus of certhenobility, as a weapon outside therefore, developed thinking, whowanted theunionof all German-speaking tain nationalists peoin insisted on a common Theywereliberals origin. plesand therefore ruleof the to theexclusive wererather the sensethatthey opposed was this common defined As as Prussian by comJunkers. long origin of one can hardly monlanguage, speak race-thinking24 thatonly after1814 is thiscommon It is characteristic origin of family of "bloodrelationship," in terms described ties, frequently almost which These of unmixed of tribal definitions, origin. unity, Goerres of the Catholic Josef appearin thewritings simultaneously or F. L. Arndt suchas Ernest liberals Moritz and of thenationalistic true of of the the utter failure to witness bear hopes rousing Jahn, raise to of the failure Out the German in sentiments national people. historical outof thelackof common thepeopleto nationhood, mema future to common destinies, oriesand theapparent apathy popular instincts itself to tribal which addressed born was naturalistic appeal
24 This is the case for instance in Friedrich Schlegel's Philosophischen Vorlesungen aus den lahren 1804-1806, II, p. 357. The Prussian Junker Ludwig von der Marwitz also held that peoples are distinguished by their language. The same holds true for Ernst Moritz Arndt. See Alfred P. Pundt, Arndl and the National Awakening in modern scapegoat for Germany (New York, 1935), p. 116 f. Even Fichte, the favorite German race-thinking, hardly ever went beyond the limits of nationalism.
49
as a possiblesubstitute forwhat the wholeworldhad seen to be the French The organic of doctrine of a history nationhood. power glorious forwhich"everyrace is a separate, complete whole'2'' was invented men who of national needed definitions by ideological unityas a substitutefor politicalnationhood.It was a frustrated nationalism that - who apparently led to E. M. Arndt'sstatement thatGermans were - had the luck of beingof pure, the last to developan organicunity a "genuinepeople."2"; unmixed stock, In these organic naturalistic of peoples are the first definitions of later racist and theories, theyhave,indeed,been an outstandgerms of Germanideologiesand Germanhistorism. ing characteristic They nevertheless are not yetactual racism, forthe same menwho speak in these"racial" termsstill maintain the main pillar of genuinenationhood, the equalityof all peoples. Thus, in the same articlein which F. L. Jahncompares the laws of peoplesto the laws of animallife,he insistson the genuineequal plurality of peoples in whose complete can be realized.27 alone mankind multitude And Arndtwho laterwas to express the with of national liberation movements sympathies strong the Poles and the Italians,exclaimed:"Cursed be anyonewho would and ruleforeign subjugate peoples.""28Insofaras Germannationalfeelnot been the fruitof a genuinenationaldevelopment but ings had rather the reaction to foreign national of were doctrines occupation,29
25 JosephGoerres.In: Rheinischer Mertur (1814) No. 25. 26 "Die Deutschensind nicht durch fremde Voelker verbastardet, sie sind kein . . . Die gluecklichen Deutschensind ein urspruengliches Volk." Mischling geworden. See: Phantasienzur Berichligung der Urfeileueber kuenflige deutscheVerfassungen von Tieren habe keine echte Fortpflanzungskraft und ebensowenig 27 "Mischlinge ein eigenesvolkstuemliches Fortleben,... Der MenschenStammvater Blendlingsvoelker ist gestorben, das Urgeschlecht ist ausgegangen. Darum ist ein jedes verloeschendes fuer die Menschheit.... in einem Volke kann sich der Volkstumein Ungluecksfall Adel der Menschheit nichteinzigaussprechen." In: DeuLschesVolkstum (1810). The sameinstance is expressed his naturalistic of definition by Goerreswho despite Band der Blutsverwandtschaft") ein gemeinsames people ("alle Glieder umschlingt followsa truenationalprinciple whenhe states: "Es hat kein Stammeinen Anspruch auf den Besitz des anderen."(op. cit.) Pundt,op. cit. 29 "Not untilAustria and Prussia had fallen aftera vain struggle did I really succumbed to conquest and subjection it became beginto love Germany.... as Germany to me one and indissoluble" writesE. M. Arndt in his Erinnerungen aus Schwreden (1818) p. 82. Translation quotedafterPundt,op. cit.,p. 151.
28 Blick aus der Zeil auf die Zeit (1814).-Translation quoted after Alfred P.
(1815).
50
to createa wall aroundthe a peculiar destined character, negative which to for frontiers couldnotbe clearly act as substitutes people, either or historically. defined geographically If in theearly form of French had been aristocracy, race-thinking out to as an instrument of internal and had turned invented division, be a weapon for form had civil this of German race-doctrine war, early out beeninvented of internal national as a weapon turned and unity a to be weapon As thedecline for national wars. oftheFrench nobility as an important classwithin nation theFrench wouldhavemadethis if thefoesof theThirdRepublic useless had notrevived it, weapon so upon the accomplishment of German national the organic unity ofhistory havelostitsmeaning doctrine would had notmodem imperto revive ialistic schemes in order to wanted it, appealto thepeople therespectable and to hidetheir faces of nationalhideous under cover ism. for The samedoesnotholdtrue another source ofGerman racism more remote from the scene of had a which, though seemingly politics, farstronger political genuine bearing uponpresent ideologies. raceromanticism has been accusedof having Political invented as has be of it been accused invented and could every having thinking, otherpossibleirresponsible Mueller Adam and Friedrich opinion. of a general confusion are symptomatic in thehighest Schlegel degree temofmodern in which almost can gainground thought anyopinion No realthing, no historical no political idea was safe event, porarily. from theall-embracing maniaof thesefirst and all-destroying literati to find newand original fornewand fascinating opportunities opinas Novalis puts it, who ions. "The worldmustbe romanticized," a mysterious wanted a highsenseuponthecommon, "to bestow apthedignity oftheunknown pearance upontheordinary, uponthewellan obOne of theseromanticized was thepeople, known."30 objects or the on into the that be moment's notice could a state, ject changed ornobility, oranything either in theearlier elsethat daysfamily, later or to cross of one of these intellectuals the minds happened the reality of dailybread-whengrowing olderthey had learned
335.
30 Neue Fragmentensammlung (1798). See: Schriffen (Leipzig,1929). Tome II,
BEFORE RACISM RACE-THINKING
51
Therefore it is to be asked forbysome patron.31 happened paying the ofany ofthe free almost tostudy competdevelopment impossible the so which 19th is of full, century amazingly without ingopinions form. across Romanticism in its German coming wasnotso intellectuals What these first modern prepared actually butthe much ofany the mentality opinion general development single more than latter have once ofmodern German these scholars; proved not which that would there canbe found to they anyideology hardly - which even submit ifthe a romantical person willingly only reality - is at stake, canhardly to overlook thereality afford of their position. themost excelForthis Romanticism behavior, peculiar provided lentpretext of the in itsunlimited of the"personality" idolization whose became the of arbitrariness individual, very proof genius. very Whatever served theso-called of theindividual, namely, productivity the made the center of of his could be "ideas," entirely arbitrary game a whole outlook oflife andworld. Thisinherent hasmade of Romantic cynicism personality-worship certain well of are attitudes intellectuals who modern possible fairly last when one the heirs of of this movement, byMussolini, represented hedescribed revohimself as atthe same time "aristocrat anddemocrat, and and and lutionary reactionary, proletarian anti-proletarian, pacifist The meant ruthless of individualism anti-pacifist." romanticism,never himmore that is free serious than to create for anything "everybody self hisownideology." Whatwasnewin Mussolini's experibloody ment wasthe tocarry itoutwith all possible "attempt energy.'"32 Because of thisinherent thedirect "relativism" of contribution romanticism to thedevelopment canalmost be negof race-thinking In the lected. anarchic entitle at any whose rules game everybody given time toat least onepersonal andarbitrary it almost matis a opinion, ter that conceivable ofcourse be would formulated and opinion every characteristic Much more than wasthe chaos fundathis printed. duly inpersonality as an ultimate mental belief aimin itself. In Germany, between was where the conflict the andtherising middle-class nobility
