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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUTION
1.1OVERVIEW
With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of this current proposal is to make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer and battery make. A new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone. This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency 2.45 GHz. There are minimal additions, which have to be made in the mobile handsets, which are the addition of a sensor, a rectenna, and a filter. With the above setup, the need for separate chargers for mobile phones is eliminated and makes charging universal. Thus the more you talk, the more your mobile phone will be charged. With this proposal the manufacturers would be able to remove the talk time and battery standby from their phone specifications. Thus this seminar successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery stand by according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of this current proposal is to make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer and battery make. In this paper a new proposal has been
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone! This is done by use of microwaves.
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES To develop an understanding of the trade-offs of Laser ("a special type of light wave"based system): Propagation of a laser beam (on how Laser beam propagation is much less affected by diffraction limits) Coherence and the range limitation problem (on how spatial and spectral coherence characteristics of Lasers allows better distance-to-power capabilities) Applications of laser diodes (on how the laser sources are utilized in various industries and their sizes are reducing for better integration)
Fig 1.1: With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells, a lightweight model plane makes the first flight of an aircraft powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Geoffrey Landis is one of the pioneers of solar power satellite] and laser-based transfer of energy especially for space and lunar missions. The continuously increasing demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in serious thoughts on a futuristic space elevator that would be powered by lasers. NASA's space elevator would need wireless power to be beamed to it for it to climb a tether. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has demonstrated flight of a lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam. This proof-of-concept demonstrates the
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES feasibility of periodic recharging using the laser beam system and the lack of need to return to ground.
Fig 1.2: An artist's depiction of a solar satellite that could send electric energy by microwaves to a space vessel or planetary surface.
Fig 1.3: The Electromagnetic spectrum Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light. The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens is depends on a bit and how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into eye will cause to see the things they have bounced 7 ECE-A/2012-13/ PIET, JAIPUR
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through. These materials are transparent. Black objects absorb the photons so it results not be able to see black things. This is the problem has to be sorted out. These poor old physicists get a little bit confused when they try to explain why some photons go through a leaf, some are reflected, and some are absorbed. They say that it is because they have different amounts of energy. Other physicists pretend that light is made of waves. These physicists measure the length of the waves and this helps them to explain what happens when light hits and leaves. The light with the longest wavelength (red) is absorbed by the green stuff (chlorophyll) in the leaves. There is green light, this is allowed to pass right through or is reflected. (Indigo and violet have shorter wavelengths than blue light.) It is easy to explain some of the properties of light by pretending that it is made of tiny particles called photons and it is easy to explain other properties of light by pretending that it is some kind of wave. The visible spectrum is just one small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These electromagnetic waves are made up of two parts. The first part is an electric field. The second part is a magnetic field. So they are called as electromagnetic waves. The two fields are at right angles to each other. The Various other parts of the emf spectrum and their location can be seen diagrammatically as shown below.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz as shown in the Fig 1. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), and various sources use different boundaries. In all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF. Engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3mm). Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped element circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave technique tends to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmissionline theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. Engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3mm).
Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines give way to waveguides and stripline, and lumped-element tuned circuits as shown in the Fig 2 are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. Effects of reflection, polarization, scattering, diffraction and atmospheric absorption usually associated with visible light are of practical significance in the study of microwave propagation. The same equations of electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies. While the name may suggest a micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as indicating wavelengths very much smaller than those used in radio broadcasting. The boundaries between far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study.
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2.1.1.1 ADVANTAGES Inductive charging carries a far lower risk of electrical shock, when compared with conductive charging, because there are no exposed conductors. The ability to fully enclose the charging connection also makes the approach attractive where water impermeability is required; for instance, inductive charging is used for implanted medical devices that require periodic or even constant external power, and for electric hygiene devices, such as toothbrushes and shavers, that are frequently used near or even in water. Inductive charging makes charging mobile devices more convenient; rather than having to connect a power cable, the device can be placed on a charge plate.
