FACET LIQUID FILTER/SEPARATORS & MONITORS IN AIRCRAFT REFUELLING OPERATIONS

CLARCOR is a global provider of filtration products and services for the Aviation Industry.
We offer the industrys broadest product range with more than 80,000 filter types, superb product quality, leading brands, extensive distribution network and technical expertise to serve customers worldwide.

CLARCOR provides Total Filtration from a single source by bringing together the products, experience and expertise of our companies to meet all your filtration needs. This collaboration insures that customers receive the best filtration and on-time delivery directly to each business location to protect people, equipment and the environment. CLARCOR offers the broadest array of filtration products, technologies and services to meet current and future Aviation Industry requirements. Our customers, worldwide, depend on CLARCOR filtration products to fuel their future.
and gas in every stage and aspect related to its particulate field. We optimize equipment reliability and power output to reduce equipment downtime and unplanned power outages.

CLARCOR provides unparalleled customer value with filtration solutions for water, fuel, oil, air

FACET LIQUID FILTER/SEPARATORS & MONITORS IN AIRCRAFT REFUELLING OPERATIONS

CLARCOR is positioned to meet your Total Filtration and service needs. FACET INTERNATIONAL is the leading filtration and separation company serving the world's petrochemical, refining, marine, offshore and aviation industries. Facet International has earned worldwide recognition with more than 50 years of experience in the separation of solid-liquid, liquid-liquid, liquid-gas and solid-gas.

introduction
The aim of this brochure is to explain the background, principles of operation and importance of FACET Filter/Separator and Filter Monitor units in aircraft refuelling operations.
It is not meant to be a servicing manual but simply to provide users and students with a basic understanding of the techniques and methods employed in removing water and solid contaminants from aviation fuels. The text is partly historical in that it refers to some methods used to remove the undesirable water and solid contamination from aviation fuels in the early years of flying. It also explains the background to the gradual development of filter/separators to improve their standards of performance in line with the discovery of solutions to problems which, in earlier years, appeared to be inexplicable. Some of these discoveries have taken years of patient research by scientists and engineers of many National, University and private company establishments. We at FACET are proud of our associations with these establishments, and proud also of our contributions to the interchange of scientific knowledge aimed towards the better understanding, and solution, of the problems associated with liquid filtration and separation.

water contamination
No one would dispute the fact that water is an essential of everyday life but there are times when it can be a nuisance, and other times when its presence can be potentially dangerous. Water in the fuel tanks of an aircraft comes into the latter category and has to be prevented at all times. One of the reasons is easily understood by referring to Table 1 showing the approximate air temperatures at various altitudes. It will be seen at an altitude of 30,000 feet, which is average for air travel these days, the ambient temperature is 45C and any water droplets in the fuel reserves of an aeroplane flying at this altitude will obviously freeze. The ice crystals formed can easily obstruct or block the pipes, valves and filters in the fuel feed lines to an engine and the resulting loss of power can be an unpleasant, if not fatal, experience for the people on board the aircraft. ingress of water is from the surrounding atmosphere during the transfer of fuel to and from storage tanks. The amounts of water taken in by the fuel will depend upon the humidity of the atmosphere while these operations are in progress; the higher the humidity the higher the water moisture content of the surrounding air which makes more water available for the fuel to absorb. There are, in fact, two kinds of water contamination in fuel; one is the free water, the other the dissolved or soluble water. Fuel, like many other substances, absorbs water from the surrounding atmosphere and, like sugar in a cup of coffee; the water becomes completely dissolved in the fuel. The fuel will sparkle with a brightness that will belie the presence of the dissolved water because it cannot be detected except with the use of special instruments or tests. There is, however, a limit to the amount of water that can be absorbed by the fuel. This limit is often referred to as a saturation limit, maximum solubility level or similar term, and any further quantities of water which are added, or come into contact with the fuel after this point becomes free water. It is free because the fuel cannot settle out to cause problems but free water, on the other hand, constitutes a major problem and has to be dealt with continually to make sure that it is not passed into the aircraft fuel tanks. Another important factor is that the amount of water that can be absorbed by the fuel is not constant, and will vary according to the fuel temperature. The higher the temperature the greater the fuels capacity to absorb water into solution. But a subsequent reduction in fuel temperature reduces its capacity for water with the result that the fuel rejects the excess which then becomes free water. Take, for example, a tank containing a million gallons of fuel which is left to stand before being transferred to another tank further along the pipe-line. If the fuel is already fully saturated with the maximum amount of water it can absorb it will, at a day temperature of 20C, contain about 80 parts per million of dissolved water. If, during the night, the fuel temperature drops to 15C the saturation limit will be reduced to approximately 50 parts per million, with the result that 30 of the original 80 gallons of dissolved water will come out of solution and be converted into free water which gradually sinks to the bottom of the tank.