31 For the romantic attitude in Germanysee Carl Schmitt, Polilische Romanlik (Miinchen,1925). 32 Mussolini, e Fascismo. In: Diulurna (Milano, 1924). The translaRelativismo tionquotedafterF. Neumann, Behemoth. p. 462-463.
52
never outon thepolitical scene, developed personality-worship fought as the means at least some ofsocial ofgaining kind emancipation. only Thegoverning conclass ofthe itstraditional showed country frankly in for business its for with association merchants dislike and tempt ofthe latter's wealth so that itwasnot andimportance, spite growing to the means of find of some Theclaskind easy winning self-respect. sicGerman in which the middle-class Meister, Bildungsroman, Wilhem hero is educated the in his andactors because bynoblemen bourgeois ownsocial is without is evidence of sphere "personality," enough the of the hopelessness situation.33 German intellectuals, though hardly they promoted anypolitical of themiddle-classes to which an embitfight they belonged, fought tered successful for social battle and,unfortunately, highly equality. Even those who their thedefence still hadoffered ofnobility penfor felt their itcame interests at stake when tosocial ranks. In order very toenter with and of formulated competition rights qualities birth, they thenew ofthe"innate which wasto win concept personality" general within Likethetitle ofan old oftheheir approval society. bourgeois the"innate wasgiven andnotacquired family, personality" bybirth merit. as formation the lack of common for the ofthe by Just history of nation overcome had beenartificially concept by thenaturalistic in social itself was the nature so, supsphere, deevlopment, organic to supply a title it. Liberal when hadrefused posed political reality titles soon of"true to the writers boasted as opposed nobility" shabby of a Baron or others be given which and could andtaken away, asthattheir natural like"force or serted, by implication, privileges, not to human be retraced deed.34 could any genius," Thediscriminatory new social wasimmediateofthis point concept of affirmed. the mere social which anti-Semitism ly period During long thediscovery of Jew-hating as a political introduced and prepared itwasthe lack of"innate the innate lack oftact, personality," weapon, lack ofproductivity, theinnate for the innate etc., disposition trading,
33 Goethe,Wilhelm Book V, ch. 3. Letter of Meister to his friend Werner. Meister, 34 Compare the very interesting pamphletagainst the nobilityby the liberal ueber den Ceburtsadel(1807, Berlin), p. 68; "Der wahre Buchholz,Untersuchungen noch genommen werden; denn gleichder Kraftund dem Adel.... kannwedergegeben durchsich selbst." Genie setzter sich selbstund besteht
BEFORERACISM RACE-THINKING
53
from thebebusinessman which theattitude of theaverage separated to summon In its feverish search havior of his Jewish up colleague. of the withsome of its the caste own Junkers, arrogance pride against thebourgeoisie forpolitical to fight out,however, leadership, daring on other from to lookdownnotso much thevery wanted beginning lower Most for classes of their own,buton other peoples. significant is the these small work of which Clemens Brentano35 attempts literary was written forand readin theultra-nationalistic clubof Napoleonthenameof "Die Christthat in 1808under haters gathered together his lich-Deutsche In and witty sophisticated Tischgesellschaft." highly between the"innate Brentano out thecontrast manner, points personthe genialindividual, whomhe immediand the "philistine" ality," the German withFrenchmen and Jews. Thereafter, atelyidentifies all thequalito attribute to other wouldat leasttry peoples bourgeois to the at first tieswhich as thenobility despised typically bourgeois later As to themysterito theEnglish, to theJews. andalways French, were ous qualities which an "innate at received birth, personality" they the as the for same real claimed themselves. those Junkers exactly in thiswaystandards of nobility to therise contributed Although of race-thinking, theJunkers forthe themselves did hardly anything of this It was Mueller who on Adam insisted shaping purity mentality. of descent as a testof nobility, and it was Hallerwhowent beyond theobvious factthatthepowerful onesrulethose of power deprived it that as a law the be natural weak should dominated by stating by thestrong. of course, when Noblemen, they applauded enthusiastically thattheir of power was notonlylegalbut in aclearned usurpation with a consequence cordance natural of bourlaws,and it was rather that the of the 19th definitions course geois they century during "mesalliances" more thanever before.36 avoided carefully
35 ClemensBrentano, Der Philister Vor,in und nach der Ceschichte (1809). 36 See Sigmund Konservatismus." "Die Stufen des preussischen Neumann, Hislorische Studien,Heft 190 (Berlin, 1930). Especially pp. 48, 51, 64, 82. For Adam Mueller, see: Elemente der Staatslunst, 7 3 and esp. Vorlesung. In this respectit is interesting of this period to to note that the only Junker of his own, Ludwig von der Marwitz,never indulgedin develop a politicaltheory racial terms. and not Accordingto him,nationsare separated by language-a spiritual a physicaldifference--and he is violently although opposed to the FrenchRevolution, of one he actuallyspeaks like Robespierre when it comes to the possibleaggression
54
Thisinsistence on common tribal as an essential ofnationorigin hoodformulated nationalists thewarof andafter byGerman during 1814andtheemphasis on theinnate laidbytheRomantics personand natural thewayintellectually forraceality nobility prepared inGermany. From the former the of doctrine thinking sprang organic with its natural the from latter the arose at the of end laws; history the ofthe homunculus whose natural descentury grotesque superman it is to rule the As long as these world. trends ransidebyside, tiny but were from means of realities. Once they escape temporary political welded for a the basis as formed racism, full-fledged they together, very did nothappen first in Germany, but in This,however, ideology. andwasnotaccomplished middle-class intellectuals but France, by by a highly andfrustrated the Comte de Gobineau. nobleman, gifted IV Thenew tohistory. key In 1853, Count de Gobineau hisEssaisurl'IneArthur published desRaces Humaines some atthe turn which, later, galite only fifty years ofthe was to become a of work for theories kind race standard century, - "Thefallof inhistory. Thefirst sentence ofthe four-volume work civilization is the most at the same most obscure the and, time, striking - indicates ofall phenomena ofhistory"37 the new clearly essentially andmodem interest ofitsauthor, the new which mood pessimistic pervades hiswork of is theideological force that wascapable andwhich all factors times from and True, uniting previous opinions. conflicting haswanted to know as much as possible about mankind immemorial, fallen extinct butnobody, Gobibefore cultures, past empires, peoples; of one one force neau, reason, single thought finding single according
nation againstanother: "Wer seine Grenzen zu erweitern der soil als ein trachtet, treuloser und Verraeterunterder gesamten betrachtet europaeischen Staaten-republik
werden." See: "Entwurf in: Gerhard Printed eines Ramlow, "Ludwig Friedenspaktes."
von der Marwitz und die Anfaenge konservativer in Politik und Staats-auffassung Preussen."Hislorische Studien,Heft 185, p. 92.