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2.1.1.2 DISADVANTAGES One disadvantage of inductive charging is its lower efficiency and increased ohmic (resistive) heating in comparison to direct contact. Implementations using lower frequencies or older drive technologies charge more slowly and generate heat for most portable electronics, [excitation needed] the technology-is nonetheless commonly used in some electric toothbrushes and wet/dry electric shavers, partly for the advantage that the battery contacts can be completely sealed to prevent exposure to water. Inductive charging also requires drive electronics and coils that increase manufacturing complexity and cost.
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L Band l to 2 GHz S Band 2 to 4 GHz C Band 4 to 8 GHz X Band 8 to 12 GHz K11 Band 12 to 18 GHz K Band 18 to 26 GHz Ka Band 26 to 40 GHz. Q Band 30 to 50 GHz U Band 40 to 60 GHz V Band 46 to 56 GHz W Band 56 to 100 GHz
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES The electromagnetic spectrum as shown in the Fig 3 is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. The electromagnetic spectrum extends from low frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous. Some physicists pretend that light consists of tiny particles which they call photons. They travel at the speed of light. The speed of light is about 300,000,000 meters per second. When they hit something they might bounce off, go right through or get absorbed. What happens is depends on a bit and how much energy they have. If they bounce off something and then go into eye will cause to see the things they have bounced off. Some things like glass and Perspex will let them go through. These materials are transparent. Black objects absorb the photons so it results not be able to see black things. This is the problem has to be sorted out. These poor old physicists get a little bit confused when they try to explain why some photons go through a leaf, some are reflected, and some are absorbed. They say that it is because they have different amounts of energy. Other physicists pretend that light is made of waves. These physicists measure the length of the waves and this helps them to explain what happens when light hits and leaves. The light with the longest wavelength (red) is absorbed by the green stuff (chlorophyll) in the leaves. There is green light, this is allowed to pass right through or is reflected. (Indigo and violet have shorter wavelengths than blue light.) It is easy to explain some of the properties of light by pretending that it is made of tiny particles called photons and it is easy to explain other properties of light by pretending that it is some kind of wave. The visible spectrum is just one small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These electromagnetic waves are made up of two parts. The first part is an electric field. The second part is a magnetic field. So they are called as electromagnetic waves. The two fields are at right angles to each other. Microwaves are good for transmitting information from one place to another because microwave energy can penetrate haze, light rain and snow, clouds, and smoke. 16 ECE-A/2012-13/ PIET, JAIPUR
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES Shorter microwaves are used in remote sensing. These microwaves are used for clouds and smoke, these waves are good for viewing the Earth from space Microwave waves are used in the communication industry and in the kitchen as a way to cook foods. Microwave radiation is still associated with energy levels that are usually considered harmless except for people with pace makers. The frequency selection is another important aspect in transmission. Here we are going to use the S band of the Microwave Spectrum, which lies between 2-4GHz.We have selected the license free 2.45 GHz ISM band for our purpose. The Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio bands were originally reserved internationally for noncommercial use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes. In recent years they have also been used for license-free error-tolerant
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERACTION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES The plate structure, shown in Fig 4 is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a wave guide or coaxial line.
4.1 MAGNETRON
Magnetron is a high power microwave oscillator and it is used in microwave oven and radar transmitter. It is itself a special kind of vaccum tube that has permanent magnet in its constructions. This magnet is setup to affect the path of travel of electrons that are in transit from cathode to the plate. Magnetron is capable to deliver more power than reflex klystron or gunn diode. It is a high power oscillator and has high efficiency of 50% to 80%. Magnetron is a device which produces microwave radiation of radar application and microwaves. Magnetron functions as self-excited microwave oscillator. Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used to produce magnetron to produce the high power output required in radar equipment. These multi cavity devices are used in transmitters as pulsed or cw oscillators to produce microwave radiation. Disadvantage of magnetron is that it works only on fixed frequency This magnet is setup to affect the path of travel of electrons that are in transit from cathode to the plate. Magnetron functions as self-excited microwave oscillator. The MAGNETRON (A), is a self-contained microwave oscillator that operates differently from the linear-beam tubes, such as the TWT and the klystron
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View (B) is a simplified drawing of the magnetron. CROSSED-ELECTRON and MAGNETIC fields are used in the magnetron to produce the high-power output required in radar and communications equipment.
