6 To 9

CHAPTER SIX: CONCRETE TESTING PROGRAM
6.1
Introduction As the last testing program in this study, concrete tests were conducted to
investigate the effect of MFA on the properties of concrete after performing screening, aggregate characterization tests, and mortar tests. The following
sections outline the materials, the test procedures, and the results and discussion of concrete tests using the selected sands based on the mortar test results. Using the concrete test results, a case study using one sample was performed to investigate the effect of micro fines content on the properties of concrete.
6.2
Materials
6.2.1 Portland Cement Type I cement was used in the concrete tests. It conformed to ASTM C 150-94, Standard Specification for Portland Cement.
6.2.2 Coarse Aggregate The same coarse aggregate was used in the overall concrete batches, namely dolomitic limestone (3/4-inch Gravel ASTM #67, from the Gifford-Hill Company at Garden Ridge Plant in New Braunfels, Texas). The properties of the coarse aggregate are given in Tables 6.1. 117
118 Table 6.1: Properties of Coarse Aggregate Used in Concrete Batches

TxDHT Method TEX-403-A TEX-403-A TEX-404-A TEX-404-A TEX-405-A TEX-410-A TEX-411-A TEX-411-A TEX-412-A TEX-413-A TEX-612-J Properties Bulk Specific Gravity (OD) Absorption (%) Unit Weight (dry rodded), lbs/CF Unit Weight (dry loose), lbs/CF Void Content, (dry rodded), % L.A. Abrasion, % loss Soundness by Na2SO4, (5 cycles), % loss Soundness by MgSO4, (5 cycles), % loss Light Weight Pieces, % Clay Lumps and Friable Particles, % Acid Insoluble Residue, % Results 2.57 2.9 95.3 86.5 40.6 27.5 3.77 3.88 0.0 0.0 6.5 TxDHT Item 302 Specification
35% Max. 12% Max. 25% Max. 0.5% Max. 5.0% Max.
The gradation of the coarse aggregate and the gradation of ASTM C 33-97, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregate are shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Gradation of Coarse Aggregate Used in Concrete Batches Sieve Size 1 in. (25.0 mm) in. (19.0 mm) in. (12.5 mm) 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) No.4 (4.75 mm) No.8 (2.36 mm) No.16 (1.18 mm) Percentage Passing, By Weight 100 100 97 20 1 1 0 ASTM C33-97 100 95 to 100 20 to 55 0 to 10 0 to 5
119 6.2.3 Fine Aggregate Table 6.3 shows the representative aggregates of each type of rock that was used for mortar tests. The aggregates were selected based on the mortar test results and each representative sample was selected on the following basis: 1) At least one sample per aggregate type; 2) The sands of higher 28-day compressive strength; 3) The sands of lower 28-day drying shrinkage; and 4) The sands with higher amounts of micro fines As a result 11 sands were selected, and a natural sand was used as control. Since the properties of Virginia limestone have been better when compared to the other samples, all three samples were selected for the concrete tests. Table 6.3: Aggregates for Concrete Test
ID No. VA/GT/05-00/68 VA/DI/06-00/65 OK/DO/06-00/65 VA/LS/05-00/00 VA/LS/05-00/65 VA/LS/05-00/36 CT/BA/19-02/68 MO/LS/06-00/00 Connecticut Missouri Basalt Limestone PA/SS/09-00/68 Pennsylvania Sandstone Virginia Limestone Location Virginia Virginia Oklahoma Type Granite Diabase Dolomite Size, mm Speed, m/s 05-00 05-00 06-00 06-00 06-00 05-00 05-00 05-00 19-02 09-00 06-00 65 68 65 65 65 00 65 36 68 68 00 Cycle Product Product Product Product Product as-received Product Product Product Product as-received
PA/LS/05-00/65 Pennsylvania Limestone SD/QZ/06-00/65 South Dakota Quartzite
120 6.2.4 Mixing Water Potable City of Austin water was used throughout the laboratory batching series and was assumed to have a specific gravity of 37 kg/m3 (62.4 lbs/cy).
6.2.5 Chemical Admixtures No chemical admixtures were used in this study in order to investigate the effect of higher micro fines on the properties of concrete without admixtures. For fixed slump batches, only the water content was changed to get the targeted slump (thus the water-cement ratio was changed).
6.3
Testing Procedures for Concrete Tests All laboratory mixing was conducted in a 0.17-m3 (6-ft3) capacity rotary
drum mixer, shown in Figure 6.1.
ASTM C 192-94, Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Test Specimens in the Laboratory was followed for batching and making test specimens in the laboratory. All materials reached room
temperature (equilibrium) at 21.1 to 22.8C (70 to 73F) prior to batching. Mixing water was adjusted accordingly based on the moisture conditions of the coarse and fine aggregates approximately one-half hour prior to batching. Concrete tests included both fresh concrete tests and hardened concrete tests. The test procedures are discussed in the following section.
121
Figure 6.1: Rotary Mixing Unit Used for Concrete Batches 6.3.1 Fresh Concrete Testing 6.3.1.1 Slump The slump test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C 143-97, Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete and ASTM C 172 Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete.
6.3.1.2 Vebe The Vebe test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 1170, Standard Test Methods for Determining Consistency and Density of Roller-Compacted Concrete Using a Vibrating Table. The Vebe test was performed to evaluate workability for very low slump concrete. The difference between the slump and Vebe test is that one is a static test and another is a dynamic test. Since the slump
122 test is not adequate to investigate the workability of low slump concrete, the Vebe test was performed in this study. After filling and dampening a minimum mass of 22.7 kg (50 lb) of fresh concrete the vibrator and timer were started. When the mortar ring formed The
completely around the surcharge, the vibrator and timer were stopped. elapsed time was the Vebe consistency time.
6.3.1.3 Temperature The temperature test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 1064-93, Standard Test Method for Temperature of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Concrete. A digital thermometer (accuracy: 0.1F) was used to determine the temperature of the fresh concrete. The temperature was measured after a
minimum of two minutes or when the temperature reading stabilized.
6.3.1.4 Unit Weight and Air Content The unit weight and air content tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM C 138-92, Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete. Used 0.01-m3 (0.4-ft3) stainless steel container unit weight and air content of fresh concrete were calculated simultaneously.
123 6.3.2 Preliminary Hardened Concrete Testing The hardened concrete performance-related tests included compressive strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, rapid chloride permeability, abrasion resistance, and scaling resistance by deicing chemicals.
6.3.2.1 Compressive Strength The compressive strength tests were performed in accordance with ASTM C 39-96 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens using a 270-kg (600-kip) capacity hydraulically operated compression test machine as shown in Figure 6.2. Three cylinder specimens (4-inch diameter and 8-inch height) were prepared for each mixture. The specimens were loaded at a rate of 0.24 0.10 MPa per second (35 15 psi per second) until complete failure. Neoprene pads inserted in steel retaining caps were used throughout this study in the compressive strength tests of cylinders.
6.3.2.2 Flexural Strength The flexural strength test (modulus of rupture) was performed according to ASTM C 78-94 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading). Three prisms, 75-mm75-mm275mm (3-in.3-in.11-in.), were prepared for each mixture. The specimens were
124 loaded at a rate of 1.04 0.07 MPa per minute (150 25 psi per minute) until rupture occurred.
Figure 6.2: Compressive Strength Forney - Hydraulically Operated 600 kip Capacity Multiple Loading Rate Machine
6.3.2.3 Drying Shrinkage The drying shrinkage test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C 15793, Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and Concrete. Three prisms, 75-mm75-mm 275-mm (3-in.3-in.11in.), were prepared for each mixture. The specimens were made and cured in the lime-saturated water for 28 days. After removal from the lime-saturated water, the specimens were stored in the drying room, and comparator readings for each specimen were taken as required by the standard test procedure.
125 6.3.3 Final Hardened Concrete Testing 6.3.3.1 Chloride Ion Penetration The chloride ion penetration test (permeability) was performed in accordance with ASTM C 1202-97 Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. Three
cylinder specimens (4-inch diameter and 8-inch height) were prepared for each mixture. Using 2-inch thickness specimens the amount of chloride ion penetration was measured as electrical charge (coulombs).
6.3.3.2 Abrasion Resistance The abrasion resistance test was conducted at 28 days on three companion specimens in accordance with ASTM C 944-99 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the Rotating Cutter Method. The testing machine, shown in Figure 6.3, consisted of a drill press rotating at a speed of 200 rpm exerting a force of 98 N (10 kgf) on the surface being tested. The rotating cutter consisted of 24 grinding dressing wheels. Sixminute periods of abrasion were performed on every surface tested. The depth of wear on the surface of the specimen was measured to determine the abrasion resistance of the concrete. The average of three readings at each measuring time was used as the depth of wear for each sample.
126
Figure 6.3: Rotating Cutting Machine for Abrasion Resistance Test
6.3.3.3 Scaling Resistance by Deicing Chemicals The scaling resistance test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 672-92, Standard Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. Prior to initiating the test a stainless steel dam was built around the edges of the specimens to hold salt solution in place. The deicing agent used consisted of a 3 percent solution of calcium chloride. A visual inspection of the test specimens was made after each cycle. The damage was assessed according to ASTM C 672-92 on a scale from 0 to 5 with zero indicating no deterioration and 5 indicating severe damage.
127 6.4 Mixture Proportioning As in the mortar testing program, two control variables were used in the concrete testing program: fixed water-cement ratio and fixed slump (workability) of concrete batches. The first variable was selected to investigate the effect of MFA on the properties of concrete at the same water-cement ratio, and the last one was chosen to evaluate the effect of the property change according to water demand without any chemical admixture. Since the gradation of MFA did not meet the ASTM C33 specification, normal mixture proportioning did not apply to MFA concrete batches. Hence, the mixture proportioning of MFA concrete was performed using a volumetric method. The cement content used in concrete batches was the minimum 5 sacks per cubic yard of concrete following the TxDOT specification. All concrete batches had the same cement content. Since the cement content was fixed, water content depended on the water-cement ratio. According to a recent concrete project by Vulcan using Calera aggregate, an optimal value of sand used in concrete was found to be 42 percent based on the total aggregate volume of concrete. Hence subtracting the volume of cement, water, and entrapped air from total concrete volume, 42 percent and 58 percent of the remaining volume was for fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, respectively. The mixture proportioning of concrete batches is shown in Tables 6.4 (fixed w/c) and 6.5 (fixed slump).
128 Table 6.4: Mixture Proportioning of Concrete Batches (Fixed W/C)