(1915).
37 Translation after The Inequalily Collins of Races translated quoted by Adrien
55
Prerise andfall.38 towhich civilization would andeverywhere always Darwinism or any a lawGobineau Without such demonstrated. cisely this historian boasted of other to evolutionist influence him, theory of into the detected introduced sciences, history family natural having the all spiritual utterances natural lawofall courses ofevents, reduced "that of exact science or cultural to something phenomena byvirtue our our cansee, ourears hands cantouch."9 canhear, eyes of in the Thefirst ofthetheory, midst setforth aspect surprising 19th is fasthe is certainly the fact that the author optimistic century, At the in the fall rise of civilizations. cinated and interested by hardly time of the to the the thought writing EssaiGobineau gavebutlittle his use of as a of actual andtherefore possible politics, theory weapon hadthecourage to draw theinherent sinster ofhislaw consequences ofdecay. who fall ofWestern In contrast toSpengler the predicts only "scientific" Gobineau foresees with lessthan culture, precision nothing thedefinite of in his of the human or Man words, disappearance race from thefaceof theearth. After four volumes of rewriting to human he "One be a total concludes: history, might temptedassign of 12 to 14 thousand to the duration human rule over earth, years which erais divided into two thefirst haspassed and periods: away the . . has the . the will witness second and possessed youth begun course down toward decrepitude." declining It has rightly beenobserved thatGobineau, before years thirty wasconcerned with of "decadence.'"40 theproblem Nietzsche, There Nietzsche this that the basic is,however, difference, experipossessed enceof European as he didduring of theclimax decadence, writing thismovement with in France, in England, Baudelaire Swinburne in Germany, Gobineau washardly aware ofthe andWagner whereas of must be as the this and modem taedium vitae, regarded last variety
38 Not evenHegel.For hisconcept of history with itsdialectical law of developthe was concerned norwith ment neither with thesecret of theriseand fallof cultures of nations death butsolely with as revealed as a whole. truth in thehistorical process on theother from It seemto spring hand, race-thinking. Decay doctrines, always in race,"Benjamin is notcoincidence that another Disraeli, certainly early"believer was as fascinated hiscontemporary. as Gobineau, by thefallof cultures 39 Essai,TomeIV, bookVI, p. 340. 40 See Robert du Comte de Cobineau La vie et les prophtiies (Paris, Dreyfus, Ser.6, Cah. 16,p. 56. de la quinzaine, 1905). In: Cahiers
56
heir of Boulainvilliers and theFrench exiled whowithout any nobility forthefateof and rightly feared psychological complications simply as a caste.41 WhenGobineau was writing hiswork, in the aristocracy of the and the days Louis-Philippe, Bourgeois-King, Emperor Napoleon III thisfateappeared sealed.In France, unlike either or Germany the the no fear of needed the Tiers England, nobility longer victory Their and they couldonlycomplain. btat. It had already happened as expressed sometimes comes nearto the distress, by Gobineau, very of the of few decadence a decades who, later, great despair poets sang - "la neige - "thesnows thefrailty ofall things human of d'antan," yester-year." No matter whatsources thevision of thehistorian had nourished who prophesied the end of mankind in a slow natural catastrophe, calledhistory, it had an obvious in with which affinity poems gloried death as though itwere thesoleaimoflife: "Then star norsunshall waken, Noranychange oflight: Norsound ofwaters shaken, Norany sound orsight: Norwintry leaves nor vernal, Nordays nor diurnal; things thesleep eternal Only In an eternal night." TheGarden (Swinburne, ofProserpine.) Nor can it be doubted thatthisanticipation of deathhad something to do with thesudden outburst of brutality at theend of thecentury, when fora machinery be were thefirst to yearn of death, poets among itin France, the thesignofcivil or in England under war, againunder cover of imperialistic conor in the clouds of behind glory, Germany fused which "derGermnanen mythicism preached Untergang."
41 Gobineau accepts almostliterally the 18th century doctrines about the French and the nobility is called "issue.... des esclavesgallo-romains" people: the bourgeoisie is supposedto be germanic. (See Essai, Tome II, book IV, p. 445 and the article"Ce i la Franceen 1870," published in: Europe, 1923.) Gobineau-the French qui est arrive dubious-had strong originof his titlebeingrather personalreasonsto preferan international aristocracy. He claimed for himselfa special genealogywhich led over a Scandinavian he exclaimed:"Moi aussi,je suis de la race pirateto-Odin; whereupon des Dieux." (See: J. Duesberg,"Le Comtede Gobineau." In Revue CGnerale,1939, t. 142.)
57
It is to this to theactive ofthe mood, peculiar pessimistic despair last ofthe owed fame. decades that Gobineau hisbelated This, century that he himself to doesnotnecessarily mean however, belonged the of trade" "the of death and dance Conrad). generation (Joseph merry He wasneither a statesman inbusiness nora poet who who believed death. He was a curious mixture of nobleman frustrated praised only This andmodern almost intellectual who racism. invented byaccident when hesaw not the could olddoctrines thathe happened simply accept ofthe two within France in view of circumand that, peoples changed he men to line of that the theold best defence stances, had change hehad In sadcontrast areontopofsociety. tohisteachers, necessarily toexplain not the best could even to noblemen, men, why hope regain their former thefallofhiscaste he identified position. Stepbystep, with thefallofFrance, then ofWestern ofthe andthen civilization, whole ofmankind. he was he that for which made Thereby discovery so much that writers andbiographers, thediscovery admired bylater thefallofcivilizations the is dueto a degeneration ofrace andthat that of race to the mixture This is due of blood. decay implies every mixture the lower race isvictorious. badraces andthat produces always Thiskind ofargumentation, after the ofthe almost turn commonplace of not fit in all the Gobineau's with doctrines did century, progress the who became with another soon obsessed contemporaries, idlefixe, of the bour"survival ofthefittest." The liberal victorious optimism a newedition of theold might-right andnot wanted geoisie theory, In vainGobineau thekey to history ortheproof ofinevitable decay. slave the sides in to geta wider American tried audience bytaking whole on the basic his andbyconveniently system dispute building to He hadto wait almost 50 years conflict between white andblack. the become a success the not until first war world and among elite, claim with hisworks wide itswave ofdeath-philosophies could popularity.4t2
42 Compare the Gobineau memorial issue of the French Review Europe, 1923. Especially the article of Clement Serpeille de Gobineau, "Le Gobinisme et la pensie en pleine guerre, que L'Essai sur les Races ce n'est que.... moderne." "Mais.... m'apparut comme domine par une th&se feconde, et seule capable d'expliquer certains phenomin&s qui se diroulaient sous nos yeux.... j'ai eu la surprise de constater que mon opinion etait presque unanimementpartagee. Apris la guerre,je remarquais que pour presque tous les hommes des jeunes generation l'oeuvre de Gobineau fut une revelation.'
58