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The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. A magnetic field located in the space between the plate (anode) and the cathode serves as a grid. The plate of a magnetron does not have the same physical appearance as the plate of an ordinary electron tube. Since conventional inductive-capacitive (LC) networks become impractical at microwave frequencies, the plate is fabricated into a cylindrical copper block containing resonant cavities that serve as tuned circuits. The magnetron base differs considerably from the conventional tube base. The magnetron base is short in length and has large diameter leads that are carefully sealed into the tube and shielded. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube and are supported by the filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed in position. The output lead is usually a probe or loops extending into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a waveguide or coaxial line. The plate structure is a solid block of copper.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The straps are circular, metal bands that are placed across the top of the block at the entrance slots to the cavities. Since the cathode must operate at high power, it must be fairly large and must also be able to withstand high operating temperatures. It must also have good emission characteristics, particularly under return bombardment by the electrons. This is because most of the output power is provided by the large number of electrons that are emitted when highvelocity electrons return to strike the cathode. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission material. The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERACTION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons.
Fig4.4: magnetron
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES Some experimentation has been done with inverse rectenna, converting electricity into microwave energy, but efficiencies are much lower-only in the area of 1%. With the advent of nanotechnology and MEMS the size of these devices can be brought down to molecular level. It has been theorized that similar devices, scaled down to the proportions used in nanotechnology, could be used to convert light into electricity at much greater efficiencies than what is currently possible with solar cells. This type of device is called an optical rectenna. Theoretically, high efficiencies can be maintained as the device shrinks, but experiments funded by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory have so far only obtained roughly 1% efficiency while using infrared light. Another important part of our receiver circuitry is a simple sensor. This is simply used to identify when the mobile phone user is talking. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. The whole setup looks something like this. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role. The whole setup looks something like this.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES structure, is a solid block of copper. The cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Alternate segments are strapped together to put the cavities in parallel with regard to the output. The cavities control the output frequency. The straps are circular, metal bands that are placed across the top of the block at the entrance slots to the cavities. Since the cathode must operate at high power, it must be fairly large and must also be able to withstand high operating temperatures. It must also have good emission characteristics, particularly under return bombardment by the electrons. This is because most of the output power is provided by the large number of electrons that are emitted when high-velocity electrons return to strike the cathode. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission material. The open space between the plate and the cathode is called the INTERAC TION SPACE. In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact to exert force upon the electrons. Arranged in a mesh pattern so give it a distinct appearance from most antenna. A simple rectenna can be constructed from a schottky diode placed between antenna dipoles. The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Rectenna are highly efficient at converting microwave energy to electricity. In laboratory environments, efficiencies above 90% have been observed with regularity. Some experimentation has been done with inverse rectenna, converting electricity into microwave energy, but efficiencies are much lower-only in the area of 1%. With the advent of nanotechnology and MEMS the size of these devices can be brought down to molecular level. It has been theorized that similar devices, scaled down to the proportions used in nanotechnology, could be used to convert light into electricity at much greater efficiencies than what is currently possible with solar cells. This type of device is called an optical rectenna. Theoretically, high efficiencies can be maintained as the device shrinks, but experiments funded by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory have so far only obtained roughly 1% efficiency while using infrared light. Another important part of our receiver circuitry is a simple sensor. This is simply used to identify when the mobile phone user is talking. As our main objective is to charge the mobile phone with the transmitted microwave after rectifying it by the rectenna, the sensor plays an important role.