Fortunately, the formation of ice in aircraft fuel tanks is a rare occurrence these days. The majority of commercial aircraft incorporate fuel tanks served by heater systems, and although such preventative measures are rarely included in military aircraft the possibility of icing is avoided by the use of anti-icing additives in the fuel.
Although the icing problems have all but completely disappeared it should be appreciated that sudden intakes of water through the fuel system of an engine can be just as dangerous as ice crystals. The power in an engine is generated by the continuous burning of fuel and if this process is suddenly interrupted by a large globule of water the engine will, at best, misfire; at worst a flame-out will occur which means that unless the engine can be restarted in flight it will stop running altogether. This may not be such a problem in multi-engined aircraft where only one engine is affected, perhaps, but it would be positively disastrous in single-engined aeroplanes. The imperative necessity of removing water from aircraft fuel should therefore be obvious; it is a need which has, in fact, been recognised from the very first days of flying and has been satisfied, by one means or another, ever since. Having considered the effects of water contamination in aviation fuels let us now examine the sources of this contamination and how the problem can be dealt with. Water in fuel is very rarely visible to the naked eye as isolated droplets. More often than not the only indication of water being present is a slightly misty appearance of the fuel because the droplets are so tiny that they merely haze the fuel; the higher the water content the cloudier the fuel. The fuel leaves the refinery in an almost dry or water-free condition and, apart from the most obvious sources such as water drainage into defective underground storage tanks, or the intake of rain through faulty vents, the main

Altitude Air Temperature feet metres Deg. C 5000 1500 +5 10000 3000 -5 15000 4500 -15 20000 6000 -25 25000 7600 -35 30000 9000 -45 35000 10600 -55 40000 12000 -65

Table 1: Air Temperatures at Various Altitudes (approx.)

As the temperature rises next day to 20C again the fuel will rapidly re-absorb water from the atmosphere and, at a much slower rate, from the accumulated layer at the bottom of the tank until the fuel again becomes fully saturated at 80 parts per million. As the day wears on the air in contact with the surface of the fuel will, depending on humidity levels, continue to deposit water moisture into the fuel which, since it cannot be absorbed, will again become free water floating around in the fuel in the form of tiny globules. Under ideal conditions any droplets of water suspended in the fuel of an undisturbed tank will, given sufficient time, separate out under gravity and settle to the bottom of the tank. It is invariably a slow process which depends upon the size of the water droplets and can take hours or possibly days to complete. But the possibility of allowing a large tank of fuel to be left undisturbed for a few days while the water settles out is the ultimate in wishful thinking. Instead, the fuel is almost continually on the move, being thrashed about by large pumps and buffeted by bends, valves and obstructions in the pipe-line from one pumping station or storage tank to the next on its way from the oil refinery to the airport storage tanks and finally into the aircraft fuel tanks. In the meantime any water being picked up by the fuel at various points along the route, such as the storage tank referred to earlier, is being thoroughly mixed into the fuel and disintegrating into smaller and smaller droplets which become suspended in the fuel and will be progressively less inclined to settle to the bottom of intermediate tanks. The fuel being transferred from one storage tank to the next is, in reality, a fuel/water emulsion (another term for a liquid containing particles of another liquid held in suspension, not necessarily dissolved in each other) and this emulsion is continually subject to the absorption, rejection and re-absorption of water according to the temperature changes within the fuel mixture. Without some means of removing the free water at the intermediate storage areas the water content of the fuel will continue to increase as it is transferred form tank to tank on its way to the airport storage tanks and the refueller vehicle before it is pumped into the aircraft fuel tanks. It is to cater for this situation that FACET Filter/Separators will be found at many of the storage areas and pumping stations between refinery and airport. The purpose of these units is, of course, to prevent the build-up of water in the fuel system itself while a further unit in the refueller vehicle provides the final conditioning of the fuel before it passes into the aircraft tanks. In many modern refuellers the final filter/separator has been superceded by the more compact and highly efficient FACET Filter Monitor unit which removes any remnants of free water by absorption rather that separation.