forin the political What Gobineau himself was looking actually was thedefinition of an "dlite" which was to field and thecreation he proposed a "raceofprinces," ofprinces, Instead replace aristocracy. theAryans, whom he pictured ofbeing as in danger submerged bythe lower that classes old foeof feudalism: democracy. non-Aryan through the"innate to organize The concept of racemadeit possible personthem ofa natural as members alities" ofGerman to define romanticism, ofraces If raceandmixture to rule over all others. destined aristocracy, Gobineau didnot aretheall-determining factors for theindividual-and - it is possible that to pretend theexistence breeds assume of "pure" no in every individual comeintoexistence superiorities physical might man matter socialsituation whathispresent is, thatevery exceptional the"sons to the"true sonsof . . . theMerovings," belongs surviving ofkings." to race, be formed whose members Thanks an "dlite" would this offeudal and to theold prerogatives couldlayclaim families, only of therace thatthey feltlikenoblemen; theacceptance by asserting was that an individual conclusive as suchcouldbecome proof ideology that a veins ran "blue that his blood" and "well-bred," through supeFroman identical riororigin claimed event, political superior rights. theCount twocontradictory thedecline drew ofthenobility, therefore, of a human the formation the the race of and decay consequences Buthe did notliveto seethepractical newnatural applicaaristocracy. when overcame all inherent tionof histeachings which contradictions, the out effect inevitable to started the new race-aristocracy actually it. in a supreme effort to destroy ofmankind decay nobletheFrench exiled of hisforerunners, theexample Following notonlya bulwark deGobineau saw in hisrace-"dlite" men, against of "Canaan also the but monstrosity" patriotism.43 mocracy against for to be the"patrie" France stillhappened And since par excellence, or Empire or Republic was hergovernment whether kingdom of worst of and since, all stillbasedupontheessential men, equality a evenpeoplewith theonlycountry in which all, shewas in histime
43 Essai, Tome II, Book IV, p. 440. Comparep. 445, note: "Ce motpatrie.... ne et joue ont relevela tAte nousest vraiment revenu que lorsqueles couchesgallo-romaines a recommence~ un r6le dans la politique. C'est avec leur triomphe que le patriotisme etreune vertu."
59
to pay it was natural forGobineau civilrights, blackskincouldenjoy after butto theEnglish, and later, notto theFrench people, allegiance this Nor should victors.44 theFrench of 1871,to theGerman defeat an lackof dignity be judged accidental or this considered opportunism likesucThe old saying thatnothing succeeds coincidence. unhappy who various cessreckons with are to and used opinarbitrary people thekeyto reality are forced to possess ions.Ideologists whopretend actheir aboutsingleinstances intochanging and twisting opinions to never come into to events can afford the latest and conflict cording to ask reliIt would be absurd their with deity:reality. ever-changing are boundto justify convictions of peoplewhoby their very ability situation. anygiven theNazis,in estabwhen that It must be conceded up to thetime their bestowed themselves as a race-"`lite," contempt frankly lishing the most was French racism the on all people, conGerman, including attitude weakness of fell into the for it never sistent, (This patriotism. the"essence evenduring thelastwar;true, did notchange aryenne" of theAnglobutrather of theGermans no longer was a monopoly and law butnation, theSwedes and theNormans, Saxons, patriotism Even andnominal still were considered fictitious values.")45 "prejudices, nation"46 of the "Germanic in the believed Taine superior genius firmly to thefirst to opposethe"Semites" Renanwas probably and Ernest he "division du genre as a decisive the"Aryans" humain," although local force which to be the greatsuperior held civilization destroys All thelooseracial racedifferences.47 as wellas original originalities
44 See Seillibre, historique, op. cit.,Tome I: Le Comtede Cobineau et rAryanisme I'est en plus haut I'Angleterre p. 32: "Dans l'Essai I'Allemagneest 'a peine germanique, It is du succis." mais sous sans doute, l'influence degr..... Gobineau changerad'avis, his studiesbecame an ardentadherent to note thatfor Seillierewho during interesting les s'acclimater vraisemblablement ou devront of Gobinism-("la sphereintellectuelle reasonforGobineau's du XXe siecle")--successappeared as quite a sufficient poumons revised suddenly opinion. 45 Examples could be multiplied. The quotationis taken fromCamille Spiess, Cobinismeen France, (Paris, 1917). Impe'rialismes. 46 For Taine's standsee: JohnS. White, Taine on Race and Genius. In: Social Research,February1943. 47 In Gobineau'sopinion,the Semiteswere a whitehybridrace bastardized by a des Langues, el Sysstme withblacks.For Renan see: HistoireCGndrale mixture compare in his LanguesS&mitiques, The samedistinction pp. 4, 503 and passim. (1863). le partie, I, p. 15.
60
talkwhich is so characteristic of French writers after evenif 1870,48 arenotracists inanystrict sense ofthe follows anti-national, word, they lines. pro-Germanic If theconsistent to equip anti-national trend of Gobinism served theenemies of French the of Third and, later, Republic democracy with realor fictitious thefrontiers of their the alliesbeyond country, of the race the with specific amalgamation equipped "ilite" concept the international withnew and exciting intelligentsia psychological means to playon thegreat of history. Gobineau's des "fils playground rois"werecloserelatives and saints and of all the romantic heroes ofthelate19th all ofwhom canhardly andsupermen century, geniuses inherent of hide their German Romantic The irresponsibility origin. mixture Romantic a new Gobineau's stimulant from received opinions of races, event because a historical of thepast thismixture indicated of one'sownself. which within thedepths This meant couldbe traced thatinner couldbe interpreted as of historical experiences significance, that thebattlefield of history. "SinceI read one'sownself hadbecome theEssai,every sources time thatsomeconflict stirred up thehidden of mybeing, I havefeltthata relentless battle was goingon in my the Semiteand the the black,the yellow, soul,the battlebetween similar this confessions be forthe as and Aryans."49 might Significant ofmind who are the heirs of Romanstate ofmodern true intellectuals, to hold,they nevertheticism whatever indicate, opinion they happen the essential harmlessness and innocence of whom less, people political into would have been able to force each and probably every ideology line. V The "'rights and the"rights ofEnglishmen" ofmen." the were Whiletheseedsof German planted race-thinking during of thelater thefirst indications wars, development English Napoleonic be back to French Revolution and traced the may appeared during it as the"most themanwhoviolently denounced (crisis) astonishing
48 This has verywell been exposedby JacquesBarzun,op. cit. 49 This surprising writer and historian is nobodyelse thanthewell-known gentleman Elie Faure, Cobineau el le Problamedes Races, in Europe, 1923.
61
- toEdmund The that Burke.50 hashitherto inthe world," happened but notonly hiswork hasexercised on England tremendous influence onthe is whole all onGerman andabove Continent, thought, political well-known. The fact, resemmust be because of stressed however, blances German with between andEnglish the ascontrasted race-thinking that counFrench from the fact both brand. stem These resemblances to distries theTricolor a certain defeated showed having tendency incriminate as foreign theideas ofLibert~-Egaliti-Fraternite against British Socialinequality the ventions. of basis society, English being matConservatives felt it came nota little uncomfortable to the when ter ofthe ofmen." toopinions held by19th According "rights widely to the national character. Tories, century inequality belonged English of Men in Beaconsfield thantheRights found better "somr-thing therights in of Englishmen" "few andto Sir James Stephen things the so as to the French allowed which (seemed) beggarly degree history themselves to be excited suchthings.""' about This is one of the reasons to develop national could afford why they along race-thinking until theendofthe19th whereas the in lines same century, opinions from thevery their showed true face. France, anti-national beginning The main of the"abstract of Burke argument principles" against theFrench is contained "It has Revolution inthefollowing sentence: beentheuniform of our constitution our to claim assert and policy as an entailed inheritance tous from ourforefathers, derived liberties, andtobe transmitted toourposterity; as an estate specially belonging to the ofthis without whatever to any people kingdom, anyreference other more or prior of inheritance Thisprinciple general right."52 to the nature of has been the basis from applied very liberty ideological nationalism its curious touch of received English race-feeling which ever the time ofthe French Revolution. Formulated since bya middleit signified class of the ofthefeudal direct writer, acceptance concept the title as with sum total of and inherited liberty privileges together of theprivileged land.Without class encroaching upontherights