ID No. Natural Sand-F PA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/GT/05-00/68-F SD/QZ/06-00/65-F VA/DI/06-00/65-F OK/DO/06-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/00-F VA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/36-F CT/BA/19-02/68-F PA/SS/09-00/68-F MO/LS/06-00/00-F Cement (lb) 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 Water (lb) 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 Fine Agg. (lb) 100.1 90.4 98.9 95.8 101.4 98.2 102.2 102.5 102.2 102.2 95.6 92.8 Coarse Agg (lb) 122.0 129.6 128.6 128.8 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.6 128.8 128.6
Table 6.5: Mixture Proportioning of Concrete Batches (Fixed Slump)

ID No. Natural Sand-V PA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/GT/05-00/68-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V VA/DI/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/00-V VA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V CT/BA/19-02/68-V PA/SS/09-00/68-V MO/LS/06-00/00-V Cement (lb) 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 41.8 Water (lb) 21.4 22.1 22.1 23.4 25.0 23.0 23.0 22.1 22.1 23.4 23.0 Fine Agg. (lb) 108.0 90.4 98.9 94.4 98.0 97.2 101.2 102.5 102.2 100.6 94.4 Coarse Agg (lb) 116.4 129.6 128.6 126.8 124.2 127.4 127.4 128.6 128.6 126.8 127.4
129 6.5 Test Results and Discussion In accordance with required test methods specimens were prepared and tested. The following section presents concrete test results and discussion of these results.
6.5.1 Fresh Concrete Testing 6.5.1.1 Slump The slump test results are shown in Table 6.6. The fixed water-cement ratio was 0.53, and the fixed slump was 2 to 4 inches. As shown in the table, control batches using natural sand had high slump (7.5 inches) compared to that of the MFA batches for fixed water-cement ratio. The reason for lower slump for MFA batches is that the excess water is not enough to lubricate all aggregates due to high content of micro fines. For Missouri limestone, due to lack of workability the batch could not be made. For fixed slump batches, most batches needed more water to reach the targeted slump (2 ~ 4 inches) except the control batch. A watercement ratio of 0.51 was enough to gain the targeted slump for the control batch. To increase the slump excess water cannot be added in the field since the extra water affects the quality of the concrete. Hence, it is concluded that
chemical admixtures are needed to increase the slump of high micro fines concrete without increasing water content.
130 6.5.1.2 Vebe The test results for Vebe time are shown in Table 6.6. It should be noted that low slump batches had low Vebe times for a fixed water-cement ratio. Even if a concrete batch had low slump it could have been a workable batch due to short compacting time. Hence, it is concluded that the slump test is not adequate to evaluate the workability of concrete batches. However the Vebe test also has a disadvantage in that the variance of the test results can be high depending on the investigator. For future research other test methods for workability evaluation should be considered.
6.5.1.3 Temperature Table 6.6 shows the test results for concrete temperature. As shown in the table there was no significant temperature change for fixed water-cement and fixed slump concrete batches. The reason is that the same amount of cement was used regardless of fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump, and no chemical admixtures were used to the concrete batches. The concrete temperature was 22.8C ~ 24.1C (73.1F ~ 75.4F).
131 Table 6.6: Test Results of Slump, Vebe, and Temperature of Concrete
ID No. Natural Sand-F PA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/GT/05-00/68-F SD/QZ/06-00/65-F VA/DI/06-00/65-F OK/DO/06-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/00-F VA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/36-F CT/BA/19-02/68-F PA/SS/09-00/68-F MO/LS/06-00/00-F Natural Sand-V PA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/GT/05-00/68-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V VA/DI/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/00-V VA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V CT/BA/19-02/68-V PA/SS/09-00/68-V MO/LS/06-00/00-V W/C 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.56 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.53 0.53 0.56 0.55 Slump (ln.) 7.50 2.75 3.25 0.75 1.25 1.50 1.50 2.00 2.00 0.75 1.50 0.0 3.75 2.75 3.25 3.00 3.50 2.75 3.75 2.00 2.00 2.75 2.50 Vebe Time (Sec) 1.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 7.0 5.0 15.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 7.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 8.0 4.0 6.0 Temperature (F) 73.8 73.9 74.0 73.5 74.3 75.0 74.6 74.8 75.4 74.9 73.1 74.5 73.9 74.0 74.4 75.0 74.5 74.3 74.8 75.4 74.6 74.5
132 6.5.1.4 Unit Weight and Air Content The test results for unit weight and air content are shown in Table 6.7. As shown in the table, for either fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump, the unit weight of MFA batches was higher than that of the control batch. Since higher micro fines filled the voids among aggregate particles. Usually the concrete
batches with higher unit weight had lower air contents since air content is directly related to air voids among aggregate particles and particle shape. Hence, it is concluded that the MFA concrete batches usually have higher unit weight and lower air contents than those of control batches due to higher content of micro fines. Virginia limestone had the highest unit weight and the lowest air content which results in dense and less permeable concrete.
133 Table 6.7: Test Results of Unit Weight and Air Content of Concrete ID No. Natural Sand-F PA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/GT/05-00/68-F SD/QZ/06-00/65-F VA/DI/06-00/65-F OK/DO/06-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/00-F VA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/36-F CT/BA/19-02/68-F PA/SS/09-00/68-F MO/LS/06-00/00-F Natural Sand-V PA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/GT/05-00/68-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V VA/DI/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/00-V VA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V CT/BA/19-02/68-V PA/SS/09-00/68-V MO/LS/06-00/00-V Unit Weight (lb/ft3) 144.9 147.1 150.1 148.7 150.7 148.7 151.4 152.7 152.7 152.6 148.7
Air Content (%) 2.6 0.8 1.3 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.8
146.8 147.1 150.1 146.8 148.7 148.7 150.0 152.7 152.7 151.3 147.4
1.8 0.8 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.6 0.3 0.2 0.7 1.0
134 6.5.2 Preliminary Hardened Concrete Testing 6.5.2.1 Compressive Strength The test results for compressive strength for each type of aggregate are shown in Table 6.8 and Figures 6.4 and 6.5. For fixed water-cement ratio most MFA concretes showed higher compressive strength at 7 and 28 days than the control batch, except for Connecticut basalt. The reason of higher compressive strength for MFA concrete is that higher micro fines filled the voids among aggregate particles and the bond between aggregate particles and cement paste was better due to angular MFA as a result of crushing. The compressive strength of Virginia limestone was 28 percent higher than the control batch. On the other hand for fixed slump, the compressive strength of the control batch was higher than for most MFA concretes. The differences in compressive strength at 7 and 28 days, however, between control batch and most MFA concrete batches were at most 10 percent. Hence, if chemical admixtures are used to increase the workability for MFA concrete, the compressive strength could be improved compared to that of natural sand concrete.
6.5.2.2 Flexural Strength The Table 6.8 and Figures 6.6 and 6.7 show 7-day flexural strengths for each type of aggregate. It should be noted that the flexural strengths of most MFA concretes were higher than for the control batch for either fixed water-cement ratio
135 or fixed slump. Even though the relationship between compressive and flexural strength is usually proportional in a typical concrete batch using natural sand, the relationship cannot be applied to MFA concrete batches. The reason for a
different relationship between compressive and flexural strength for MFA concrete is that some characteristics of MFA (such as higher micro fines, particle shape and texture) improve the flexural capacity of concrete compared to those of natural sand. Hence, it is concluded that the usual relationship between compressive and flexural strength does not apply to MFA concrete, since some characteristics of MFA improves the flexural capacity.
6.5.2.3 Drying Shrinkage The test results for drying shrinkage are shown in Table 6.8 and Figures 6.8 and 6.9. As shown in the figures, the drying shrinkages of most MFA concrete were higher than that of the control batch. In the table and the figures, it is noted that even though the water-cement ratio is the same the drying shrinkage of concrete could be different according to the type of rock. Since the drying
shrinkage is related to a restraining influence of aggregate, the amount of aggregate in the concrete and the stiffness of aggregate affect the drying shrinkage of concrete. However, the water demand is the most important factor affecting the drying shrinkage, hence it is concluded that to reduce drying shrinkage in MFA concrete, chemical admixtures should be used to reduce the amount of water.
136 Table 6.8: Test Results of Compressive Strength, Flexural Strength, and Drying Shrinkage of Concrete
ID No. Natural Sand-F PA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/GT/05-00/68-F SD/QZ/06-00/65-F VA/DI/06-00/65-F OK/DO/06-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/00-F VA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/36-F CT/BA/19-02/68-F PA/SS/09-00/68-F Natural Sand-V PA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/GT/05-00/68-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V VA/DI/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/00-V VA/LS/05-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V CT/BA/19-02/68-V PA/SS/09-00/68-V Compressive Strength (psi) 7 days 3430 3840 3870 3990 4290 4150 4950 3950 3920 3360 4240 3970 3840 3870 3810 3660 3990 2670 3950 3920 2860 3500 28 days 4680 4850 5120 5370 5440 5290 5990 4900 5200 4310 5290 5260 4850 5120 5020 4820 5070 3710 4900 5200 4230 4900 Flexural Strength at 7 days (psi) 580 730 670 680 690 680 790 730 720 650 710 660 730 670 670 620 680 720 730 720 600 680 Drying Shrinkage at 28 days (%) 0.013 0.021 0.016 0.010 0.020 0.017 0.011 0.012 0.007 0.013 0.011 0.009 0.021 0.016 0.012 0.020 0.017 0.017 0.012 0.007 0.021 0.018
6000
28-day Compressive Strength (psi)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate
Figure 6.4: Twenty-eight-day Concrete Compressive Strength for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed W/C)
137
6000
28-day Compressive Strength (psi)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Figure 6.5: Twenty-eight-day Concrete Compressive Strength for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed Slump)
138
800 700 7-day Flexural Strength (psi) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate
Figure 6.6: Seven-day Concrete Flexural Strength for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed W/C)
139
800 700 7-day Flexural Strength (psi) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate
Figure 6.7: Seven-day Concrete Flexural Strength for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed Slump)
140
141
0.040
0.035
0.030
Drying Shrinkage (%)
0.025
Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
Time (days)
Figure 6.8: Drying Shrinkage of Concrete for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed W/C)
142
0.040
0.035
0.030
0.025
Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
Time (days)
Figure 6.9: Drying Shrinkage of Concrete for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed Slump)
143 6.5.3 Final Hardened Concrete Testing Based on the fresh and preliminary hardened concrete test results, three samples (South Dakota quartzite, Oklahoma dolomite, and Virginia limestone) were selected for final concrete testing. Those three samples were tested using fixed slump batches. The following section presents the test results of final
hardened concrete testing using natural sand and selected three samples.
6.5.3.1 Chloride Ion Permeability Table 6.9 shows the chloride ion permeability based on charge passed (ASTM C1202). As shown in the table, typical concrete, which has moderate permeability, shows 2,000 to 4,000 coulombs. The test results of chloride ion permeability using selected samples are shown in Table 6.10 and Figures 6.10 and 6.11. As shown in the figures for fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA concretes showed less 28-day adjusted charge passed than that of the control batch. As mentioned above, the reason for lower
permeability for MFA concretes is that higher micro fines fill the voids among aggregate particles and it results in making less permeable concrete. The
permeability of most MFA concrete, however, was high (over 4000 coulombs) regardless of fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump. It is recommended that mineral admixtures (such as fly ash, silica fume, etc) be used to make less permeable MFA concrete.
144 Table 6.9: Chloride Ion Permeability Based on Charge Passed (ASTM C1202)
Charge Passed (coulombs) >4,000 2,000 ~ 4,000 1,000 ~ 2,000 100 ~ 1,000 <100 Chloride Ion Permeability High Moderate Low Very Low Negligible
Table 6.10: Test Results of Permeability and Abrasion of Concrete

