Food Hydrocolloids 25 (2011) 1470e1476

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Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Effect of microuidization of heat-treated milk on rheology and sensory properties of reduced fat yoghurt
Chr. Ian E. Ciron a, b, Vivian L. Gee a, Alan L. Kelly b, Mark A.E. Auty a, *
a b

Food Chemistry and Technology Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 19 November 2010 Accepted 17 February 2011 Keywords: Reduced-fat yoghurt Homogenization Microuidization Rheology Sensory analysis Principal component analysis

a b s t r a c t
The effects of microuidization at 150 MPa (MFz) and conventional homogenization at 20/5 MPa (CH) of heat-treated milk on the rheology and sensory properties of non- (0.1%) and low- (1.5%) fat stirred yoghurts were compared. Homogenization conditions clearly affected the sensory properties of reducedfat yoghurts, but the effect was highly dependent on fat content. MFz of heat-treated milk yielded products with very different sensory proles from the conventional yoghurts. For non-fat yoghurts, MFz of heat-treated milk enhanced the perception of buttermilk and soft cheese avours, and natural yoghurt aroma and avour, but also increased the intensity of undesirable mouthfeel characteristics such as chalkiness, mouth-dryness and astringency. For low-fat yoghurts, MFz signicantly improved creaminess and desirable texture characteristics such as smoothness, cohesiveness, thickness, and oral and spoon viscosity. These differences in sensory proles, especially textural properties, were partially related to rheological properties, particularly ow behaviour. MFz of heat-treated milk resulted in non- and low-fat yoghurts with higher yield stress, more pronounced hysteresis effect and higher viscosity than those of CH yoghurts of similar fat contents. These ndings suggest that microuidization may have applications for production of high-quality yoghurt with reduced-fat content. 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction In the dairy industry, consistent production of yoghurt with desirable texture is achieved by heat treatment and homogenization of the milk base, increasing the milk solids/protein content, and use of commercial starter cultures. The addition of stabilizers, such as gelatine, modied starches and polysaccharides is also a common practice in the manufacture of yoghurt. Milk-derived ingredients (Janhoj, Petersen, Frost, & Ipsen, 2006; Johansen, Laugesen, Janhoj, Ipsen, & Frost, 2008) and exopolysaccharideproducing bacterial cultures (Folkenberg, Dejmek, Skriver, Guldager, & Ipsen, 2006) have been investigated to assess their potential for manufacture of reduced-fat yoghurts (i.e., at least 25% less fat than the full-fat counterpart) with desirable texture properties. Milk proteins have been modied to serve as protein-based fat replacers by mimicking the functionality of fat in structure formation and imparting attractive sensory properties to yoghurt (Seydim, Sarikus, & Okur, 2005). Recent studies have examined a range of new technologies, including high-pressure processing

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 353 25 42442; fax: 353 25 42340. E-mail address: mark.auty@teagasc.ie (M.A.E. Auty). 0268-005X/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.02.012

(Penna, Gurram, & Barbosa-Canovas, 2006), thermosonication (Riener, Noci, Cronin, Morgan, & Lyng, 2009), high-pressure homogenization (Lanciotti, Vannini, Pittia, & Guerzoni, 2004; Serra, Trujillo, Quevedo, Guamis, & Ferragut, 2007) and microuidization (Ciron, Gee, Kelly, & Auty, 2010), to determine their potential as alternative processes for producing good quality reduced-fat yoghurts. Few studies have investigated the potential of microuidization to improve the texture and stability of yoghurt. Partial replacement of milk solids with microuidized starch was shown to enhance viscosity and reduce syneresis in yoghurt (Augustin, Sanguansri, & Htoon, 2008). Cobos, Horne, and Muir (1995) studied the impact of using microuidization as a homogenization technique on the rheological properties of acid gels. Recently, microuidization was utilized for production of stirred yoghurts and shown to affect the texture, water retention and physical properties of the resultant yoghurt. High-pressure homogenization using a Microuidizer reduced the particle size in heat-treated non- and low-fat milk samples to sizes smaller than those normally occurring in milk processed in a conventional valve homogenizer, and resulted in yoghurts with different gel particle size and microstructure (Ciron et al., 2010). Such differences in particle size and structure would be expected to inuence rheological behaviour, which could in turn