50 Reflections on the Revolution in France, (1790). (Everyman'sLibraryEdition, New York), p. 8. 51 Liberty,Equality, Fraternity, (1873), p. 254. See: Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Ceorge Bentinck, p. 184.
52 Op. cit.,p. 31.
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withinthe Englishnation,Burkeenlargedthe veryprinciple of these the them as a to whole include Englishpeople,constituting privileges Hence he drewhis contempt forthose kindof nobility amongnations. who claimedtheirfranchise as the rights of men,rights whichhe saw fitto claimonlyas "the rights of Englishmen." (p. 30.) In England nationalism has developedwithout seriousattackson the old feudal classes. This has been possible because the English from the 17thcentury on and in everincreasing had numbers, gentry, the higher so thatsometimes acturanksof the bourgeoisie assimilated ally the commonman could attain the positionof a lord. By this caste arroganceof nobility was taken processmuch of the ordinary a the nation and considerable sense of for away generalresponsibility as a whole was created;but by the same token,feudal conceptsand the politicalideas of the lowerclasseseasier could influence mentality was than it was possibleelsewhere. Thus, the conceptof inheritance "stock." and applied to the entireBritish acceptedalmostunchanged The consequence of noble standards was that the of thisassimilation became almost obsessedwith specific English brand of race-thinking inheritance theories and theirmodernequivalent, eugenics. to Ever since the European peoples had made practicalattempts of humanity all the peoples of the earth, includein theirconception between theyhave been irritated by the factof greatbodilydifferences The 18th themselves and thepeoplesthey foundon othercontinents.53 in the the which identical enthusiasm for all-present diversity century thin of man and reasoncould findexpression nature had givena rather the Christian whether coverof arguments to the all-important question, all based the of of and men, upon common teaching unity equality would be keptin the descentfroma singleoriginalcouple of parents, heartsof men who werefaced withtribeswhich,as far as we know, neverhad foundby themselves of humanreaany adequateexpression and son or humanpassionin either cultural deeds or popularcustoms,
53 A significant can be foundin many if moderate echo of thisinnerbewilderment Voltairethought it important an 18thcentury travelling enoughto makea special report. ce globe porte notein his Dictionaire Philosophique:"Nous avonsvu d'ailleurscombien blanc qui et a quel pointle premier de races d'hommes diffkrentes, negreet le premier l'un de I'autre."(Article: Homme.) durent etreetonnes se recontrerent
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to a very This which human lowlevel. haddeveloped institutions only new problem which on the historical sceneof Europeand appeared had withthe moreintimate of tribes America knowledge African British in this America and some and caused, already possesespecially a relapse to which were forms intosocialorganizational sions, thought even have been definitely But slavery, by Christianity. liquidated on a strict racial theslaveerected did notmake basis, actually though before the 19thcentury. peoplesrace-conscious holding Duringthe whole18thcentury, American it themselves considered slave-holders a temporary it gradually. institution to abolish Most of and wanted them havesaidwith "I tremble when I think would Jefferson: probably that God is just." In France, theproblem where ofblack tribes with the hadbeenmet desireto assimilate and educate,54the greatscientist Leclercde a first of races which had given baseduponthe classification Buffon55 and all their others had differences, European peoples classifying by In strict Herder had by juxtaposition."5 Germany, taught equality refused to applythe"ignoble word"raceto menand eventhefirst cultural historian ofmankind to make useoftheclassification ofdifferent species, GustavKlemm,"7 stillrespected theidea of mankind as framework for hisinvestigations. general Butin America and England, whose hadto solvea problem people co-habitation after the abolition of were of slavery, things considerably lesseasy.Withtheexception of SouthAfrica, a country inwhich racism fluenced Western after the "scramble" for in Africa the only - these nations werethefirst to deal with therace-problem 'eighties in practical The abolition of the inherent politics. slavery sharpened conflicts rather thanfound forexisting a solution serious difficulties. This was especially the "rights of EnglishtrueforEnglandwhere
54 To what extent the men of the FrenchRevolution were aware of theterrible in colonialpossessions wordsof Robespierre: dangerinvolved maybe seenby thefamous "Perissentles coloniess'il doit nous en couternotrehonneur, notreliberte!" 55 HistoireNaturelle,(1769-89). of Tocqueville: "Buffonet apres 56 Or to put it' in the admirably precisewords ' lui Flourens des races,mais I'unitide I'espice humaine." croient la diversite op. cit., Letterof May 15, 1852. 57 Allgemeine der Menschheit, Kulturgeschichle (1843-1852). See Tome I, p. 196.
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which orientation men"werenot replaced might by a newpolitical ofslavery in theBritish The abolition therights ofmen. havedeclared theAmerican Civil in 1834 and thediscussion preceding possessions a in confused found War, therefore, publicopinion England highly which doctrines naturalistic which soil forthe various was a fertile these decades. aroseduring whochallengThe first of these wasrepresented bythepolygenists between the Bible book of denied as a ing piouslies, anyrelationship the of the idea their main achievement was destruction human "races;" link between all menand all peoples. of thenatural lawas theuniting arbiracial Whilenotstating polygenism anypredestined superiority, of from one another all peoples isolated bythedeepabyss the trarily and ofhuman and communication understanding physical impossibility influence of Englishmen on theactualbehavior had a decisive abroad, that their to indicate aloofness seemed impartial they typical bywhich theworld between themselves is divided and all other peoples. Polythe "East is East and Westis West; And never explains genism why intermartwain muchto prevent shallmeet,"(Kipling)and helped to of individuals mixed and discrimination origin. riage promote against to polygenism, thesepeopleactually are not truehuman According to no single cell is the because race,but "every beings they belong of on theater of a civilwar.s58 as the influence polygenism Lasting in be the in the 19th to cenproved English race-thinking longrun, itwassoonto be beaten in thefield of public tury opinion byanother theprinciple doctrine. This doctrine also started from of inheritance 19th but added to it the political the of principle century, progconcluit cameto theopposite butfarmore whence ress, convincing thatthe sionthatmanis notonlyrelated to manbutto animal life, alone of lower existence that racesshows differences gradual clearly forexistence manand beastand that an all-powerful separate struggle all living Darwinism was dominates by especially strengthened things. But thefactthatit followed doctrine. theold pathof themight-right of aristocrats had whilethisdoctrine whenin the exclusive service into it now the of was translated spoken proudlanguage conquest,