Chloride Ion Permeability Adjusted Charge Passed at 28days (Coulombs) 5800 5370 5610 4250 5180 5070 2940 4100 3860 3800 4460 4570 4840 5480 4510 Abrasion Loss in Mass at 28 days (%) 0.24 0.21 0.23 0.12 0.17 0.15 0.15 0.21 0.13 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.14
ID No. Natural Sand-F PA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/GT/05-00/68-F SD/QZ/06-00/65-F VA/DI/06-00/65-F OK/DO/06-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/00-F VA/LS/05-00/65-F VA/LS/05-00/36-F CT/BA/19-02/68-F PA/SS/09-00/68-F Natural Sand-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V
6000 28-day Adjusted Charge Passed (Coulombs)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Figure 6.10: Chloride Ion Permeability of Concrete for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed W/C) 145
146
6000 28-day Adjusted Charge Passed (Coulombs) 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Control QZ DO LS(VA)3 Type of Aggregate
Figure 6.11: Chloride Ion Permeability of Concrete for Each Type of Aggregate(Fixed Slump)
6.5.3.2 Abrasion Resistance The test results for abrasion resistance are shown in Table 6.10 and Figures 6.12 and 6.13. Similar to the permeability results, for fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA concretes showed less 28-day abrasion loss than that of the control batch, due to higher micro fines and more angular particle shape than natural sand. As shown in Figure 6.12 for fixed slump, even though the abrasion loss of the control batch concrete was lower than that of MFA concretes the difference was not significant. Hence, it is concluded that if chemical admixtures are used to improve workability, abrasion loss of MFA concrete can be improved compared to natural sand concrete.
147
0.16 28-day Abrasion Loss in Mass (%) 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 Control QZ DO LS(VA)3 Type of Aggregate
Figure 6.12 Abrasion Loss of Concrete in Mass for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed Slump)
6.5.3.3 Scaling Resistance by Deicing Chemicals Table 6.11 shows the scaling rating according to the surface condition based on ASTM C672. The rating is determined visually and is subjective. The specimens were subjected to one cycle per day. The test results for scaling resistance are shown in Table 6.12. The table gives the number of cycles required to reach each scaling. As shown in the table all MFA concretes required more cycles to reach rating 5 (severe scaling) than those of the control batch. The number of cycles, however, was smaller than the 50 cycles that typical concretes require.
0.25
28-day Abrasion Loss in Mass (%)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
Figure 6.13: Abrasion Loss of Concrete in Mass for Each Type of Aggregate (Fixed W/C)
148
149 Since the air content of the batches was lower than 2 percent (entrapped air). Generally speaking, to resist freezing and thawing for a reasonable period of time, the air content of the concrete should be at least 4 percent. Hence it is recommended that AEA (air entrainment agent) be used to produce more than 4 percent air content in the MFA concretes.
Table 6.11: Rating of Scaling Based on Condition of Surface (ASTM C 672)

Rating 0 1 2 3 4 5 No scaling Very slight scaling (1/8 in. (3.2 mm) depth, max, no coarse aggregate visible) Slight to moderate scaling Moderate scaling (some coarse aggregate visible) Moderate to severe scaling Severe scaling (coarse aggregate visible over entire surface) Condition of Surface
Table 6.12: Test Results of Scaling of Concrete by Deicing Chemicals