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impart changes in sensory properties. Thus, the effects of highpressure microuidization and conventional homogenization of heat-treated milk on sensory and rheological properties of nonand low-fat yoghurts were compared in the present study. This work also provides insights into the relationship between sensory perception of texture and rheological properties of yoghurt made with microuidized milk, which has not been reported to date. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Medium-heat skim milk powder (36.16% protein, 51.98% carbohydrates, 0.77% fat, 7.93% ash, 3.16% moisture) was obtained from Kerry Food Ingredients (Listowel, Co. Kerry, Ireland), and extra-white anhydrous milk fat (99.9%, w/w, fat) was supplied by Corman, S. A. (Go, Belgium). Granulated white sugar (99.91%, w/w, sucrose) purchased from the local supermarket was used to enhance the avour of yoghurt. Yoghurt culture (FD-DVS YFC-471 Yo-Flex) consisting of a mixed strain of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus was provided as a gift by Chr. Hansen, Cork, Ireland. 2.2. Production of yoghurt samples Non- and low-fat yoghurts (0.1, 1.5% fat) were produced from recombined milk samples according to the procedure described by Ciron et al. (2010). Briey, the milk samples were heated (95  C, 2 min), then either homogenized using a two stage (20/5 MPa) conventional homogenizer or microuidized at 150 MPa. Cooled stirred yoghurts (20  C) were apportioned into sterile propylene conical pots with snap-on caps (Plastiques Gosselin, France); 125 g into 200-mL pots for rheological measurements and w800 g into 1-L pots for sensory evaluation. All sample treatments were produced in duplicate, stored in a walk-in chiller (w5  C), and analyzed after 7 1 days of production. 2.3. Rheological analysis The rheological properties of stirred yoghurts were characterized in duplicate at 5  C using an AR 2000ex rheometer (TA Instruments UK Ltd., U.K.), tted with a standard-sized DIN geometry (conical concentric cylinders with 15 mm inner stator radius, 14 mm outer rotor radius, 42 mm cylinder immersed height, and 5920 mm gap). Prior to the measurements of viscoelastic properties or ow behaviour, approximately 17 g of yoghurt sample was allowed to rebody in the rheometer cup for 30 min at 5  C while the inner concentric cylinder was immersed. Low-amplitude oscillatory measurements were made as follows to determine the viscoelastic properties: frequency sweeps (0.1e100 rad s1, in log progression with 10 points per decade) were performed at constant strain of 0.5%, which was within the linear viscoelastic region as determined in preliminary experiments; after this strain sweeps (0.1e100%) were performed at a xed angular frequency (1 rad s1). Flow behaviours was determined on a new set of samples of yoghurt by shear-rate sweeps (0.1e100 s1, in log progression) at an increasing shear rate (upward ow), followed by a decreasing shear rate (downward ow) at constant angular frequency (1 rad s1) and strain (0.5%) for 10 min. The ow curves were tted with a HerscheleBulkley model using a Rheology Advantage Data Analysis software (TA Instruments UK Ltd., U.K.). The yield stress (s0), consistency coefcient (k) and ow behaviour rate index (n) were calculated using the HerscheleBulkley model:

_n s s0 k g
2.4. Sensory analysis

(1)

Descriptive sensory analysis was conducted to identify and quantify the perceived attributes in stirred yoghurts. The sensory proles of the yoghurts were determined by a trained sensory panel comprised of eight assessors, who were selected based on previous experience in evaluating products, taste sensitivity, and ability to detect sensory differences. A sensory vocabulary of 32 attributes describing the appearance, aroma, avour and texture of stirred yoghurt was developed by panel consensus using reference samples. Creaminess was evaluated by the assessors using their own denition. The trained panel evaluated the samples in triplicate over three sessions in separate booths in a sensory room. The samples were rated for each attribute on a 10-mm line scale (0 none to 10 very high) anchored by appropriate reference standards for each sensory attribute. The samples (w100 g) were kept under refrigeration (w5  C) for an hour prior to serving, and presented to the assessors in random and balanced order in white plastic cups coded with three-digit random numbers. Sparkling water was provided for cleansing the palate in between samples. 2.5. Data analysis The rheological and sensory data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM) to determine signicant treatment and interaction effects at a 5% level of signicance. The results were reported as mean values for each parameter, and Tukeys test was performed for multiple comparisons of the treatments. Principal component analysis (PCA) was also performed separately on rheological and sensory data, and PCA plots were generated. Minitab 15 (Minitab Ltd., U.K.) software was used for all statistical analyses. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of microuidization of heat-treated milk on rheological behaviour of reduced-fat yoghurts 3.1.1. Viscoelastic properties All reduced-fat yoghurts in the study exhibited viscoelastic behaviour, characterized by frequency and strain dependency, irrespective of fat content and homogenization condition applied to the heat-treated milk. Microuidization at 150 MPa (MFz) and conventional homogenization at 20/5 MPa (CH) had similar effects on the viscoelastic properties of non- and low-fat stirred yoghurts. The yoghurts produced from microuidized milk and conventionally homogenized milk had almost identical values of elastic modulus (G0 ) and viscous modulus (G00 ) for both non- and low-fat samples, as shown in frequency- (Fig. 1A) and strain-sweep curves (Fig. 2), and Table 1 (p > 0.05). Their phase angle (d) values were also comparable (p > 0.05, Table 1) from very low to high frequencies (Fig. 1B). The strain-sweep proles (Fig. 2) demonstrated similar linear viscoelastic (LVE) ranges and G0 eG00 cross-over points (G0 G00 ), indicating the strain sensitivity and transition point from elastic to viscous behaviour were not affected by homogenization condition. Despite the non-signicance of the effect of homogenization condition on the viscoelastic properties, MFz of heat-treated milk resulted in non-fat yoghurt (0% MFz) with marginally lower G0 and G00 values than those of yoghurt produced from milk homogenized using the conventional method (0% CH). This is shown in both frequency- (Fig. 1A) and strain- (Fig. 2A) sweep curves. 0% MFz had