58 A. Carthill, The LostDominion, (1924), p. 158.
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thehardstruggle whohad known therather of people bitter language of their the to relative fordailybread, and had fought security way upstarts. success itprovided, with such because Darwinism met overwhelming on thebasisof inheritance, theideological forraceas well weapons as classruleand couldbe used foras wellas against race-discrimias such, was neutral and has nation. Darwinism, Politically speaking, to all kinds as wellas to of pacifism and cosmopolitanism led,indeed, Forpolitical thesharpest forms ofimperialistic discussion, ideologies.59 Darwinism thestruggle forexistence twoimportant offered concepts: with of assertion of thenecessary "survival and automatic optimistic the in to lie thefittest" which seemed and theindefinite possibilities, thenew"science" life evolution ofmanoutofanimal andwhich started ofeugenics. The doctrine of thefittest with itsimplicaofthenecessary survival tionthat those on topofsociety are the "fittest" died as the eventually old conquest doctrine had died,namely, at thevery moment when, either the ruling the English in Englandherself, classesor, abroad, in colonial wereno longer domination secure, possessions absolutely doubtful whether those who are and whenit became "fittest" highly still be thefittest tomorrow. The other would ofDarwinism, part today thegenealogy of manfrom animal survived. lifeunfortunately Eugenthearbitrariness of thesurvivalics pretended to be able to overcome with which whowould doctrine couldforetell comeout as the nobody when to means of for fittest andto be able provide which, development fields ofeverlasting as a nation, would leadit to theimmortal adopted a from selection to be The of had fitness.6) process changed only thebacks natural which behind of menintoan "artiworked necessity
59 Duringtheseventies of the last century, and 'eighties Darwinism stillwas almost anti-colonial in the hands of the utilitarian exclusively partyin England. And the first as partof biology, HerbertSpencer,who treated of evolutionism, sociology philosopher of mankind to benefit the evolution and an everlasting believednaturalselection peace. in der englischen See: Friedrich Brie, Imperialistische (Halle, Stroemungen Litteratur, 145. 1928). Pp. 144, was stressed in Germany of applied eugenics during 0()This possibleconsequence to Spengler'sUntergang des Abendlandes.See for instance: the 'twenties as a reaction Otto Bangert, Cold oder Blut, (1927). "Eine Kulturekannalso ... von ewigerDauer sein.... " p. 17.
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ficial," consciously applied physical tool.6' Finally the last disciples of
Darwinism research in Germany decidedto leave the fieldof scientific link the between to the search for about man missing altogether, forget to change man and ape, and startedinsteadtheirpracticalattempts intothatsomething thatDarwinists an ape is. thought
But before Nazism in thecourseof itsimperialistic policyattempted to change man into a beast, therewere numerous efforts to develop him on a strictly Not into God."" basis a hereditary only Herbert a but all the evolutionists Darwinists as strong and "had Spencer, early faith in humanity's Selected as in man'ssimian angelicfuture origin.",-:' inheritance was believedto resultin "hereditary and again genius,""' was held to be the naturaloutcome, not of politics, but of aristocracy the wholenationinto a of purebreed.To transform naturalselection, the choiceexemplars, whichthe best selected, from naturalaristocracy of geniusesand supermen, was one of would developinto the heights liberalintellectuals the many"ideas" whichfrustrated producedwhen to the classes old replace by a new "elile" governing they hoped
61 For the inherent of eugenics, see the early remarks of ErnstHaeckel, bestiality and state"caused because of the "uselessexpensesforfamily who defendsmercy-death illness.See: Lebensnunder, p. 128 ff. by incurable 62 Almosta century of science,warning had put on theclothes beforeevolutionism thatwas thenmerely of a madness the inherent voiceshad alreadyforetold consequences Voltairemorethanonce, had playedwithevolutionary in thestageof pure imagination. Morale et Theologie," opinions--seechiefly"Philosophie Generale: Metaphysique, se complait OeuvresCompletes, (1785), Tome 40, p. 16 ff.He wrote:"L'Imagination des brutea la matiere de la matiere d'abord a voir le passage imperceptible organisee, de I'homme aux animaux, de ceux-cia I'homme, de ces zoophytes plantesaux zoophytes, et d'un petit immaterielles; de ces geniesrevetus aux genies, corpsaeriena des substances creespar l'Etre supreme des genies peut.... jusqu'' Dieu m.me.... maisle plus parfait un Dieu et lui?... n'y a-t-ilpas visiblement entre il devenir Dieu? n'y a-t-ilpas l'infini Article: "Chaine des vide entrele singeet I'homme?"In: Dictionnaire Philosophique. Etres Cre6s." 63 Hayes, op. cil., p. II11. stresses the strong practicalmoraleof all Hayes rightly He explains"this curiousdivorceof moralsfrombeliefs" by theseearly materialists. howas a timelag" (p. 130). This explanation, have described "what latersociologists who, like weak if one recallsthat,on the otherhand, materialists ever appears rather Haeckel in Germanyor Vacher de Lapouge in France, had left the calm of stiudies from such a time-lag;that, suffer did notgreatly forpropaganda and research activities, docwho were not tinged on the otherhand, their by theirmaterialistic contemporaries of the perverse such as Barres and Co. in France,were verypracticaladherents trines, whichsweptFrance duringthe DreyfusAffair.The suddendecay of morals brutality of certain worldseemsto be caused less by an autonomous development in the Western "ideas" thanby a seriesof new politicaleventsand new politicaland social problems, and confused a bewildered whichconfronted humanity. in 1869, 64 Such was the titleof the widely read book of Fr. Galton, published decades. aboutthesame topicin the following whichcaused a floodof literature
67
writers who At theendof thecentury, means. non-political through ofbiology as a matandzoology the terms used treated political topics of our wrote Views terof course, andzoologists Foreign "Biological for aninfallible as though haddetected statesmen.65 guide Policy" they of the"survival All of them with which newpossibilities forwarded the in accordance with thefittest" be controlled and regulated could ofthe national interests people.66 English of these evolutionist doctrines is that The most aspect dangerous with on personal theinheritance theinsistence combined concept they which character had beenso important achievements and individual for ofthe19th middle-class. Thismiddle-class theself-respect century that not butthe for whocould aristocrats called scientists the prove the were of the whom men the true in representatives nation, great ofthe race" waspersonified. These scientists an ideal provided "genius from when the stateescape political "proved" early responsibility they ment ofBenjamin of the man is "the Disraeli that great personification itschoice ofthis found its Thedevelopment race, exemplar." "genius" when another of end evolutionism declared: logical disciple simply is theOverman "TheEnglishman andthehistory of England is the of his evolution."67 history It is significant for that as itwasfor German English race-thinking it came from and notfrom thenobility, it middle-class writers that toextend the ofnoble wasborn ofthe desire benefits to all standards itwasnourished In trends of true classes national andthat by feelings. of this much more heroes were and Carlyle's concepts geniuses respect,