ID No. Natural Sand-V SD/QZ/06-00/65-V OK/DO/06-00/65-V VA/LS/05-00/36-V Needed Cycles to Reach Each Scaling Rating Rating 1 1 6 1 3 Rating 2 3 14 3 6 Rating 3 5 19 5 10 Rating 4 10 24 14 14 Rating 5 14 28 19 19
150 6.6 Case Study Based on the concrete test results, one sample (VA/LS/05-00/65) was selected for a case study. The case study was performed to investigate the effect of micro fines content on the properties of hardened concrete. A control batch using natural sand was made to compare the results. The following sections outline the materials, the test procedures, mixture proportioning, and the results and discussion of the case study.
6.6.1 Materials Based on the methylene blue test results and fresh and hardened concrete test results, it was found that Virginia limestone (VA/LS/05-00/65) was the best aggregate used. Hence, all micro fines of the sample were sieved and prepared. The sample contains 13 percent micro fines. Extra micro fines were added to make 17 percent and 20 percent of micro fines content samples. The same type I cement used in the concrete tests, was used in the case study. admixtures were used in this case study. No chemical
6.6.2 Testing Procedures Since the case study was conducted to investigate the effect of micro fines content on the properties of hardened concrete, fresh concrete tests except the slump test were not performed. Compressive strength at 28 days (ASTM C39),
151 flexural strength at 7 days (ASTM 78-94), drying shrinkage (ASTM 157-93), and chloride ion penetration test (ASTM C1202-97) were performed. procedures were discussed in the Section 6.3.2 and 6.3.3. The test
6.6.3 Mixture Proportioning The same cement content (5 sacks per cubic yard of concrete) was used in concrete batches of the case study. In addition the same ratio (0.42) of sand/total aggregate by volume was used. The only difference in the mixture proportions was the micro fines content per batch (13%, 17%, and 20%). The different micro fines contents resulted in different specific gravity and absorptions.
6.6.4 Test Results and Discussion 6.6.4.1 Compressive Strength The test results for compressive strength for different micro fines contents of Virginia limestone are shown in Table 6.13 and Figure 6.14. As shown in the figure, with increasing micro fines content the 28-day compressive strength was slightly decreased. Since the batches used fixed slump, the batch using 20 percent micro fines obviously needed more water. As a result the compressive strength was decreased. If chemical admixtures were used to increase the workability, compressive strength could be improved. Hence, it is concluded that if the MBV is low (less than 0.5) and chemical admixtures are used to improve workability of
152 concrete batch, 20 percent of micro fines content can likely be used to make good quality concrete.
Table 6.13: Test Results of Compressive Strength and Flexural Strength of Concrete for Different Micro Fines Content of Virginia Limestone
ID No. Natural Sand-V (3%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (13%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (17%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (20%) Compressive Strength at 28 days (psi) 5260 4900 4850 4530 Flexural Strength at 7 days (psi) 660 730 710 700
5600 28-day Compressive Strength (psi) 4800 4000 3200 2400 1600 800 0 Natural Sand 13% 17% 20% Control vs Micro Fines Content of Virginia Lim estone
Figure 6.14: Twenty-eight-day Concrete Compressive Strength for Different Micro Fines Contents of Virginia Limestone (Fixed Slump)
153 6.6.4.2 Flexural Strength The test results for flexural strength for different micro fines content of Virginia limestone are shown in Table 6.13 and Figure 6.15. It should be noted that all MFA concretes with 13, 17, and 20 percent micro fines contents showed higher flexural strengths than that of the control batch. As mentioned in section 6.5.2.2, MFA with higher micro fines improves the flexural capacity of concrete compared to those of natural sand for the same conditions. If chemical admixtures are used the difference could be larger.
740 720 7-day Flexural Strength (psi) 700 680 660 640 620 600 Natural Sand 13% 17% 20% Control vs Micro Fines Content of Virginia Lim estone
Figure 6.15: Seven-day Concrete Flexural Strength for Different Micro Fines Content of Virginia Limestone (Fixed Slump)
154 6.6.4.3 Drying Shrinkage The test results for drying shrinkage for different micro fines contents of Virginia limestone are shown in Table 6.14 and Figure 6.16. As shown in the figure, 28-day drying shrinkage was proportionally increased for increasing micro fines content. As mentioned in Section 6.5.2.3, since drying shrinkage is directly related to the amount of water used in the concrete batches, higher water demand with higher micro fines content resulted in higher drying shrinkage. It should be noted that some characteristics of MFA, that could improve the strengths, could not improve the drying shrinkage. Hence, it is concluded that to reduce drying shrinkage in MFA concrete, chemical or mineral admixtures should be used to reduce the amount of water. An alternate is to use a chemical admixture which can reduce drying shrinkage.
Table 6.14: Test Results of Drying Shrinkage and Chloride Ion Permeability of Concrete for Different Micro Fines Content of Virginia Limestone
ID No. Natural Sand-V (3%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (13%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (17%) VA/LS/05-00/65-V (20%) Drying Shrinkage at 28 days (%) 0.009 0.012 0.014 0.016 Chloride Ion Permeability Adjusted Charge Passed at 28days (Coulombs) 4570 4100 4250 4880
155
0.016 0.014 28-day Drying Shrinkage (%) 0.012 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 Natural Sand 13% 17% 20% Control vs Micro Fines Content of Virginia Lim estone
Figure 6.16: Twenty-eight-day Concrete Drying Shrinkage for Different Micro Fines Content of Virginia Limestone (Fixed Slump)
6.6.4.4 Chloride Ion Permeability The test results for chloride ion permeability for different micro fines content of Virginia limestone are shown in Table 6.14 and Figure 6.17. As shown in the figure, MFA concrete with 13 and 17 percent micro fines content showed lower permeability than that of the control batch. For MFA concrete with 20 percent micro fines content the permeability was slightly larger than that of the control batch. Similar to flexural strength, the permeability of MFA concrete with higher content of micro fines can be improved regardless of fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump. As mentioned Section in 6.5.3.1, the penetrability of most MFA concrete was high (above 4000 coulombs) regardless of the micro fines
156 content. Hence, it is recommended that mineral admixtures be used to make less permeable concrete.
5000 28-day Adjusted Charge Passed (Coulombs) 4800 4600 4400 4200 4000 3800 3600 Natural Sand 13% 17% 20% Control vs Micro Fines Content of Virginia Lim estone
Figure 6.17: Twenty-eight-day Concrete Chloride Ion Permeability for Different Micro Fines Content of Virginia Limestone (Fixed Slump)
6.7
Summary After performing screening and aggregate characterization tests and mortar
tests, various concrete tests were conducted to investigate the effect of MFA on the properties of concrete. Fresh and hardened concrete tests as well as a case study to investigate the effect of micro fines content on the properties of hardened concrete were performed.
157 A control batch using natural sand had high slump (7.5 inches) was compared to that of the MFA batches for fixed water-cement ratio batches. Sometimes low slump batches showed low Vebe times for a fixed water-cement ratio. Even if a concrete batch showed low slump it could be a workable batch due to short compacting time. It is concluded that the slump test is not adequate to evaluate the workability of concrete batches. There was no significant temperature change for fixed water-cement and fixed slump concrete batches. For either fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump, the unit weight of MFA batches was higher than that of the control batch since micro fines filled the voids among aggregate particles. For fixed water-cement ratio most MFA concretes showed higher compressive strengths than the control batch. On the other hand for fixed slump, the compressive strength of the control batch was higher than for most MFA concretes. If chemical admixtures are used to increase the workability for MFA concrete, the compressive strength could be improved compared to that of natural sand concrete. The flexural strengths of most MFA concretes were higher than for the control batch for either fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump. It is
concluded that the usual relationship between compressive and flexural strength for natural sand concrete cannot be applied to MFA concrete since MFA improves the flexural capacity regardless of a slump value. The drying shrinkage of most MFA concretes were higher than that of the control batch for either fixed water-
158 cement ratio or fixed slump. It is concluded that to reduce drying shrinkage in MFA concrete, chemical admixtures should be used to reduce the amount of water. For fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA concretes showed less 28-day permeability based on the rapid chloride permeability test than that of the control batch. The permeability of most MFA concrete, however, was high (over 4000 coulombs) regardless of fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump. It is
recommended that mineral admixtures (such as fly ash, silica fume, etc) be used to reduce the chloride ion permeability. For fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA
concretes showed less 28-day abrasion loss than that of the control batch, due to higher micro fines content and more angular particle shape than natural sand. It is likely that if chemical admixtures are used to improve workability, abrasion loss of MFA concrete can be improved compared to natural sand concrete. All MFA concretes required more cycles to reach rating 5 (severe scaling) than those of the control batch. The number of cycles, however, was smaller than the 50 cycles that typical concrete requires. It is recommended that AEA (air entrainment agent) be used to produce more than 4 percent entrained air content in the MFA concretes which will provide improved scaling resistance. For a case study using Virginia limestone, increasing the micro fines content resulted in a slight decrease in the 28-day compressive strength. If the MBV is low (less than 0.5) and chemical admixtures are used to improve workability of concrete batch, it is possible that 20 percent of micro fines content
159 can be used to make good quality concrete. All MFA concretes with 13, 17, and 20 percent micro fines contents showed higher flexural strengths than that of the control batch. Increasing micro fines content resulted in the 28-day drying
shrinkage to be proportionally increased. MFA concrete with 13 and 17 percent micro fines content showed lower permeability than that of the control batch. For MFA concrete with 20 percent micro fines content the permeability was slightly higher than that of the control batch.
CHAPTER SEVEN: CORRELATIONS OF TEST RESULTS
7.1
Introduction Using test results (aggregate characterization, mortar, and concrete),
graphical and statistical analyses were performed to establish the relationship among the test results and to make guidelines for using higher micro fines in portland cement concrete. The following sections outline correlations of the test results and correlated equations of test results using regression.
7.2
Correlations of Test Results The correlations among test results (aggregate characterization, mortar, and
concrete) were analyzed using a SPSS statistical computer program.
The
following sections outline the correlations of aggregate properties, the correlations between aggregate and mortar properties, and the correlations between aggregate and concrete properties.
7.2.1 Correlations of Aggregate Properties The graphical and statistical analyses of aggregate properties are presented in this section. A total of 112 sands for ICAR was used in the analyses. Vulcan Materials Company and Svedala Barmac performed characterization tests on 204 sands from 29 locations. The analysis of this data can be found in Appendix E. 160
161 7.2.1.1 Statistical Analysis of Aggregate Properties In a statistical analysis software (SPSS), Pearson correlation coefficients, two-tailed significance level, and bivariate correlation were used. Pearson correlation coefficients assume the data are normally distributed. The Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of linear association between two variables. The values of the correlation coefficient range from 1 to 1. The sign of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the relationship (positive or negative). The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength. The values near 0 indicate a very weak linear relationship. The strength of the relationship increases as the values move away from 0 toward either 1 or 1. The significance level (or p-value) is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as the one observed. If the significance level is very small (less than 0.05) then the correlation is significant to 0.05 significance level and the two variables are linearly related. On the other hand if the significance level is relatively large (for instance, 0.50) then the correlation is not significant and the two variables are not linearly related. However, even if the correlation between two variables is not significant, the variables may be correlated but the relationship is not linear. Since the Pearson correlation does not describe nonlinear relationships between variables, no matter how strong they are. The aggregate properties used in the analysis for all 112 sands were crushing speed, bulk specific gravity at oven dry condition, absorption capacity,
162 micro fines content, fineness modulus, and methylene blue value (MBV). The voids content (ASTM C 1252, method A) was analyzed using only 63 of the sands. The fineness modulus was calculated by a typical method that cumulative percent retained samples on standard sieves between #100 through 3/8 inch are divided by 100. The correlations of aggregate properties are shown in Table 7.1. Significant correlations at the 0.01 and 0.05 level are shown in bold with two asterisks and one asterisk, respectively. As shown in the table, the following correlations of aggregate properties were found (+ indicates increasing, indicates decreasing): 1) Crushing speed (+): absorption capacity (-), fines content (+), fineness modulus (-), voids content (-) 2) Bulk specific gravity (+): voids content (+), MBV (-), 3) Absorption capacity (+): fines content (+), fineness modulus (+), MBV(+) 4) Fines content (+): fineness modulus (-), MBV (+) 5) Fineness modulus (+): voids content (+), MBV (+) and the two variables were linearly related. It was noted that the Pearson correlation coefficients were relatively low numbers ranging from 0.2 to 0.6. Since a total of 112 sands (7 different types of rock) was used in the analyses, the deviation was high. Even if the Pearson correlation coefficients were relatively low numbers, they were accepted since the
163 Table 7.1: Correlations of Aggregate Properties