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Chr.I.E. Ciron et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 25 (2011) 1470e1476 Table 1 Rheological behaviour properties of reduced-fat stirred yoghurts as affected by fat content (0.1%, 1.5% fat) and homogenization conditiona (CH, MFz).b Parameters Non-fat (0.1%) CH Frequency sweepsc G0 (Pa) 77.97 a 19.38 a G00 (Pa) d ( ) 13.96 a Strain sweepsd LVE-s (Pa) LVE-g (%) sy (Pa) gy (%)
10 0.1 1
-1

A 1000

Low-fat (1.5%) MFz 68.46 a 16.80 a 13.80 a 13.38 a 0.5190 a 4.94 a 53.66 a 3.778 b 10.673 b 0.2428 b 0.4724 b 1800 b CH 125.45 b 31.04 b 13.92 a 13.59 a 0.6373 ab 10.17 b 45.06 a 4.728 b 13.308 b 0.2446 b 0.5303 b 2474 c MFz 121.85 b 28.32 b 13.09 a 13.00 a 0.8022 b 11.52 b 37.15 a 13.932 d 25.795 c 0.2061 a 0.8405 c 3888 d

G'/G" (Pa)

100

14.00 a 0.6398 ab 6.14 a 42.30 a

10

100

Angular frequency (rad s )

20

Shear-rate sweepse so (Pa) 1.244 a 5.597 a k (Pa sn) n 0.3224 c h50 (Pa s) 0.3702 a 1018 a HL area (Pa s1)

15

10

a Homogenization condition: CH conventional valve homogenization (20/ 5 MPa); MFz microuidization (150 MPa). b Mean values (n 2) that have different letters across each row signicantly differ (p 0.05) using GLM-ANOVA and Tukeys test. c Frequency sweep parameters were reported at 1 rad s1. d Strain-sweep parameters: stress (LVE-s) and strain (LVE-g) at the limit of LVE, and yield stress (sy;) and yield strain (gy) at cross-over of G0 and G00 . e Shear-rate sweep parameters: h50 apparent viscosity at 50 s1; HL hysteresis loop area; and HerscheleBulkley model parameters, where so yield stress, k consistency coefcient, and n rate index.

( ()

0 0.1 1
-1

10

100

Angular frequency (rad s )

Fig. 1. Frequency curves of non-fat (0%) and low-fat (1.5%) stirred yoghurts made with conventionally homogenized (CH) or microuidized (MFz) milk. A) Elastic modulus, G0 (solid symbols) and viscous modulus, G00 (hollow symbols), and B) phase angle, d (mathematical symbols) as a function of frequency: 0% CH (6, :, d); 0% MFz (,, -, ); 1.5% CH (B, C, ); 1.5% MFz (>, A, ).

also slightly lower values of yield stress (sy), and stress (LVE-s) and strain (LVE-g) at the limit of LVE compared with 0% CH (Table 1), further indicating a slightly weaker structure. These results were in agreement with the observations on back-extrusion tests using a texture analyzer in our previous study (Ciron et al., 2010). In fact, MFz of heat-treated milk had detrimental effects on texture and

water retention of non-fat stirred yoghurts. The slightly weaker structure of 0% MFz compared to conventional yoghurt could be attributed to the differences in microstructures, as discussed in our previous report (Ciron et al., 2010). The more heterogeneous microstructure of 0% MFz compared to 0% CH, consisting of large protein aggregates with less interconnections between each other, was suggested to be responsible for the low rmness. Figs. 1 and 2B show the effect of homogenization condition on viscoelastic properties of low-fat yoghurts. Similar G0 and G00 values in relation to frequency (Fig. 1A) and strain (Fig. 2B) was found for low-fat yoghurts from microuidized milk (1.5% MFz) and conventionally homogenized milk (1.5% CH). This indicates that homogenization condition had no denite effect on rmness of low-fat yoghurt, although MFz yielded smaller fat globules than CH (Ciron et al., 2010) and increased the amount of interacting particles, comprised of milk proteins and fat (Sharma & Dalgleish, 1993).

A 1000

B 1000

G'/G" (Pa)

G'/G" (Pa)

100

100

10

10

1 0. 1 1 10 1 00
0 .1 1 10 100

Strain (%)

Strain (%)

Fig. 2. Elastic modulus, G0 (solid symbols) and viscous modulus, G00 (hollow symbols) as a function of strain for A) non-fat (0%) and B) low-fat (1.5%) stirred yoghurts made with conventionally homogenized (CH) or microuidized (MFz) milk: 0% CH (6, :); 0% MFz (,, -); 1.5% CH (B, C); 1.5% MFz (>, A).