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES A Schottky barrier diode is different from a common P/N silicon diode. The common diode is formed by connecting a P type semiconductor with an N type semiconductor, this is connecting between a semiconductor and another semiconductor; however, a Schottky barrier diode is formed by connecting a metal with a semiconductor. When the metal contacts the semiconductor, there will be a layer of potential barrier (Schottky barrier) formed on the contact surface of them, which shows a characteristic of rectification. The material of the semiconductor usually is a semiconductor of n-type (occasionally p-type), and the material of metal generally is chosen from different metals such as molybdenum, chromium, platinum and tungsten. Sputtering technique connects the metal and the semiconductor. A Schottky barrier diode is a majority carrier device, while a common diode is a minority carrier device. When a common PN diode is turned from electric connecting to circuit breakage, the redundant minority carrier on the contact surface should be removed to result in time delay. The Schottky barrier diode itself has no minority carrier, it can quickly turn from electric connecting to circuit breakage, its speed is much faster than a common P/N diode, so its reverse recovery time Trr is very short and shorter than 10 nS. And the forward voltage bias of the Schottky barrier diode is under 0.6V or so, lower than that of the common PN diode. So, The Schottky barrier diode is a comparatively ideal diode, such as for a 1 ampere limited current PN interface. Frequency of 2.45GHz with good efficiency of rectifying operation. The objective also is to increase the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. Different configurations can be used to convert the electromagnetic wave into DC signal, the study done in showed that the use of a bridge is better than a single diode, but the purpose of this study is to achieve a low cost microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode for low and high power levels that has a good performances. This study is divided on two kinds of technologies the first is the hybrid technology and the second is the monolithic one. The goal of this investigation is the development of a hybrid microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode. The first study of this circuit is based on the optimization of the rectifier in order to have a good matching of the Input impedance at the desired frequency 2.45GHz. Besides, the aim of the second study is the increasing of the detection sensitivity at low levels of power. This study is divided on two kinds of technologies the first is the hybrid technology and the second is the monolithic one. The goal of this investigation is the 27 ECE-A/2012-13/ PIET, JAIPUR
WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES development of a hybrid microwave rectifier with single Schottky diode. The first study of this circuit is based on the optimization of the rectifier in order to have a good matching of the input impedance the desired frequency 2.45GHz.
Fig 5.2: Antenna Design Spirals are supported to have a nearly frequency independent behavior between a certain lower and upper frequency, given by the finite size and feed size respectively. An
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES ideal self-complementary antenna of infinite dimensions has a theoretical impedance of Zspiral at the feed point and the large bandwidth, no matching section is used. Design of single spiral antenna. Layout of the 8x8 array with 64 diodes (black devices). In the Fig 5 of single spiral antenna there is diode at centre of antenna which converts microwave energy to Dc power. From which it can be used to charge cell phone.
The slotted waveguide antenna consists of 8 waveguide sections with 8 slots on each section. These 64 slots radiate the power uniformly through free space to the rectenna. The slotted waveguide antenna is ideal for power transmission because of its high aperture efficiency (> 95%) and high power handling capability.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES Thus on the reception of the signal the sensor circuitry directs the rectenna circuit to ON and the mobile phone begins to change using the microwave power.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES power from microwave beams delivered from orbiting SPS (solar power satellite) satellites.
Fig5.4:Rectenna
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES communication receiver. A Schottky barrier diode is different from a common P/N silicon diode. The common diode is formed by connecting a P type semiconductor with an N type semiconductor, this is connecting between a semiconductor and another semiconductor; however, a Schottky barrier diode is formed by connecting a metal with a semiconductor. When the metal contacts the semiconductor, there will be a layer of potential barrier (Schottky barrier) formed on the contact surface of them, which shows a characteristic of rectification. The material of the semiconductor usually is a semiconductor of n-type (occasionally p-type), and the material of metal generally is chosen from different metals such as molybdenum, chromium, platinum and tungsten. Sputtering technique connects the metal and the semiconductor. A Schottky barrier diode is a majority carrier device, while a common diode is a minority carrier device. When a common PN diode is turned from electric connecting to circuit breakage, the redundant minority carrier on the contact surface should be removed to result in time delay. The Schottky barrier diode itself has no minority carrier, it can quickly turn from electric connecting to circuit breakage, its speed is much faster than a common P/N diode, so its reverse recovery time Trr is very short and shorter than 10 nS. And the forward voltage bias of the Schottky barrier diode is under 0.6V or so, lower than that (about 1.1V) of the common PN diode. So, The Schottky barrier diode is a comparatively ideal diode, such as for a 1 ampere limited current PN interface. Below is the comparison of power consumption between a common diode and a Schottky barrier diode:
P=0.6*1=0.6W
P=1.1*1=1.1W
It appears that the standards of efficiency differ widely. Besides, the PIV of the Schottky barrier diode is generally far smaller than that of the PN diode; on the basis of the same unit, the PIV of the Schottky barrier diode is probably 50V while the PIV of the PN diode may be as high as 150V. Another advantage of the Schottky barrier diode is a very low noise index that is very important for a communication receiver; its working scope may reach20GHz.