Bulk Crushing Specific Absorption Speed Gravity Capacity (OD) -.213* Pearson Correlation 1.000 .052 Sig. (2-tailed) . .584 .025 Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Absorption Capacity Fines Content Fineness Modulus Voids Content MBV Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .052 .584 -.213* .025 .472** .000 -.553** .000 -.571** .000 -.091 .341 1.000 . -.176 .065 .152 .110 -.063 .507 .542** .000 -.305** .001 -.176 .065 1.000 . -.020 .837 .433** .000 .012 .926 .469** .000
Fines Content .472** .000 .152 .110 -.020 .837 1.000 . -.473** .000 -.134 .295 .212* .025
Fineness Modulus -.553** .000 -.063 .507 .433** .000 -.473** .000 1.000 . .262* .038 .234* .013
Voids Content -.571** .000 .542** .000 .012 .926 -.134 .295 .262* .038 1.000 . .046 .720
MBV
Crushing Speed Bulk Specific Gravity
-.091 .341 -.305** .001 .469** .000 .212* .025 .234* .013 .046 .720 1.000 .
N = 112, * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
164 objective of the statistical analysis was to investigate the general trend of correlations of aggregate properties instead of correlations of aggregate properties for different types of rock.
7.2.1.2 Chemical Composition versus Methylene Blue Value A statistical analysis between chemical composition and methylene blue value was performed on selected samples to investigate the correlation of the two variables. As mentioned in Section 4.4.7, there were two series of chemical
analyses in this study. Series 1 used the selected aggregate samples with micro fines directly delivered from the quarry, and Series 2 used material obtained from crushing sizes larger than 4.75mm (0.187 in.). In the analysis, the chemical
composition of Series 1 was used since the methylene blue test was performed using micro fines instead of the material larger than 4.75mm (0.187 in.). The correlations between chemical composition and methylene blue value are shown in Table 7.2. As shown in the table, there is no significant correlation observed based on a 0.05 significance level and, hence, the two variables were not linearly related.
165 Table 7.2: Correlations between Chemical Composition of Series 1 and MBV
MBV CaO MgO Fe2O3 Na2O K2O MnO TiO2 SiO2 Al2O3 Ignition Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .317 .405 -.305 .425 .139 .721 .096 .806 .153 .694 .343 .367 .156 .688 -.198 .610 .183 .637 .060 .878
7.2.2 Correlations between Aggregate and Mortar Properties The statistical analyses of correlations between aggregate and mortar properties are presented in this section. A total of 50 sands (300 batches) was used in the analyses. The aggregate properties used in the analysis were crushing speed, bulk specific gravity at oven dry condition, absorption capacity, voids content (ASTM C 1252, method A), micro fines content, fineness modulus and modified
166 methylene blue value (MMBV). The modified methylene blue value represents the methylene blue value multiplied by micro fines content (%). Since mortar and concrete specimens were made using whole samples including all micro fines instead of a part of sample (20g of micro fines) that was used in the methylene blue test, the methylene blue value should be multiplied by the micro fines content to compensate the MBV for the extra micro fines. The mortar properties used in the analysis were flow for fixed water-cement ratio, water-cement ratio for fixed flow, 28-day compressive strength for fixed water-cement ratio and fixed flow, and 28-day drying shrinkage for fixed water-cement ratio and fixed flow. The correlations between aggregate and mortar properties are shown in Table 7.3. In the table, the average values of the compressive strength and drying shrinkage of three batches (LF, MF, HF or LV, MV, HV) were used. Crushing speed and fineness modulus were omitted since there is no significant correlation between them and the other mortar properties. As shown in the table, the following correlations between aggregate and mortar properties were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed watercement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow(-), 28-day drying shrinkage (+)
Table 7.3: Correlations between Aggregate and Mortar Properties

Flow for Fixed W/C Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Absorption Capacity Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Fines Content Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Voids Content Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) MMBV Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Flow for Fixed W/C Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Water-Cement Ratio Pearson Correlation for Fixed Flow Sig. (2-tailed) 28-day Compressive Strength Pearson Correlation for Fixed W/C Sig. (2-tailed) 28-day Compressive Strength Pearson Correlation for Fixed Flow Sig. (2-tailed) 28-day Drying Shrinkage Pearson Correlation for Fixed W/C Sig. (2-tailed) 28-day Drying Shrinkage Pearson Correlation for Fixed Flow Sig. (2-tailed) Bulk Specific Gravity -.067 .643 .083 .566 -.640** .000 -.402* .030 -.545** .000 1.000 . -.908** .000 .430** .002 .771** .000 -.474** .001 -.579** .000 W/C for Fixed Flow -.039 .788 .046 .753 -.514** .000 .373* .046 .772** .000 -.908** .000 1.000 . -.452** .001 -.852** .000 .663** .000 .771** .000 28-day 28-day 28-day 28-day Drying Drying Compressive Compressive Strength for Strength for Shrinkage for Shrinkage for Fixed Flow Fixed W/C Fixed Flow Fixed W/C .292* .040 -.155 .283 -.185 .198 .041 .831 -.342* .015 .430** .002 -.452** .001 1.000 . .734** .000 -.261 .067 -.328* .001 .183 .203 -.311* .028 -.386** .006 -.357 .057 -.729** .000 .771** .000 -.852** .000 .734** .000 1.000 . -.644** .000 -.726** .000 -.210 .142 .511** .000 .230 .109 .174 .367 .822** .000 -.474** .001 .663** .000 -.261 .067 -.644** .000 1.000 . .970** .000 -.171 .235 .430** .002 .279* .049 .273 .151 .867** .000 -.579** .000 .771** .000 -.328* .020 -.726** .000 .970** .000 1.000 .
N = 50,
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed),
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
167 3) Fines content (+): Flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (-), 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow (-), 28-day drying shrinkage for fixed flow (+) 4) Voids content (+): flow for fixed water-cement ratio (-), water-cement ratio for fixed flow (+) 5) Modified MBV (+): flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (+), 28-day compressive strength (-), 28-day drying shrinkage (+) 6) Flow for fixed water-cement ratio (+): water-cement ratio for fixed flow (-), 28-day compressive strength (+), 28-day drying shrinkage (-) and the two variables were linearly related. The fines content and modified methylene blue value (MMBV) had significant linear correlations with most of mortar properties. The Pearson
correlation coefficients, however, were higher values for the correlation between the modified methylene blue value and mortar properties than the correlation of fines content. It indicates that the modified methylene blue value is more accurate than fines content as the factor relating mortar properties. In other words, the modified methylene blue value is a better predictor of mortar properties than the micro fines content.
168 7.2.3 Correlations between Aggregate and Concrete Properties Using the concrete test results for 10 sands (20 batches), statistical analyses of correlations between aggregate and concrete properties were performed. As for the correlation between aggregate and mortar properties, the aggregate properties used in the analysis were bulk specific gravity at oven dry condition, absorption capacity, voids content (ASTM C 1252, method A), micro fines content, and modified methylene blue value (MMBV). The concrete properties used in the analysis were slump for fixed water-cement ratio, water-cement ratio for fixed slump, Vebe time, unit weight, air content, 28-day compressive strengths, 7-day flexural strengths, and 28-day drying shrinkages. The correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed water-cement ratio are shown in Table 7.4. Crushing speed and fineness modulus were omitted since there is no correlation between them and the other concrete properties. As shown in the table, the following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed water-cement ratio were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day drying shrinkages for fixed watercement ratio (+) 3) Voids content (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (-) and the variables were linearly related.
Table 7.4: Correlations between Aggregate and Concrete Properties (Fixed W/C)
Slump Bulk Specific Gravity Absorption % Fines Content Voids Content MMBV Slump Vebe Time Unit Weight Air Content Compressive Strength Flexural Strength Drying Shrinkage Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) -.247 .492 .555 .096 -.038 .916 -.486 .154 -.209 .562 1.000 . -.529 .116 -.184 .611 .213 .554 -.061 .867 .186 .608 .318 .370 Vebe Time .532 .113 -.365 .300 -.624 .054 .619 .056 -.141 .698 -.529 .116 1.000 . .493 .147 .112 .757 .273 .445 .311 .381 -.425 .220 Unit Weight .937** .000 -.487 .154 -.352 .318 .643* .045 -.177 .624 -.184 .611 .493 .147 1.000 . -.498 .143 -.154 .671 .078 .831 -.502 .139 Air Content -.329 .354 .308 .386 -.058 .873 .028 .938 .005 .990 .213 .554 .112 .757 -.498 .143 1.000 . .414 .234 .032 .931 .267 .456 Compressive Strength .061 .867 -.406 .244 -.513 .129 .054 .883 -.117 .748 -.061 .867 .273 .445 -.154 .671 .414 .234 1.000 . .588 .074 -.155 .669 Flexural Strength .065 .858 -.181 .616 -.731* .016 -.272 .447 -.505 .136 .186 .608 .311 .381 .078 .831 .032 .931 .588 .074 1.000 . -.202 .577 Drying Shrinkage -.376 .284 .765** .010 .672* .033 -.196 .588 .741* .014 .318 .370 -.425 .220 -.502 .139 .267 .456 -.155 .669 -.202 .577 1.000 .
171 Since the samples that had high mortar cube compressive strengths as well as high micro fines content were selected for concrete tests, the correlations between compressive strength versus fines content as well as modified methylene blue value were relatively weak. However, they had significant linear correlations with flexural strength and drying shrinkage. For slump and Vebe time, there was no correlation with other concrete properties. The correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed slump are shown in Table 7.5. As shown in the table, the following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed slump were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed slump (+) 2) Voids content (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (-) 3) Water-cement ratio (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (+) and the variables were linearly related. Comparing the factors of fines content and modified methylene blue value (MMBV), there was no correlation between fines content and any concrete properties for fixed slump. On the other hand the modified methylene blue value had significant linear correlations with water-cement ratio and 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump. Hence, the modified methylene blue value has more influence than fines content on mortar and concrete properties.
Table 7.5: Correlations between Aggregate and Concrete Properties (Fixed Slump)
W/C Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Absorption % Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Fines Content Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Voids Content Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) MMBV Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Water-Cement Ratio Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Vebe Time Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Unit Weight Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Air Content Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Compressive Strength Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Flexural Strength Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Drying Shrinkage Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) Bulk Specific Gravity .188 .604 -.230 .524 .300 .400 .553 .097 .744* .014 1.000 . .077 .832 -.327 .356 .363 .303 -.221 .539 -.730* .016 .417 .231 Vebe Time .401 .250 -.322 .364 -.285 .424 .247 .491 .105 .773 .077 .832 1.000 . .406 .244 -.406 .245 .243 .499 -.003 .994 -.295 .408 Unit Weight .827** .003 -.280 .433 -.297 .405 .401 .250 -.273 .445 -.327 .356 .406 .244 1.000 . -.610 .061 -.102 .779 .126 .729 -.466 .175 Air Content -.224 .533 .087 .811 -.007 .984 .185 .610 .216 .549 .363 .303 -.406 .245 -.610 .061 1.000 . -.340 .337 -.216 .549 .409 .240 Compressive Strength -.334 .346 .066 .857 .456 .185 -.428 .217 .097 .789 -.221 .539 .243 .499 -.102 .779 -.340 .337 1.000 . .103 .778 -.425 .221 Flexural Strength -.205 .571 -.001 .997 -.482 .158 -.681* .030 -.680* .030 -.730* .016 -.003 .994 .126 .729 -.216 .549 .103 .778 1.000 . -.473 .167 Drying Shrinkage -.300 .399 .575 .082 .396 .257 .131 .719 .584 .077 .417 .231 -.295 .408 -.466 .175 .409 .240 -.425 .221 -.473 .167 1.000 .
173 7.3 Correlated Equations among Test Results using Regression While the statistical analysis was performed to investigate the linear correlation of variables, a least-squares regression analysis was performed to find nonlinear correlated equations of variables. Using the regression analysis, correlated equations among test results are presented in this section. In the least-squares regression analysis, the square of correlation, R2, is the fraction of the variation in the value of Y that is explained by the least-squares regression of Y on X. The correlated equations between aggregate and mortar as well as concrete properties were investigated. Based on the statistical analysis in previous sections, the factors that had significant correlations were used in the regression analysis.
7.3.1 Correlated Equations of Aggregate and Mortar Properties Using the least-squares regression analysis, second order polynomial equations were found. The aggregate properties used in the regression analysis were modified methylene blue value (MMBV), micro fines content, and absorption capacity that turned out to be the factors deciding mortar properties. A total of 50 sands (16 different sources) was used in the analysis. The trend of the correlation per each type of rock could be different from the general trend. The mortar properties used in the analysis were 28-day compressive strengths for fixed flow and 28-day drying shrinkages for fixed flow.
174 7.3.1.1 Compressive Strength Figures 7.1 through 7.3 show the correlations of MMBV, fines content and absorption capacity with 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow. As shown in Figure 7.1, the 28-day mortar cube compressive strength decreased as the modified methylene blue value increased. The equation relating modified methylene blue value and 28-day mortar cube compressive strength is: Y = 9505 4182 X + 692 X2 (7.1)
for which X is the modified methylene blue value and the value of R2 is 0.57.
12000
Compressive Strength (psi)
10000
8000
6000
4000
y = 692.42x 2 - 4181.8x + 9505.4 R2 = 0.5674
2000
0 0 0.5
Modified MBV
1.5
Figure 7.1: Correlation between Modified Methylene Blue Value and 28-day Mortar Cube Compressive Strength (Fixed Flow)
175 As shown in Figure 7.2, the 28-day mortar cube compressive strength slightly decreased as the micro fines content increased. The equation relating micro fines content and 28-day mortar cube compressive strength is:
Y = 9746 - 109 X + 0.52 X2
(7.2)
for which X is the micro fines content and the value of R2 is 0.15.
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
y = 0.5197x2 - 108.57x + 9745.5 R2 = 0.1494
2000
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Micro Fines Content (%)
Figure 7.2: Correlation between Micro Fines Content and 28-day Mortar Cube Compressive Strength (Fixed Flow)
176
As shown in Figure 7.3, the 28-day mortar cube compressive strength slightly decreased as absorption capacity increased. The equation relating
absorption capacity and 28-day mortar cube compressive strength is:
Y = 9021 704 X + 94 X2
(7.3)
for which X is the absorption capacity and the value of R2 is 0.10.