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This result is supported by earlier ndings on the effect of MFz on texture properties as ascertained by back-extrusion test (Ciron et al., 2010) and corroborates with that of Cobos et al. (1995), demonstrating similar effects of microuidization and conventional homogenization on viscoelastic properties of acid milk gels. To fully understand the mechanism behind the ndings, further studies are required. 3.1.2. Flow behaviour The ow behaviour was also determined since viscosity is an important quality parameter that inuences the sensory properties of yoghurt. Rheometric viscosity has been reported to have a strong positive correlation with thickness (Skriver, Holstborg, & Qvist, 1999). The experimental yoghurts were highly thixotropic, and behaved as pseudoplastic materials (Delorenzi, Pricl, & Torriano, 1995) with a yield point and hysteresis loop (Fig. 3). Homogenization condition clearly affected the ow behaviours of non- and low-fat yoghurts. A noticeable increase in viscosity was observed for non-fat yoghurt when microuidized milk was used for production, as illustrated by higher consistency coefcient (k), lower ow rate index (n), and higher apparent viscosity at 50 s1 (h50) for 0% MFz than for 0% CH (Table 1 and Fig. 3). Moreover, 0% MFz had signicantly higher yield stress (s0) and hysteresis loop area (HL) than 0% CH (p < 0.05, Table 1). More pronounced changes in ow behaviours were observed in low-fat yoghurt, compared to non-fat yoghurt; the ow prole of 1.5% MFz was very different from that of 1.5% CH, showing higher shear stress and greater apparent viscosity as the shear rate increased (Fig. 3). Higher yield stress and a larger hysteresis loop in 1.5% MFz than in 1.5% CH were evident in the ow curves (Fig. 3), 1.5% MFz exhibited a very prominent yielding point as well. The higher yield stress (p 0.05) of 1.5% MFz as compared to 1.5% CH (Fig. 3 and Table 1) implies that a greater shear stress was required for ow to commence and thus it is more resistant to shearing. This indicates that MFz of low-fat milk produced a yoghurt with a more consolidated network compared to the standard process, probably due to more interactions as consequences of greater size reduction of fat globules (Ciron et al., 2010) and casein micelles (Pouliot, Britten, & Latreille, 1990). The more pronounced hysteresis effect (p 0.05) of MFz of heat-treated milk compared to CH in low-fat yoghurt, as shown by a larger hysteresis loop (Fig. 3 and Table 1), indicates that 1.5% MFz has less ability than 1.5% CH to fully recover its structure after shear-induced breakdown. The HerscheleBulkley model tted very well to the upward ow curves (0.990 r 0.999) because the shear-thinning ow behaviour of the low-fat yoghurts

had an inherent yield point. The ow model parameters of the HerscheleBulkley function are presented in Table 1, and signicantly (p 0.05) higher values of s0, k and h50, and lower values of n were obtained for 1.5% MFz in comparison with 1.5% CH. This indicates higher viscosity, higher yield stress and more shear-thinning behaviour of low-fat yoghurt produced from milk homogenized by MFz rather than that made using conventional method. The positive effects of MFz on ow behaviour of low-fat yoghurts in the present study are in contrast with our earlier ndings on the viscosity of low-fat yoghurt measured using backextrusion, wherein the two homogenization conditions resulted in yoghurts with similar viscosity index and consistency (Ciron et al., 2010). A possible explanation for the inconsistency would be related to the differences in principles and mechanisms of the two methodologies for assessing the viscosity of yoghurt. Back-extrusion tests use pseudo-compression (compression and extrusion) while rheometric viscosity is based on shearing of the sample. The viscosity index and consistency determined by the back-extrusion test would be more related to gel rmness (G0 ) and sensory rmness of the yoghurt, while the rheometric viscosity would be a good indicator of sensory viscosity. The increase in viscosity of low-fat yoghurt through MFz of heat-treated milk could be attributed to modication in microstructure and particle size (and composition) of gel dispersions. A recent confocal microscopy study on low-fat yoghurts demonstrated that MFz created fat globules with a more active role in structure formation; microuidized fat globules were greatly reduced in size, and incorporated and intimately bound to the proteins in a more highly consolidated gel network, while conventionally homogenized fat globules appeared to be more loosely entrapped within the protein networks (Ciron et al., 2010). This increased incorporation of smaller fat globules into the protein gel networks could explain the enhancement in viscosity of low-fat yoghurts by microuidization. 3.2. Effect of microuidization of heat-treated milk on sensory properties of reduced-fat yoghurts Descriptive sensory analysis was performed by a trained panel to determine the sensory proles of reduced-fat yoghurts based on established descriptors. The list of descriptors consisted of four appearance, four aroma, nine avour and 15 mouthfeel attributes, together with their corresponding denitions (Table 2). The mean ratings for creaminess and 32 sensory attributes developed by the trained panel of eight members are presented in Table 3. All sensory properties were clearly affected by fat content and homogenization condition. Interactions between fat content and homogenization condition were signicant (p 0.01) for surface water, smoothness, cream aroma, natural yoghurt aroma, soft cheese aroma and avour, buttermilk avour, astringency, and all mouthfeel attributes, except for oral smoothness and fattiness. The rest of the sensory properties were affected (p 0.01) by homogenization condition, irrespective of fat content. A multivariate representation was plotted using PCA to have a better understanding of the sensory proles of the treatment samples. PCA of the sensory data (Fig. 4) showed that the rst two PCs explained 85.7% of the total variation. PC1 (49.4%), which segregated the yoghurts based on homogenization condition (Fig. 4B), was positively correlated with natural yoghurt aroma and avour, sourness, astringency, shininess, oral smoothness, stickiness, cohesiveness, mouth-coating, mouth-drying and chalkiness, and negatively correlated with bitterness (Fig. 4A). A sensory differentiation based on fat content (Fig. 4B) was evident along PC2 (36.3%), which was described by soft cheese aroma, buttermilk aroma and surface water on the positive side, and featheriness,