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Fig 5.5: Stacked Franklin array antenna design. 33 ECE-A/2012-13/ PIET, JAIPUR
5.6 ADVANTAGES
The main advantage of Sensor circuitry is Reduce the usage of high electricity. Make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer.
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WIRELESS CHARGING OF MOBILE PHONES USING MICROWAVES Make use of valuable EM energy.
If Sensor circuitry is Very small circuitry in size. More economical than wired charging.
Wireless energy transfer can potentially recharge the mobile phones without chords. Only one microwave transmitter can serve to all the service providers in that area. The need of different types of chargers by different manufacturers is totally eliminated.
5.7 DISADVANTAGES
The transmitter and receiver also should be very powerful devices as the distance increases. Wireless transmission of the energy causes some drastic effects to human body, because of its radiation. Practical possibilities are not yet applicable as there is no much advancement in this field.
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CONCLUSIONS
With mobile phones becoming a basic part of life, the recharging of mobile phone batteries has always been a problem. The mobile phones vary in their talk time and battery standby according to their manufacturer and batteries. All these phones irrespective of their manufacturer and batteries have to be put to recharge after the battery has drained out. The main objective of this current proposal is to make the recharging of the mobile phones independent of their manufacturer and battery make. A new proposal has been made so as to make the recharging of the mobile phones is done automatically as you talk in your mobile phone. This is done by use of microwaves. The microwave signal is transmitted from the transmitter along with the message signal using special kind of antennas called slotted wave guide antenna at a frequency 2.45 GHz. Thus this seminar successfully demonstrates a novel method of using the power of the microwave to charge the mobile phones without the use of wired chargers. Thus this method provides great advantage to the mobile phone users to carry their phones anywhere even if the place is devoid of facilities for charging. A novel use of the rectenna and a sensor in a mobile phone could provide a new dimension in the revelation of mobile phone. Wireless charging of mobile phones using Electromagnetic waves can reduce the problem of electricity and will be helpful for automatic recharging of mobile phones, which is very much useful in the future
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REFERENCES
[1] Tae-Whanyoo and Kai Chang, Theoretical and Experimental Development of 10 and 35 GHz rectennas IEEE Transaction on microwave Theory and Techniques. [2] 9th Conference of NASA/USRA Advanced Design Program and Advanced Hawkins, Joe, Etal, "Wireless Space Power Experiment," in Proceedings of the Space Design Program. [3] MW Medley, 'Microwave and RF circuit analysis, synthesis, and design. [4] Falcone, Vincent J., "Atmospheric Attenuation of Microwave Power", Journal of microwave Power. [5] California EMF Program 2001 - An Evaluation of the possible risks from electric and magnetic fields [6]Glenn Elert. "The Electromagnetic Spectrum, The Physics
Hypertextbook". Hypertextbook.com. Retrieved 2010-10-16. [7] "Definition of frequency bands on". Vlf.it. Retrieved 2010-10-16. [8] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006 ". Rev. Mod. Phys. 80: 633730.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633.Direct link to value. [9]J. J. Condon and S. M. Ransom. "Essential Radio Astronomy: Pulsar Properties". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved 2008-01-05. [10]A. A. Abdo et al. (2007-03-20). "Discovery of TeV GammaRay Emission from the Cygnus Region of the Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 658:
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