65 The mostimportant worksof thiskind are: Thomas Huxley, The Struggle for in Human Societl, (1888). His mainthesis:The fall of civilizations Existence is necesis uncontrolled. saryonlyas longas birth-rate BenjaminKidd, Social Evolution, (1894). on theLines of ModernEvolution, of Intellectual JohnB. Crozier,History Development Karl National Professor of at Pearscn, Life (1897-1901). (1901), Eugenics London was amongthe first to describeprogress as a kind of impersonal monster University, which devourseverything that happens to be in its way. Charles H. Harvey, The Biology of BritishPolitics (1904), argues that by strictcontrolof the "struggle for life" withinthe nation,a nation could become all-powerfulfor the inevitable withotherpeople forexistence. "A BiologicalView of Our ForeignPolicy" was fight London, February,1896. published by P. Charles Michel in Saturday Review,, 66 See especiallyK. Pearson,op. cit., But Fr. Galton had alreadystated: "I wish of the naturalgiftsof future to emphasizethe fact thatthe improvement generations of thehumanrace is largely underour control." op. cit. (ed. 1892), p. xxvi. 67 See: Testament of JohnDavidson (1908).
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the weaponsof a "social reformer" than doctrines of a man who has been veryunjustlyaccused of being the "Fatherof BritishImperialwhichearnedhim equallywide audiencesin ism."68His hero-worship in and came fromthe same sourcesas the personEngland Germany of GermanRomanticism. It was the same assertion and ality-worship of an innate of the indeindividual glorification character, greatness pendentof his social environment. Among the men who influenced the colonialmovement fromthe middleof the 19th century untilthe outbreak of actualimperialism at its end,not one has escapedthe infAuence of Carlylebut not one could be accused of preaching outspoken racism.Carlylehimself, in his essay about the "Nigger Question" is withthemeanswhich concerned helptheWest Indiesto produce might "heroes."CharlesLiilke,whose GreaterBritain(1869) sometimes is takenas the beginning of imperialism69 was an advancedradicalwho the colonists as nation glorified English beingpartof the same British lands as mere againstthosewhowouldlook downupon themand their colonies.J.R. SeeleywhoseExpansionof England (1883) sold 80,000 in the Hindus a foreign copies in less than two years,still respects them clearly from "barbarians."70Even people and distinguishes Froude whose admiration for the Boers, the first whitepeople to be the tribal of to converted clearly philosophy racism, mightappear susforSouth Africabecause pect,even Froude opposed too manyrights meant the in South Africa of the natives "self-government government not the that is and by Europeancolonists self-government.'"71 was bornand stimEnglishnationalism Verymuchas in Germany, itself whichneverhad entirely ulated by a middle-class emancipated of bore the first fromthe nobility and therefore germs race-thinking. wall an ideological whoselack of unity But unlikeGermany, provoked or geographical theBritish Isles were forhistorical as a substitute facts, natural frontiers the from world by surrounding completely separated
68 See: C. A. Bodelsen,Studiesin Mid-Victorian (1924), p. 22 ff. Imperialism Illusion (1928). "Imperialism 69 See: E. H. Damce, The Victorian began witha book.... Dilke's GreaterBritain...." or largerthan than the Hindu, our mindsare not richer 70 "We are not cleverer beforehim ideas the barbarianby putting him as we astonish his. We cannotastonish of." (ed. 1914), pp. 255-256. thathe neverdreamt 71 Two Lectureson SouthAfrica.
69
a theory ofunity as a nation hadto devise and England among people the from the who livedin far-flung colonies beyond seas,separated them The onlylinkbetween mother of miles. by thousands country common The was common common descent, separaorigin, language. that do links in themselves tionof theUnitedStates these had shown notguarantee other colonies and notonlyAmerica, too, domination; the to not with same tendencies showed deviolence, strong though linesthanthe mother In velop along otherconstitutional country. British Carorder to savethese former nationals, Dilke,influenced by of "Saxondom"72 of winning a wordthatseemed lyle, spoke capable backeventhepeopleof theUnitedStatesto whom one-third of his bookis devoted.73 Dilke the a could act as Being radical, though War of Independence twonations, had not been a warbetween but the form of 18thcentury civilwar,in which he belatedly sided English with theRepublicans. For here liesone of thereasons forthesurpristhat socialreformers thepromoter of nationand radicals were ingfact alism in England:notonly want to keepthecolonists because didthey them for outlets the lower actualheld but classes; they they necessary to retain theinfluence on themother these which ly wanted country more sonsoftheBritish radical Islesexercised.74 Whatever later political writers in Dilke'swork it had a for, mayhaveused"Saxondom" that for a nation no longer washeldtogether political genuine meaning a which in all the of mytravels "The limited idea by country. length has beenat oncemyfellow to and myguide thekeywherewith unlock thehidden of new lands is the things strange conception ... of the grandeur it is of our race already the earth, which girdling to overspread." destined (Preface) For Dilke, perhaps, eventually of race" was neither common a physical inheritance, origin, "grandeur
72 "Saxondom is withus, whether have concenyou see it or not..... historians tratedupon constitutional issues only because theyare blind to the issues that matter. Half theworldis English:What aboutthe rest?"Quoted from Damce, op. cit.,p. 161. 73 See Damce, op. cit.,p. 161. 74 This motif is strongest withFroudewho "wishesto retain thecoloniesbecausehe it possibleto reproduce in thema simpler stateof sccietyand a noblerway of thought life thanwere possiblein industrial England."C. A. Bodelsenop. cit.,p. 199. Seeley's Expansion of England was planned in the same way: "When we have accustomed ourselves to contemplate thewhole Empiretogether and we call it all England we shall see thathere too is a United States,"p. 184.
70
factnorthekeyto history but a much neededguidein thepresent theonlyreliable link a boundless within world, space. Because colonists all overtheearth, it so haphad spread English that the most of the pened dangerous concept nationalism, idea of in Englandan especially received stimu"national mission," strong national mission as such for a developed Although lant.75 longwhile racial in all influences where and countries untinged by peoples aspired to nationhood, it proved have to a to close finally peculiarly affinity The nationalists all be considrace-thinking. above-quoted English may eredas caseson theborderline.7 For all of them notgiving though the of idea as mankind consider the up England supreme guarantee for to overstress this nationalhumanity. Theycouldnotbutbe inclined isticconcept because of its inherent dissolution of thebondbetween soil and peoplewhich in themission was implied idea,a dissolution which forEnglish not a was butan estabpolitics propagated ideology factwith lished which statesman What separates had to reckon. every them from them later racists is that of none was everseriousdefinitely with other as lower races, ly concerned discrimination against peoples ifonly forthereason that Canthecountries were about, they talking werealmost ada and Australia, not serious and did have empty any population problem. not by accident thatthe first statesman It is, therefore, English in racesand race-superiority who repeatedly his belief as a stressed was of a man who factor without and any history politics, determining - "the and the English colonists interest in the colonies particular - wanted to extend which we do not govern" colonial deadweight British to Asia and who, indeed, imperial power forcefully strengthened with a grave in theonly theposition ofGreat Britain population colony the It Disraeli who made was and cultural Benjamin Queen problem. of India. The reasons which of Englandthe Empress led Disraeli of raceto be sucha consistent evenin theearly'thirties upholder
75 It would lead us too farhereto discussthereligious thesecularization, and origin, in thedifferent of thisidea whichended shamefully the finalperversions pan-movements of our century. 76 For thesamephenomenon Discourssur r'Ensemble in Francesee Auguste Comte, the hope for a unitedorganized, du Positivisme regen(1848), in whichhe expressed underthe leadership-"prisidence"-of France, p. 384 ff. eratedhumanity