60

50

Shear stress (Pa)

40

30 20

10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
-1

60

70

80

90

100

Shear rate (s )
Fig. 3. Flow behaviour proles of non-fat (0%) and low-fat (1.5%) stirred yoghurts made with conventionally homogenized (CH) or microuidized (MFz) milk: 0% CH (:); 0% MFz (,); 1.5% CH (C); 1.5% MFz ().

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Chr.I.E. Ciron et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 25 (2011) 1470e1476 Table 3 Descriptive sensory ratings for reduced-fat stirred yoghurts.a Sensory attributes Non-fat (0.1%) Low-fat (1.5%) p-Valueb CH A-Shiny Appears bright and glossy Surface water Amount of water present on the surface of the sample A-Smooth Looks smooth and free of irregularities A-Viscous Thickness of the sample ranging from thick to watery Ar-Cream Ar-Buttermilk Ar-Natural yoghurt Ar-Soft cheese Aroma of fresh cream Aroma of buttermilk Aroma of natural yoghurt Aroma of soft white cheese Appearance A-Shiny Surface water A-Smooth A-Viscous Aroma Ar-Cream Ar-Buttermilk Ar-Natural yoghurt Ar-Soft cheese Taste/avour Sweet Sour Salty Bitter F-Cream F-Buttermilk F-Natural yoghurt F-Soft cheese Astringent Texture (mouthfeel) M-Smooth M-Viscous M-Chalky M-Gritty M-Feathery M-Fatty M-Meltdown M-Firm M-Velvety M-Curdy M-Sticky M-Thick M-Cohesive M-Dry M-Coat Creaminess
a

Table 2 Sensory attributes for stirred yoghurts, as dened by the trained panel. Attributes Appearance Shininess Surface water Smoothness Spoon viscosity Aroma Cream aroma Buttermilk aroma Natural yoghurt aroma Soft white cheese aroma Taste/avour Sweetness Sourness Saltiness Bitterness Cream avour Buttermilk avour Natural yoghurt avour Soft cheese avour Astringency Abbreviation Denition

MFz a b a a a b a c 7.3 0.8 8.0 6.3 0.5 1.1 6.6 0.8 1.1 2.7 0.8 0.8 0.5 1.7 6.7 2.4 2.5 b b c a a b c b a b b a a b d b c

CH 5.5 0.8 7.6 6.9 1.0 1.1 4.2 0.9 1.4 1.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 4.9 1.0 1.1 a b b b c b a bc a a b b c a a a a

MFz 7.6 0.3 8.4 7.2 0.8 0.9 6.0 0.5 1.3 2.7 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.3 6.3 1.1 1.6 c a d c b a b a b b a a b a c a b

Fat

HCc

Fat HC

5.4 1.0 6.8 6.3 0.6 1.1 4.4 1.0

0.004 <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.007 <0.001 0.003 NS <0.001 <0.001 0.036 0.001 0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 0.002 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS NS 0.002 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.002 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.008 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS NS NS NS NS <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 NS 0.027 <0.001 0.001 <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.005 <0.001 0.013 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001

Sweet Sour Salty Bitter F-Cream F-Buttermilk F-Natural yoghurt F-Soft cheese Astringent

Taste of sucrose, other sugars and articial sweeteners Taste associated with certain acids such as citric acid Taste of sodium chloride Taste associated with quinine and caffeine Aromatics/taste of fresh cream Aromatics/taste of buttermilk Aromatics/taste of natural yoghurt Aromatics/taste of soft white cheese Dry, puckering feeling in the mouth caused by tannins Perceived smoothness in the mouth from smooth to rough High resistance to ow in the mouth A chalky, cloying powdery sensation in the mouth Amount of sandy particles present in the sample A light sensation created by a sample that contains trapped air, reminiscent of whipped products Perceived amount of fat/grease in the sample Rate of the created sensation of a sample melting in the mouth Solid, compact sensation; holds its shape A silky, velvety sensation that slides on the surface of the tongue and the roof and sides of the mouth Amount of lumps present in the sample Degree to which the sample sticks or adheres to the teeth and palate Perceived thickness of the sample in the mouth Degree of holding together rather than spreading across the tongue and surfaces of the mouth Perception of dryness in the mouth; a mouth-drying sample is saliva absorbing Sensation of a coating layer left in the mouth after swallowing the sample Overall intensity of the perceived creaminess based on each assessors own concept (could include appearance, avour and texture)

1.4 b 1.7 a 1.0 b 1.1 b 0.6 b 1.4 a 5.0 b 1.0 a 1.3 a 7.2 a 6.1 a 0.8 a 0.5 a 5.7 b 1.4 ab 5.9 b 5.5 b 5.7 b 1.1 b 4.1 b 4.5 a 2.3 a 1.9 a 1.9 a 5.3 a