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
y = 93.553x - 704.49x + 9020.8 2 R = 0.0973
2000
0 0 0.5
Absorption Capacity (%)
1.5
2.5
Figure 7.3: Correlation between Absorption Capacity and 28-day Mortar Cube Compressive Strength (Fixed Flow)
177 7.3.1.2 Drying Shrinkage Figures 7.4 through 7.6 show the correlations of MMBV, fines content and absorption capacity with 28-day mortar drying shrinkage for fixed flow. As shown in Figure 7.4, the 28-day mortar drying shrinkage increased as the modified methylene blue value increased. The equation relating modified methylene blue value and 28-day mortar drying shrinkage is: Y = 0.0704 + 0.0538 X 0.0017 X2 for which X is the modified methylene blue value and the value of R2 is 0.78.
0.1800 0.1600
(7.4)
0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 0 0.5
y = -0.0017x2 + 0.0538x + 0.0704 R2 = 0.779
Modified MBV
1.5
Figure 7.4: Correlation between Modified Methylene Blue Value and 28-day Mortar Drying Shrinkage (Fixed Flow)
178 As shown in Figure 7.5, the 28-day mortar drying shrinkage slightly increased as micro fines content increased. The equation relating micro fines content and 28-day mortar drying shrinkage is:
Y = 0.06 + 0.003 X - 0.00008 X2 for which X is the micro fines content and the value of R2 is 0.12.
0.1800 0.1600 0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 0 5 10 15 20 25
(7.5)
y = -8E-05x2 + 0.003x + 0.0608 R2 = 0.1167
30
Figure 7.5: Correlation between Micro Fines Content and 28-day Mortar Drying Shrinkage (Fixed Flow)
179 As shown in Figure 7.6, the 28-day mortar drying shrinkage peaks at a value of approximately 1.75% absorption capacity. absorption capacity and 28-day mortar drying shrinkage is: The equation relating
Y = 0.066 + 0.036 X 0.0099 X2 for which X is the absorption capacity and the value of R2 is 0.29.
0.1800 0.1600 0.1400
(7.6)
0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y = -0.0099x2 + 0.0355x + 0.0659 R2 = 0.2903
Absorption Capacity (%)
Figure 7.6: Correlation between Absorption Capacity and 28-day Mortar Drying Shrinkage (Fixed Flow)
180 7.3.2 Correlated Equations of Aggregate and Concrete Properties The equations relating aggregate and concrete properties were found. Since the samples that had high mortar cube compressive strengths as well as high micro fines content were selected for concrete tests, the correlations between concrete compressive strength and fines content as well as modified methylene blue value were relatively weak. Hence, the equations relating 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed water-cement ratio and micro fines content as well as modified methylene blue value were found. For fixed slump, the equations
relating 7-day concrete flexural strength and the modified methylene blue value was found.
7.3.2.1 Drying Shrinkage for Fixed Water-Cement Ratio Figures 7.7 and 7.8 show the correlations of MMBV and fines content with the 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed water-cement ratio. As shown in Figure 7.7, the 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed w/c increased as the modified methylene blue value increased. The equations relating modified
methylene blue value and the 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed w/c is:
Y = 0.0093 + 0.03 X 0.03 X2 for which X is the modified methylene blue value and the value of R2 is 0.61.
(7.7)
181
Dr yin g Sh rin ka ge (% )
0.022 0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2 Y = 0.0093+ 0.03 X - 0.03 X
R2 = 0.61
Modified MBV
Figure 7.7: Correlation between Modified Methylene Blue Value and 28-day Concrete Drying Shrinkage (Fixed W/C)
As shown in Figure 7.8, the 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed w/c increased as micro fines content increased. The equation relating micro fines content and 28-day concrete drying shrinkage for fixed w/c is:
Y = 0.015 0.0017 X + 0.00012 X2 for which X is the micro fines content and the value of R2 is 0.56.
(7.8)
182
0.024 0.022
0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Y = 0.015 - 0.0017 X+ 0.00012 X 2 R 2 = 0.56
Figure 7.8: Correlation between Micro Fines Content and 28-day Concrete Drying Shrinkage (Fixed W/C)
7.3.2.2 Flexural Strength for Fixed Slump Figure 7.9 shows the correlation of modified methylene blue value and 7day concrete flexural strength for fixed slump. As shown in the figure, the 7-day concrete flexural strength for fixed slump decreased as the modified methylene blue value increased. The equation relating modified methylene blue value and the 7-day concrete flexural strength for fixed slump is:
183
Y = 720 263 X + 178 X2 for which X is the modified methylene blue value and the value of R2 is 0.49.
(7.9)
750 5.0
Flexural Strength (psi)
700
650
4.5
600 4.0
Y = 720 - 263 X+ 178