71
modern sentimental he opposed "this that newfangled princithinking first of all, There aremanifold. was,probably ple of nationality""77 as an thefact a Jew that andconsidered he,being byhisownparty not he the fact that to make an asset of did was clever upstart, enough "race" with as to average butto another middle-class society belong cerThere was also boast of. olda genealogy could as any aristocracy hadexercised the influence which heroic tainly, Carlyle's historiography men wholacked a natural in political ambitious upon position young as convenient as personwhom was for andsocial and life, hero-worship But there wasalso for German intellectuals. been had ality-worship him within which thedefinite lineofhispolicy brought automatically more recent close to ideologies.78 very relationship sttaesman who first Indiaas the Disraeli wasthe regarded English to linked cut the ties which an who wanted cornerstone of Empire and ofthe helaid theEnglish tothe nations Continent.79 people Thereby This in British rule in the ofa fundamental India. foundations change with the usual ofconquerors hadbeen ruthlessness colony governed ofmen Burke "the breakers oflawinIndia." whom hadcalled It was at the now to receive a carefully administration which aimed planned establishment ofa permanent measures. byadministrative government near to the Thisexperiment hasbrought very danger against England that the Burke "breakers oflawin which hadalready warned, namely, oflawfor "the become makers India" might England."80 Fortunately
77 W. F. Monypenny and G. E. Buckle, The Life of BenjaminDisraeli,Earl of Beaconsfield (New York, 1929) Vol. I, Book 3. 78 This peculiartendency of Disraeli's politicalconvictions is stressed by all his It is mostclearly expressedin his studyof the life of his friendLord biographers.
George Bentince in which he stated: "The truthis, progress and reaction, are but words to mystifythe millions. . .. the vicissitudes of history find their main soluticn--all is
.... Language and religion do not make race. There is only one thing which makes a race and that is blood." 79 "Power and influence we should exercise in Asia; consequently in Eastern
in whichhe defines:"It (Race) is the key to history race" and in his novelEndymion
in WesternEurope." (Monypenny-Buckle, Europe; consequently op. cit., II, p. 210). falls into an inferior and exhausted But "If ever Europe by her shortsightedness state,
for England there will remain an illustrious future." (Ibid., I, Book IV, ch. 2). For "England is no longer a mere European power. ... she is really more an Asiatic power than a European." (Ibid., II, p. 201). 80 Burke, op. cit., p. 42-43: "The power of the House of Commons.... is indeed great; and long may it be able to preserve its greatness.... and it will do so, as long as it can keep the breaker of the law in India from becoming the maker of law for England." About the "backward and inward effect" of empire-making see: Ernest Barker, Ideas and Ideals of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1941), p. 33.
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this hasnot uptonow complaints enough, happened; despite repeated oftheIndian in England of theParliaabout theinterference party ment with thedemotheir thepower ofParliament, administration,8' cratic as a whole have institutions of thenation andthesoundness than all imperialistic proved stronger aspirations.82 The new theestablishment introduced signified policy byDisraeli ofanexclusive wasrule whose function caste ina foreign country only which realization ofthis andnotcolonization. Forthe conception Disbe an inraeli toseeaccomplished, racism didnotlive indeed, would, the transformation ofthe It tool. foreshadowed menacing dispensable from of a first-rate a nation into an race "unmixed organizapeople - toputitinDisofnature" tion" that felt itself as "the aristocracy raeli's own words.83 inwhich is thestory ofan opinion wehave so far followed What come have terrible ofourtimes, weonly after all the now, experiences hasrevived eleracism ofracism. Butalthough to seethefirst dawn it idea is not the of an ofrace-thinking inevery ments country, history with which we were concerned. "immanent endowed bysome logic" for source of convenient been a had arguments varying Race-thinking in ofmonopoly kind butitnever hadpossessed conflicts, any political ithadsharpened andexploitlife ofthe the nations; respective political butit or interests ed existing problems, political existing conflicting of or new new conflicts never had created produced categories any constelfrom andpolitical Racism experiences sprang thinking. political have been andwould still unknown which were lations strange utterly or or Disraeli as Gobineau of"race" defenders to such devoted even between themen ofbrilliant andfacile is an abyss There Nietzsche.
TheLostDominion 81 The most is A. Carthill's ofthese writings example interesting (1924). foes anduncompromising 82 It is very oneofthemost violent that tonote interesting were and liberty forwhom F. Stephen, Sir James in England, of democracy equality as 1883, as early confessed fora small thing" (op. cit.p. 253 andpassim), "bignames we havemore of which of England in thehistory is no transaction "thatthere just See: "Foundations of theIndian theestablishment causetobe proud.... than Empire." 1883. No. LXXX October of India," in The Nineteenth of theGovernment Century, Disraeli and Wisdom 83 In his novelConingsby, from Wit of Benjamin quoted (New York,1881),p. 289.
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men ofbrutal deeds an abyss andthe andactive conceptions bestiality, which nointellectual is to It is able bridge. highly explanation probable that the in of in race would have due terms thinking disappeared time with other of together opinions thenineteenth irresponsible century, ifthe"scramble for Africa" andthenew eraofimperialism hadnot Western tonew andshocking exposed humanity experiences. Imperialism would have the invention ofracism necessitated as the only possible for andexcuse itsdeeds, ifno race-thinking even ever "explanation" inthe hadexisted world. civilized itproved didexist, to be a powerful Since, however, race-thinking for racism. The existence of such an which could help very opinion boast ofa certain to the tradition served hide destructive forces ofthe new doctrine without this of national which, appearance respectability or theseeming sanction of tradition, havedisclosed itsutter might with or moral of the standards incompatibilityall Western political even itwasallowed before todestroy the of the past, comity European nations.

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Race-Thinking before Racism Author(s): Hannah Arendt Reviewed work(s): Source: The Review of Politics, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan.

RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

suit an opinion,no factis securefromreceiving tomorrow an entirely

newandunexpected ifit isexpedient. Themodern meaning, propagan-

distdoesnotbother with thequestion of reality, he is conbecause

Iran undVolieeruanderung inhisAltai, (Leipzig, 1917)discovered Strzygowski Josef

was"found" to contain urine of German tion 20% non-uric nitrogen spies;German

RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACISM RACE-THINKING

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

37 Translation after The Inequalily Collins of Races translated quoted by Adrien

BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACISM RACE-THINKING

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM

52 Op. cit.,p. 31.

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ficial," consciously applied physical tool.6' Finally the last disciples of

RACE-THINKING BEFORE RACISM

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACISM RACE-THINKING

THE REVIEW OF POLITICS

BEFORE RACE-THINKING RACISM

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