Texture (mouthfeel) Oral smoothness M-Smooth Oral Viscosity Chalkiness Grittiness Featheriness M-Viscous M-Chalky M-Gritty M-Feathery

8.0 c 6.4 a 3.8 c 0.7 b 3.7 a 1.1 a 4.8 a 5.0 a 5.3 a 1.0 b 5.0 c 4.9 a 4.1 b 3.7 c 3.6 c 5.7 a

7.5 b 7.0 b 0.7 a 0.6 b 6.2 c 1.4 b 5.8 b 6.1 c 6.6 c 1.1 b 3.9 a 5.8 b 2.1 a 1.9 a 1.8 a 6.2 b

8.4 d 7.3 c 2.8 b 0.6 b 5.4 b 1.2 ab 6.0 b 6.3 c 6.6 c 0.7 a 5.4 d 6.1 c 5.7 c 3.1 b 3.2 b 7.0 c

<0.001 <0.001 <0.001

Fattiness Meltdown rate Firmness Velvetiness

M-Fatty M-Meltdown M-Firm M-Velvety

Mean ratings (replicates, n 2; assessors, p 8; trials, t 3) with different letters across rows differ signicantly at p < 0.05 using GLM-ANOVA and Tukeys test. b NS denotes non-signicance at p < 0.05. c HC homogenization condition, either conventional homogenization at 20/ 5 MPa (CH) or microuidization at 150 MPa (MFz).

Curdiness Stickiness Thickness Cohesiveness

M-Curdy M-Sticky M-Thick M-Cohesive

Mouth-dryness Mouth-coating Creaminess

M-dry M-coat Creamy

velvetiness, rmness, meltdown rate, thickness, cohesiveness and creaminess on its negative side (Fig. 4A). A distinct segregation of the four yoghurt types in terms of their sensory properties was shown in the PCA plots (Fig. 4A and B). Nonfat yoghurts were positioned on the top half of the sensory space,

and were further segmented as follows with regards to homogenization condition. 0% CH (in the third quadrant) was characterized by high intensities of bitterness, saltiness, soft cheese aroma, buttermilk aroma and curdiness, and high amount of surface water. 0% MFz (in the fourth quadrant) was perceived as astringent, chalky and mouth-drying, but with high soft cheese and buttermilk avours, natural yoghurt aroma and avour, and mouth-coating. Conversely, low-fat yoghurts were situated in the lower portion of the plot. 1.5% CH (in the second quadrant) had the highest score for fattiness, but the lowest intensities for shininess, chalkiness, mouth-coating, mouth-drying, sourness, and natural aroma and avour. 1.5% MFz (on the rst quadrant) had the highest values for smoothness (spoon and oral), stickiness, cohesiveness, viscosity (spoon and oral), thickness, rmness, velvetiness, featheriness, meltdown rate, cream avour and aroma, and creaminess. Hence, reduced-fat stirred yoghurts with different sensory proles can be produced by manipulating the fat content and homogenization condition. Combining the results of GLM-ANOVA (Table 3) and PCA (Fig. 4) indicated that MFz of heat-treated milk had a marked effect (p 0.01) on the sensory properties of reduced-fat yoghurts. Regardless of fat content, MFz enhanced shininess, cream avour,

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Fig. 4. PCA plots of sensory properties of non-fat (0%) and low-fat (1.5%) stirred yoghurts made with conventionally homogenized (CH) or microuidized (MFz) milk showing the A) attributes and B) samples: 0% CH ( ); 0% MFz ( ); 1.5% CH ( ); 1.5% MFz ( ).

natural yoghurt avour and non-oral smoothness, while reducing the perception of sweetness, saltiness, bitterness and fattiness. It is also noteworthy that MFz improved the oral smoothness in both types of yoghurt; the oral smoothness of 0% MFz was even higher than that of 1.5% CH. In agreement with an earlier sensory study on low-fat yoghurt (Janhoj et al., 2006), fat content increased oral smoothness, which was further enhanced by MFz of heat-treated milk. The effect of MFz on most of the sensory properties depended on fat content, especially for mouthfeel attributes (Table 3, Fig. 4). In non-fat yoghurt, MFz caused a signicant reduction in meltdown rate, featheriness, rmness and velvetiness, when compared with the control sample, but in parallel the perception of mouth-coating character increased. MFz seemed to have the potential to increase the intensities of soft cheese avour, buttermilk avour, and natural yoghurt aroma and avour of non-fat yoghurt. For low-fat yoghurt, MFz was favourable in terms of enhancing creaminess and some of the fat-associated texture attributes, such as non-oral smoothness, viscosity (spoon and oral) and thickness. MFz was also suitable for developing a more mouth-coating mouthfeel and a shiny appearance in low-fat yoghurt, although it reduced the positive effect of the presence of 1.5% fat on cream aroma, featheriness, rmness and velvetiness compared to CH. Furthermore, marked improvements in stickiness and cohesiveness were achieved by using MFz compared with CH, while reducing the degree of syneresis (surface water) and amount of lumps (curdiness) in low-fat yoghurts. Hence, there is a synergistic effect of high-pressure microuidization and fat content on creaminess and associated texture attributes of yoghurt, which has not been previously reported and will be the subject of further investigation.