solid contaminants
No mention has yet been made of the solid contaminants in the fuel and it should be appreciated that an aircraft fuel laden with dirt is equally as undesirable as one containing free water. The fuel systems in turbo-jet engines incorporate numerous control valves, pumps, filters and jets, and accumulations of dirt within these components can develop into blockages which can prevent the flow of fuel and eventually stop the engine running. Another point to consider is that where the dirt includes abrasive particles, such as metal and sand, these particles will cause wear or possible seizure of the moving parts of precision-made pumps and valves which can have immediate or long-term consequences. It is essential therefore that the fuel being passed into the aircraft tanks contains minimal amounts of both free water and solid contaminants. To this end the Facet units fulfill a double role in that they combine both filtration and water separation functions at the same time which is why, more often than not, the units are referred to as Filter/Separators rather than simply Water Separators. In some respects the dirt content of the fuel is closely related to the water content. Water causes corrosion of pipe-lines and tanks which is transferred to the fuel in the form of flakes of rust which, through pumping and collision, disintegrate into smaller and smaller particles. Although the majority of these particles will be invisible to the naked eye they will, nevertheless, be large enough to cause damage and wear to engine components and will certainly need to be removed before they reach the aircraft. There are other water-related contaminants in the form of microbial growths which can also develop into severe problems but these will be dealt with at a later stage so that we can, for the moment, concentrate on the more readily recognised solid materials which contaminate the fuel. The most prevalent of the solid contaminants is the dust in the surrounding atmosphere, and the concentration of this dust will vary according to the particular environment. Conditions at the Cairo and Karachi airports, for example, will be rather worse than at London or New York, and the probability of contamination of fuel by airborne dust will be significantly higher at the former airports. The dust itself consists mostly of abrasive particles of sand, etc., which are drawn into the storage tanks with the air that replaces the volume of fuel removed from the tank. To give an indication of the quantities of dust involved let us consider the transfer of, say 100,000 gallons of fuel from one tank to another. As this quantity of fuel is removed the exact same volume of air will be drawn into the tank through vents, breathers, etc. In approximate terms the amount of air will be 16,000 cubic feet and since, in reasonably clean atmospheric conditions, the concentration of dust is in the region of 3 milligrams per cubic foot the total amount of dust drawn into the tank will be almost 50 grams.This amount may not seem excessive at first sight but it has to be remembered that the transfer of fuel from one tank to another may be an hourly occurrence at some airports, and each transfer will draw in its quota of dust particles which will be deposited in the fuel.

Considering the accumulation of solid contaminants from corrosion, airborne dust, internal abrasion of pipes, valves, sealing gaskets, etc. that can occur it is quite understandable that adequate filtration is an essential aspect of the conditioning of the fuel before it reaches the aircraft.

old and new methods of filtration and separation

In early aircraft the engines were of the piston type, running on gasolene-type fuels which are of much lower density than the fuels required for modern turbo-jet engines. Water and solid contamination settled out quite rapidly in these light fuels and accumulations were removed simply by regular draining from the bottom of the storage tanks prior to refuelling. To make doubly sure that water and dirt were not passed into the aircraft tank refuelling was carried out with the aid of conical shaped pieces of metal gauze and chamois leather placed in a funnel. The fuel was then poured, or fed via hand nozzle, through the funnel into the over-wing tanks. The gauze removed the dirt and the chamois leather soaked in fuel repelled the water droplets which then ran to the bottom of the cone, and the operator simply emptied the cones of any accumulated dirt and water from time to time while he was refuelling. Similar hand-filling operations are still used today for small aircraft although the filtration/separation equipment is a little more sophisticated. But when we talk of aircraft refuelling these days we tend to think in terms of the Concorde, Boeing 747 and similar large aircraft which are required to take on quantities of 20,000 to 40,000 gallons in a matter of minutes so that they can meet scheduled take-off times. With modern fuels and their regular transfers in huge quantities the need is to remove solid and water contamination on a contiuous flow basis, and this need is catered for in the FACET Filter/Separator units. The solid contaminants are removed by a primary filtration stage while water removal, on the other hand, is achieved by continuously uniting groups of the tiny water globules suspended in the fuel into larger ones which will sink at a rapid rate to the bottom of the unit, where the water accumulation can easily be drained away. In the majority of FACET units the filtration and water separation stages are incorporated within the same vessel or in separate vessels.