550
X2
R 2 = 0.49
3.5
500 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Modified MBV
Figure 7.9: Correlation between Modified Methylene Blue Value and 7-day Concrete Flexural Strength (Fixed Slump)
7.4
Correlations of Other Test Results The results of a companion study performed by Vulcan Materials Company
were analyzed for correlations and regression. The analysis of this study can be found in Appendix E.
MPa
184 7.5 Summary Using experimental data (aggregate characterization, mortar, and concrete), graphical and statistical analyses were performed in order to establish the relationship among the data and in making guidelines for using higher micro fines in portland cement concrete. The percentage of micro fines increases with increasing crushing speed. The following correlations of aggregate properties were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Crushing speed (+): absorption capacity (-), fines content (+), fineness modulus (-), voids content (-) 2) Bulk specific gravity (+): voids content (+), MBV (-), 3) Absorption capacity (+): fines content (+), fineness modulus (+), MBV(+) 4) Fines content (+): fineness modulus (-), MBV (+) 5) Fineness modulus (+): voids content (+), MBV (+) There is no significant correlation between chemical composition and methylene blue value based on a 0.05 significance level and, hence, the two variables were not linearly related. The following correlations between aggregate and mortar properties were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing):
185 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed watercement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow(-), 28-day drying shrinkage (+) 3) Fines content (+): Flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (-), 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow (-), 28-day drying shrinkage for fixed flow (+) 4) Voids content (+): flow for fixed water-cement ratio (-), water-cement ratio for fixed flow (+) 5) Modified MBV (+): flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (+), 28-day compressive strength (-), 28-day drying shrinkage (+) 6) Flow for fixed water-cement ratio (+): water-cement ratio for fixed flow (-), 28-day compressive strength (+), 28-day drying shrinkage (-) The following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed water-cement ratio were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day drying shrinkages for fixed watercement ratio (+)
186 3) Voids content (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (-) The following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed slump were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed slump (+) 2) Voids content (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (-) 3) Water-cement ratio (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (+)
CHAPTER EIGHT: GUIDELINES FOR USING HIGHER MICRO FINES IN PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
8.1
Introduction Based on experimental data and graphical and statistical analyses using the
data, guidelines for using higher micro fines in portland cement concrete are proposed. The following sections outline guidelines for mixture proportioning for using higher micro fines in portland cement concrete, the classification of manufactured fine aggregate based on their suitability for use and cost analysis.
8.2
Guidelines for Using Higher Micro Fines in Portland Cement Concrete Several guidelines for incorporating the use of higher levels of micro fines
in concrete construction are presented.
8.2.1 Guidelines for Mixture Proportioning for Using Higher Micro Fines in Portland Cement Concrete The test results indicated that good quality concrete could be produced using many of the fine aggregates in the study at micro fine levels of up to 18 percent. As shown in Section 6.5.2.1, for a fixed water-cement ratio most MFA
concretes showed higher compressive strengths at 7 and 28 days than the control batch. This indicates that if chemical admixtures are used to increase the
workability of the MFA concretes, up to 18 percent of micro fines can likely be 187
188 used regardless of the modified methylene blue value. However, a maximum amount of chemical admixtures should be determined by quality control testing to prevent adverse effects on the properties of concrete. The amount of chemical admixture will likely depend, in part, on the properties of manufactured fine aggregate (e.g. grading, particle shape, particle texture, etc). Hence, based on the properties of manufactured fine aggregate and chemical admixtures, the amount of micro fines for each type of sand that can be used in portland cement concrete should be determined. The concrete specimens were made from fine aggregate, which had produced high mortar strengths and had high micro fines contents. As a result the concrete compressive strength had a weak correlation with the micro fines content and with the modified methylene blue values (MMBV). From the mortar tests, it is clear that there is a reduction in strength with increasing MMBV. The reason for the higher levels of MMBV in some aggregates is not yet known. Concrete specimens exhibited higher shrinkage with increasing MMBV. As a result,
caution is recommended when using fine aggregate with high MMBV to produce concrete. For the mixture proportioning of MFA concretes, a volumetric method is recommended since the gradations of MFA do not meet ASTM C 33. The
sequence of mixture proportioning is the selection of water-cement ratio, the minimum amount of cement, and determination of the amount of coarse and fine
aggregates by volume based on voids among the particles.
189 An improved
proportion method based on aggregate shape and texture as well as grading must be developed in order to properly design concrete using high levels of micro fines.
8.2.2 Classification of Manufactured Fine Aggregate Based on Their Suitability for Use Concrete made with micro fines that result in adequate strength and acceptable shrinkage may not have adequate slump for some applications. Slump is not an adequate measure of workability for high fines concrete, but many specifications continue to specify slump limits due to a lack of acceptable measures of workability (TxDOT Specification, 1996). Generally speaking, manufactured fine aggregate can be used in concrete construction requiring low minimum slump. For structural concrete, it includes slabs, concrete overlays, caps, columns, piers, and wall sections over 230 mm (9.1 inches). In addition the MFA can be used in concrete pavements. On the other hand, MFA should be carefully used in concrete construction in which high minimum slump is specified (e.g. drilled shafts and concrete placed underwater). The suitability for use of MFA in concrete construction requiring high minimum slump should be investigated in future research.
190 8.3 Cost Analysis The relative cost of concrete made higher micro fines contents as compared to concrete using current limits of micro fines will vary depending on many factors. Total plant, delivery, sales, and general and administrative expenses will likely be the same for both. For material costs, the concrete with higher micro fines will require more chemical admixtures and coarse aggregate costs but less cement and fine aggregate costs [Hudson, personal communication]. Since there will be a high amount of micro fines in the concrete, more coarse aggregates and less cement can be used and more chemical admixtures will generally be required to increase the workability. Hence, total material costs will probably be slightly decreased compared to the costs of the concrete made with micro fines at current ASTM C 33 limits. Other effects on cost include savings in disposal and handling of excess micro fines and will vary from producers to producers. The improvement in concrete properties including higher flexural strengths, reduced permeability, and greater abrasion resistance is not easy to quantify. The cost of concrete with high micro fines contents is most likely to be very competitive with conventional concrete. The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) estimated that 372 million cubic yards of ready mixed concrete and 4.1 million cubic yards of precast/prestressed used per year in the U.S. [NRMCA, 1998]. Even for 25
191 percent of the annual construction concrete production, if an average of 1,100 lb. of sand per cubic yard of concrete is used, an increase up to 18 percent from the current 5 percent limit would result in the use of 4 million more tons of manufactured fine aggregate each year. At $5.00 per ton this would return $20 million annually to aggregate producers and would eliminate disposing of the fines. Table 8.1 shows tonnage and savings of additional manufactured fine aggregate used in annual concrete production if specifications are changed from the present high of 5 percent to 10 percent replacement of sand, based on an average of 1,100 lb. sand per cubic yard of concrete.
Table 8.1: Tonnage and Savings of Higher Amount of MFA Concretes