As expected, the presence of fat enhanced desirable texture properties in reduced-fat yoghurts, including smoothness, viscosity, featheriness, rmness, velvetiness, thickness and creaminess, while reducing the amount of surface water. The texture-enhancing capability of fat in yoghurt (Cobos et al., 1995; Keogh & OKennedy, 1998; Lucey, Munro, & Singh, 1998; Patrignani et al., 2007) is related to the ability of homogenized fat globules to participate in the gel network formation (Aguilera & Kessler, 1988; Sodini, Remeuf, Haddad, & Corrieu, 2004) and consequently strengthen the yoghurt gel structure (Lucey et al., 1998). Further improvements in creaminess, smoothness, viscosity and thickness of low-fat yoghurt achieved by MFz of heat-treated milk could be explained by increased interactions between fat globules and milk proteins due to the changes in particle size and microstructure. Reduction of fat globules by MFz to size similar to that of casein micelles increased the effective surface area for milk proteins (casein and/or whey proteins) to adsorb on the new fat globule membrane. Furthermore, the milk proteins became more reactive due to thermal denaturation of whey proteins (Lucey et al., 1998) and microuidization-induced disruption of casein micelles (Dalgleish, Tosh, & West, 1996; Sharma & Dalgleish, 1993). Moreover, fat globules that could actively interact with other particles were created by microuidization due to the modication of fat globular membranes, which are constituted of semi-intact casein micelles or micellar fragments (Dalgleish et al., 1996; Sharma & Dalgleish, 1993). This allowed the casein-coated fat globules to interact further with casein micelles, micellar fragments, or caseindenatured whey protein complexes, forming dense three-dimensional networks of milk proteins and fat as shown by confocal microscopy (Ciron et al., 2010). Increased non-oral and oral smoothness could also be related to the uniform distribution fat globules in the network structure of low-fat yoghurt besides their very small small size (w220 nm) and the lubricating nature of fat. Although differing sensory proles of reduced-fat yoghurts could be attributed largely to the changes in size, microstructure and interactions of proteins and fat globules, some of the texture attributes could be partially related to ow behaviour. The increase in intensities of spoon and oral viscosity, and thickness of yoghurts due to MFz of milk is in agreement with the results of instrumental viscosity. There were also strong positive correlations for spoon viscosity (r 0.947; p < 0.001), oral viscosity (r 0.889; p < 0.001) and thickness (r 0.867; p < 0.001) with apparent viscosity at 50 s1 (h50). A good correlation between oral perception and rheometric viscosity at similar shear rate was reported in an earlier study of Skriver et al. (1999). The increase in number of interacting particles and fateprotein interactions is the likely reason for the enhancement of the viscosity of low-fat yoghurt. It should also be noted that the sensory attributes mainly related to the fat content (Fig. 4) were highly correlated with creaminess, which was thus further examined. Not surprisingly, most of these were texture attributes comprised of oral and visual descriptors, but some avour and aroma attributes were also important for creaminess. Good correlations (0.76 r 0.95; p 0.05) of creaminess with these sensory attributes were obtained for stirred reduced-fat yoghurts (Table 4). Spoon and oral viscosity, velvetiness and thickness of yoghurt contributed positively to creaminess, whereas the perception of creaminess was impaired by the amount of visible surface water present. These ndings reinforce the concept of creaminess as a multidimensional descriptor involving appearance, avour and texture attributes in food (Janhoj et al., 2006; Johansen et al., 2008). Soft cheese aroma and buttermilk aroma were negatively correlated with creaminess because these attributes were associated with expelled whey (surface water), as indicated by a strong correlation of cheese aroma (r 0.960; p 0.001) and buttermilk aroma (r 0.979; p < 0.001) with surface

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Table 4 Correlations of creaminessa with selected sensory attributes. Attributes Appearance Surface water A-Smooth A-Viscous Aroma Ar-Buttermilk Ar-Soft cheese Flavour Salty Texture (mouthfeel) M-Viscous M-Meltdown M-Firm M-Velvety M-Curdy M-Cohesive M-Thick
a b