Percent Annual Concrete Production 25% 50% Ready-Mix Additional Tons 3,973,750 7,947,500 Precast/Prestressed Additional Tons 43,606 87,212 Additional Tons 4,017,356 8,034,712 Totals Additional Dollars 20,086,781 40,173,562
If higher amounts of micro fines are used in concrete construction, the costs of concrete could be decreased as well as the cost savings due to use of otherwise waste material may result in lots of savings and the improvement of environmental condition.
CHAPTER NINE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1
Summary The increase in production of crushed aggregates has resulted in an
increase in manufactured fine aggregate (MFA). Standard specifications for fine aggregate for concrete contained in ASTM C 33 permit a maximum of 7 percent finer than the No. 200 sieve (75m), if the fines consist of dust-of-fracture essentially free of clay or shale. Since the production process for MFA normally generates 10 to 20 percent of micro fines, excess fines must be separated from the desired sizes by screening or washing operations, or both. Previous studies
indicate an improvement in the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete when the MFA included a higher percentage of micro fines than the 7 percent ASTM C 33 limit. The overall objective of this research study was to determine guidelines for proportioning concrete with higher levels of crushed fines. objectives were to: 1) Develop a classification of crushed fines based on their suitability for use, 2) Develop guidelines for mix proportioning of concrete higher fines contents, 3) Determine the effect of higher amounts for several types of crusher fines on concrete including fresh and hardened properties, 4) Develop modifications to existing construction specifications, 192 Specially, the
193 5) Conduct a cost comparison between concrete containing fines at current fines limits and concrete incorporating higher fines contents.
This research study consisted of four main stages. The first stage was the selection of aggregates that were used in this project. Sixteen sources of
aggregates were used. The aggregate property-testing program was the second stage. The basic aggregate characteristic tests were conducted to select the Five tests were
aggregates that are proper to be tested for the next stage.
performed for 112 sands and seven rock types. The third stage was the mortar testing program to evaluate the use of MFA in mortar. Two variables (the cementsand ratio and the flow rate of mortar) were considered to investigate the characteristics for each type of aggregate in mortar. The fourth stage was the concrete testing program to investigate concrete performance and the properties of concrete. This concrete evaluation included fixed water-cement ratio and fixed slump. After the third and fourth stages were finished, a statistical analysis was conducted to evaluate the effect of the characteristics of fine aggregate on the properties of mortar and concrete. Based on the analysis the guidelines for using higher amount of micro fines in portland cement concrete were suggested. Additionally, a classification of manufactured fine aggregate based on their suitability for use and a cost analysis were discussed.
194 9.2 Conclusions Conclusions have been formulated based on the results of the various investigations conducted during this research study. They have been separated into five primary sub-sections. Based on test results from the laboratory
investigations, the following conclusions were drawn:
9.2.1 Aggregate Characterization Program 1) Samples with high quantities of quartz usually had low absorption; however, a low quantity of quartz in a sample did not always result in high absorption capacity. South Dakota quartzite and some of Pennsylvania sandstone, which had about 80 percent quartz, had low absorption capacity. Virginia limestone, however, had low absorption capacity even though the material has little quartz. 2) Aggregate processing, e.g. tip speed, significantly affected the aggregate particle shape and amount of micro fines produced. 3) Most samples had 5 to 20% micro fines content. The percentage of micro fines definitely increased with increased crushing speed. The gradations of most MFA used in this study did not meet the ASTM C33 specification. 4) ASTM C1252 is not an adequate test to differentiate particle shape and texture of MFA.
195 5) The methylene blue value (MBV) was usually 0.25 to 4.00. Missouri limestone had the highest MBV, up to 12.00. The reason is thought to be due to either the presence of clay or silt and/or the higher amount of very fine particles. 6) The particle size distribution of most samples showed that the highest volume was for the particle size range from 56 to 73m. For Pennsylvania limestone, the highest volumes were in the vicinity of particle size 10m (1st peak) and 60m (2nd peak).
9.2.2 Mortar Testing Program 1) The mortar flows of Pennsylvania and Virginia limestone, Pennsylvania sandstone, and Tennessee dolomite were higher. Missouri limestone,
Virginia diabase, 66-Virginia granite, and Iowa dolomite had lower flows resulted in higher water demand to reach desired workability. 2) Some of the as-received samples had higher flows than those of product samples obtained by crushing after receipt. Since the flow test is dynamic instead of static, the micro fines content as well as particle shape affected the flow rate. The flow of mortar with fixed water-cement ratio depends on micro fines content, particle shape, and methylene blue value. 3) Compressive strengths of mixtures with sandstone, limestone, dolomite and quartzite with low MBV (0.25 to 1.0) were high.
196 9.2.3 Concrete Testing Program 1) A control batch using natural sand had high slump (7.5 inches) compared to that of the MFA batches for fixed water-cement ratio batches. However, the slump test was not adequate to evaluate the workability of concrete batches. 2) No significant temperature difference among the types of aggregates for fixed water-cement and fixed slump concrete batches were observed. 3) For both fixed water-cement ratio and fixed slump, the unit weights of MFA batches were higher than that of the control batch since the higher micro fines content filled the voids among aggregate particles. 4) For fixed water-cement ratio most MFA concretes showed higher compressive strengths than the control batch. For fixed slump, the
compressive strength of the control batch was higher than for most MFA concretes. 5) The flexural strengths of most MFA concretes were higher than for the control batch for both fixed water-cement ratio and fixed slump. The usual relationship between compressive and flexural strengths for natural sand concrete does not apply to MFA concrete. Virginia limestone concrete with 13, 17, and 20 percent micro fines contents had higher flexural strengths than that of the control batch.
197 6) The drying shrinkages of most MFA concretes were higher than that of the control batch for either fixed water-cement ratio or fixed slump. According to increasing micro fines content, 28-day drying shrinkage was proportionally increased. 7) For fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA concretes showed less 28-day permeability based on coulombs passed, than that of the control batch when subject to the rapid chloride permeability test. The permeability of most MFA concretes, however, was high (over 4000 coulombs) for both fixed water-cement ratio and fixed slump. Virginia limestone concrete with 13 and 17 percent micro fines content showed lower permeability than that of the control batch. For Virginia limestone concrete with 20 percent micro fines content, the permeability was slightly larger than that of the control batch. 8) For fixed water-cement ratio, all MFA concretes showed less 28-day abrasion loss than that of the control batch. 9) All MFA concretes required more cycles to reach rating 5 (severe scaling) than those of the control batch. The number of cycles, however, was smaller than the 50 cycles that typical concrete requires. It should be noted that air entrainment agent was not used in these mixtures.
198 9.2.4 Correlations of Test Results It was found that the percentage of micro fines increases with increasing crushing speed. The following correlations of aggregate properties were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Crushing speed (+): absorption capacity (-), fines content (+), fineness modulus (-), voids content (-) 2) Bulk specific gravity (+): voids content (+), MBV (-), 3) Absorption capacity (+): fines content (+), fineness modulus (+), MBV(+) 4) Fines content (+): fineness modulus (-), MBV (+) 5) Fineness modulus (+): voids content (+), MBV (+) There was no significant correlation between chemical composition and methylene blue value. The two variables were not linearly related. The following correlations between aggregate and mortar properties were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed watercement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow(-), 28day drying shrinkage (+) 3) Fines content (+): Flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (-), 28-day compressive strength for fixed flow (-), 28-day drying shrinkage for fixed flow (+)
199 4) Voids content (+): flow for fixed water-cement ratio (-), water-cement ratio for fixed flow (+) 5) Modified MBV (+): flow for fixed w/c ratio (-), w/c ratio for fixed flow (+), 28-day compressive strength (-), 28-day drying shrinkage (+) 6) Flow for fixed water-cement ratio (+): water-cement ratio for fixed flow(-), 28-day compressive strength (+), 28-day drying shrinkage (-) The following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed water-cement ratio were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (+) 2) Absorption capacity (+): 28-day drying shrinkages for fixed water-cement ratio (+) 3) Voids content (+): unit weight for fixed water-cement ratio (-) The following correlations between aggregate and concrete properties for fixed slump were found (+ indicates increasing, - indicates decreasing): 1) Bulk specific gravity (+): unit weight for fixed slump (+) 2) Voids content (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (-) 3) Water-cement ratio (+): 7-day flexural strength for fixed slump (+)
200 9.2.5 Guidelines for Using Higher Micro Fines in Portland Cement Concrete For using micro fines in concrete, the following guidelines for mixture proportioning are proposed. The guidelines are based on the types of MFA used in this study. 1) Up to 18 percent of micro fines investigated in this study can be used in concrete. 2) Based on the properties of MFA and chemical admixtures, the amount of micro fines for each type of sand that can be used in concrete should be determined for the desired fresh and hardened concrete properties. 3) MFA can be primarily used in concrete construction requiring low minimum slump such as concrete pavements, slabs, concrete overlays, caps, columns, piers, and wall sections over 230 mm (9.1 inches) in thickness.
9.3
Recommendations for Future Research The following recommendations are made regarding areas requiring further
research:
1) The effect of mineral and chemical admixtures on the properties of fresh and hardened high fines concrete. 2) The particle shape and texture of micro fines affect the most properties of concrete. Hence, it is recommended that a new test method be developed
201 and tested in order to investigate particle shape and texture, since ASTM C 1252 is not an adequate method for this purpose. 3) The workability of concrete is one of the most important characteristics for construction. However, since the slump test does not measure the
workability and the Vebe test is not adequate since it is a relatively subjective test, it is recommended that a new method be developed to measure workability. 4) ASTM C 128, specific gravity test, is for fine aggregate that meets the ASTM C 33 gradation. For high fines MFA, a more accurate test method should be developed since the high amount of micro fines affects the saturated surface dry condition that can result in erroneous determination of SSD condition.
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CHAPTER SIX: CONCRETE TESTING PROGRAM

118 Table 6.1: Properties of Coarse Aggregate Used in Concrete Batches

PA/LS/05-00/65 Pennsylvania Limestone SD/QZ/06-00/65 South Dakota Quartzite

drum mixer, shown in Figure 6.1.

ASTM C 192-94, Standard Practice for

minimum of two minutes or when the temperature reading stabilized.

Figure 6.3: Rotating Cutting Machine for Abrasion Resistance Test

128 Table 6.4: Mixture Proportioning of Concrete Batches (Fixed W/C)

Table 6.5: Mixture Proportioning of Concrete Batches (Fixed Slump)

28-day Compressive Strength (psi)

0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate

28-day Compressive Strength (psi)

0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate

Drying Shrinkage (%)

Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS

Drying Shrinkage (%)

Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS

Table 6.10: Test Results of Permeability and Abrasion of Concrete

6000 28-day Adjusted Charge Passed (Coulombs)

0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate

28-day Abrasion Loss in Mass (%)

0 Control LS(PA) GT QZ DI DO LS(VA)1 LS(VA)2 LS(VA)3 BA SS Type of Aggregate

Table 6.11: Rating of Scaling Based on Condition of Surface (ASTM C 672)

Table 6.12: Test Results of Scaling of Concrete by Deicing Chemicals

CHAPTER SEVEN: CORRELATIONS OF TEST RESULTS

Introduction Using test results (aggregate characterization, mortar, and concrete),

concrete) were analyzed using a SPSS statistical computer program.

163 Table 7.1: Correlations of Aggregate Properties

Crushing Speed Bulk Specific Gravity

Table 7.3: Correlations between Aggregate and Mortar Properties

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed),

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Compressive Strength (psi)

y = 692.42x 2 - 4181.8x + 9505.4 R2 = 0.5674

Y = 9746 - 109 X + 0.52 X2

Compressive Strength (psi)

y = 0.5197x2 - 108.57x + 9745.5 R2 = 0.1494

Micro Fines Content (%)

absorption capacity and 28-day mortar cube compressive strength is:

for which X is the absorption capacity and the value of R2 is 0.10.

Compressive Strength (psi)

y = 93.553x - 704.49x + 9020.8 2 R = 0.0973

Absorption Capacity (%)

Drying Shrinkage (%)

0.1400 0.1200 0.1000 0.0800 0.0600 0.0400 0.0200 0.0000 0 0.5

y = -0.0017x2 + 0.0538x + 0.0704 R2 = 0.779

Drying Shrinkage (%)

y = -8E-05x2 + 0.003x + 0.0608 R2 = 0.1167

Micro Fines Content (%)

Drying Shrinkage (%)

y = -0.0099x2 + 0.0355x + 0.0659 R2 = 0.2903

Absorption Capacity (%)

2 Y = 0.0093+ 0.03 X - 0.03 X

Drying Shrinkage (%)

0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Y = 0.015 - 0.0017 X+ 0.00012 X 2 R 2 = 0.56

Micro Fines Content (%)

Flexural Strength (psi)

Y = 720 - 263 X+ 178

500 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

in concrete construction are presented.

aggregates by volume based on voids among the particles.