References
p-Valueb 0.007 NS 0.001 0.014 0.020 NS 0.002 NS NS 0.018 NS NS 0.017 Aguilera, J. M., & Kessler, H. G. (1988). Physicochemical and rheological properties of milk-fat globules with modied membranes. Milchwissenschaft e Milk Science International, 43, 411e415. Augustin, M. A., Sanguansri, P., & Htoon, A. (2008). Functional performance of a resistant starch ingredient modied using a microuidiser. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 9, 224e231. Ciron, C. I. E., Gee, V. L., Kelly, A. L., & Auty, M. A. E. (2010). Comparison of the effects of high-pressure microuidization and conventional homogenization of milk on particle size, water retention and texture of non-fat and low-fat yoghurts. International Dairy Journal, 20, 314e320. Cobos, A., Horne, D. S., & Muir, D. D. (1995). Rheological properties of acid milk gels. 2. Effect of composition, process and acidication regimes on products from recombined milks using the microuidizer. Milchwissenschaft-Milk Science International, 50, 603e606. Dalgleish, D. G., Tosh, S. M., & West, S. (1996). Beyond homogenisation: the formation of very small emulsion droplets during processing of milk by a microuidizer, Netherlands. Dairy Journal, 50, 135e148. Delorenzi, L., Pricl, S., & Torriano, G. (1995). Rheological behavior of low-fat and fullfat stirred yogurt. International Dairy Journal, 5, 661e671. Folkenberg, D. M., Dejmek, P., Skriver, A., Guldager, H. S., & Ipsen, R. (2006). Sensory and rheological screening of exopolysaccharide producing strains of bacterial yoghurt cultures. International Dairy Journal, 16, 111e118. Janhoj, T., Petersen, C. B., Frost, M. B., & Ipsen, R. (2006). Sensory and rheological characterization of low-fat stirred yogurt. Journal of Texture Studies, 37, 276e299. Johansen, S. M. B., Laugesen, J. L., Janhoj, T., Ipsen, R. H., & Frost, M. B. (2008). Prediction of sensory properties of low-fat yoghurt and cream cheese from surface images. Food Quality and Preference, 19, 232e246. Keogh, M. K., & OKennedy, B. T. (1998). Rheology of stirred yogurt as affected by added milk fat, protein and hydrocolloids. Journal of Food Science, 63, 108e112. Lanciotti, R., Vannini, L., Pittia, P., & Guerzoni, M. E. (2004). Suitability of highdynamic-pressure-treated milk for the production of yoghurt. Food Microbiology, 21, 753e760. Lucey, J. A., Munro, P. A., & Singh, H. (1998). Rheological properties and microstructure of acid milk gels as affected by fat content and heat treatment. Journal of Food Science, 63, 660e664. Patrignani, F., Iucci, L., Lanciotti, R., Vallicelli, M., Maina Mathara, J., Holzapfel, W. H., et al. (2007). Effect of high-pressure homogenization, nonfat milk solids, and milkfat on the technological performance of a functional strain for the production of probiotic fermented milks. Journal of Dairy Science, 90, 4513e4523. Penna, A. L. B., Gurram, S., & Barbosa-Canovas, G. V. (2006). Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on rheological and textural properties of probiotic low-fat yogurt fermented by different starter cultures. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 29, 447e461. Pouliot, Y., Britten, M., & Latreille, B. (1990). Effect of high-pressure homogenization on a sterilized infant formula e microstructure and age gelation. Food Structure, 9, 1e8. Riener, J., Noci, F., Cronin, D. A., Morgan, D. J., & Lyng, J. G. (2009). The effect of thermosonication of milk on selected physicochemical and microstructural properties of yoghurt gels during fermentation. Food Chemistry, 114, 905e911. Serra, M., Trujillo, A. J., Quevedo, J. M., Guamis, B., & Ferragut, V. (2007). Acid coagulation properties and suitability for yogurt production of cows milk treated by high-pressure homogenisation. International Dairy Journal, 17, 782e790. Seydim, Z. B. G., Sarikus, G., & Okur, O. D. (2005). Effect of inulin and dairy-lo (r) as fat replacers on the quality of set type yogurt. Milchwissenschaft e Milk Science International, 60, 51e55. Sharma, S. K., & Dalgleish, D. G. (1993). Interactions between milk serum-proteins and synthetic fat globule-membrane during heating of homogenized whole milk. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 41, 1407e1412. Skriver, A., Holstborg, J., & Qvist, K. B. (1999). Relation between sensory texture analysis and rheological properties of stirred yogurt. Journal of Dairy Research, 66, 609e618. Sodini, I., Remeuf, F., Haddad, S., & Corrieu, G. (2004). The relative effect of milk base, starter, and process on yogurt texture: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 44, 113e137.

Pearson correlation coefcient (r) 0.889 0.729 0.943 0.858 0.833 0.729 0.934 0.190 0.721 0.766 0.548 0.599 0.843

The samples were evaluated using the assessors own denition of creaminess. NS denotes non-signicance at p < 0.05.

water. Thus, this study also showed that the degree of syneresis is also a key factor that inuences the perception of creaminess in yoghurt. Increased syneresis had an undesirable effect not only on appearance and texture of yoghurt, but also on aroma and avour.

4. Conclusions There were clear differences in the effects of high-pressure microuidization and conventional homogenization of heattreated milk on rheological and sensory properties of reduced-fat stirred yoghurts. Non- and low-fat yoghurts made with microuidized milk had different sensory proles from those produced using the conventional method, arising from the changes in rheological properties as a result of modication of size and microstructure of milk proteins and fat globules. High-pressure microuidization of heat-treated milk was more effective than conventional homogenization in delivering desirable texture in low-fat yoghurt, showing marked improvements in viscosity, creaminess and texture attributes. Thus, microuidization has the potential for producing high-quality reduced-fat yoghurts.

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food for funding this Food Institutional Research Measure project (06RDTMFRC431) under the National Development Plan.