The continuous flow capability of the FACET Filter/Separator units means that they can be located at any point between oil refinery and aircraft fuel tanks, and the removal of water and solid contamination can be carried out at any of the intermediate stages along the way.
The final link in the chain will be the refueller vehicle pumping the pre-conditioned fuel directly into the aircraft tanks and it is essential that the fuel loaded into the aircraft at this final stage does not contain more than the specified minimal amounts of water and solid contaminants which, if exceeded, could cause problems in flight. To achieve this aim the refueller vehicle system will include the ultimate fuel conditioning unit which can be a filter/separator or a filter/monitor unit utilising absorbent-type elements. The Filter/Monitor unit is a comparatively recent development which, after successful laboratory and field trials, has proved to be a highly efficient system of dirt and water removal. The use of this type of unit is particularly beneficial in the final stages of fuel treatment such as refuellers where they are not expected to be presented with excessive amounts of dirt and water in the fuel stream. As in the coalescer cartridge of the filter/separator the Monitor cartridge incorporates primary filtration stages to remove solid contaminants but the subsequent media layers will trap and retain any free water to prevent its progressing any further. Since the Monitor elements absorb the free water presented to them there is no necessity for manual or either automatic water drainage from the vessel. The cartridges are simply replaced when the pressure drop across the unit reaches a pre-set level showing that the elements have absorbed their maximum allowable quantities of solids and water. O P E R AT I N G AT R E D U C E D F L O W R AT E S T O OVERCOME THIS SITUATION IS NOT PERMITTED.

the evolution of filter/separator design

The information presented thus far has explained the purpose of the FACET Filter/Separator and why it is an essential part of aircraft refuelling operations from production of the fuel at the refinery right through to loading it into the aircraft. The next step is to consider the way in which adequate levels of filtration and separation have been achieved over the years and the principles of operation employed in the process.
An early method of continuously removing free water and solid contaminants is illustrated in Fig. 1 which shows that as the fuel/water/dirt emulsion passes through the special pad of compressed fibrous material the solid contaminants such as rust, etc., are trapped within the pad. At the same time the tiny particles of water are forced to merge or coalesce into larger droplets which, when ejected form the pad sink under gravity to form an accumulation of the removed water in the sump where it can easily be drained. This comparatively simple method was, in fact, one of the first used for continuous flow systems in the early forties. It was known as the hay-pack unit in which the filter/coalescer pad consisted of a compressed, cylindrical pack of large quantities of slivers and fibres of a specially selected timber having a high resin content to withstand immersion in fuel without suffering undue shrinkage or compaction effects. More often than not these packs were found to swell rather than shrink when immersed in fuel, and since they were designed to fit tightly into the vessel when they were installed their removal, when choked with contaminant at the end of their useful life, was frequently a two-man job requiring patient work digging out the material a handful at a time. These hay-pack units were in use for many years and were found to be perfectly satisfactory in coping with the water and solid contamination conditions at the time.
Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet

The light gasolene fuels in use during this period were of much lower density than the water and separation was comparatively easy to accomplish. To achieve separation the vessels were of large diameter to reduce the velocity of the fuel through the hay-pack which assisted coalescence, and long in length to allow sufficient distance for the large water droplets to sink to the sump rather than to be carried over into the outlet pipe. In the same period the solid contaminants were also relatively easy to remove; the rust flakes coming off tanks and pipes were of large size and, although they were broken up into smaller particles by collisions in the pipe system, they were still large enough by the time they had reached the filter/separator unit to make their removal easy by the comparatively coarse structure of the hay-pack. In these earlier days of undosed fuels there was also a tendency for the very small dust and other particles to stick to each other, to agglomerate into larger particles which, again, were fairly easily trapped by the hay-pack. As an alternative to the cumbersome hay-pack and its attendant transportation and servicing difficulties a replaceable cartridge system was introduced in the early fifties. This system, shown in Fig. 2, could be incorporated into existing hay-pack units by the simple addition of the support plate and the centre-bolt fixings for the cartridges, which were easily replaced when necessary. These cartridges used a coarse-grade fibreglass which proved to be superior in performance to the hay-pack and these improvements, together with ease of maintenance, advanced their usage quite remarkably during the late fifties and early sixties. In this same period the demand for air travel was expanding quite rapidly which led to the production of larger aircraft in greater numbers to cope with the demand. This, in turn, led to increased volume requirements of fuel which resulted in the building or expansion of storage, loading and pumping complexes between refineries and airports to accelerate the transfer of fuel from its point of production to the aircraft. The need for filter/separator units to condition the fuel grew hand in hand with these expansions, which explains the parallel growth of the replacement cartridge business.
Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet

Fibrous Pad

Coalescer Cartridges

Coalesced Water Droplets Support Frame Accumulated Water Water Drain

Coalesced Water Droplets

Fig 1: Early Filtration / Separation System

Support Frame

Accumulated Water Water Drain

Fig 2: Replaceable Cartridge System

From 1960 onwards the commercial aircraft industry began to change from piston engines to turbo jet engines, and this change led to important repercussions in filter/separator design. The fuel needed by the jet engine was of a higher density than had been used in piston engines and the convergence of the densities of the fuel and water gave rise to a slight difficulty. It was found that the smaller of the water droplets emerging from the coalescer cartridge remained suspended in the heavier fuel for a much longer time and were reluctant to settle out into the sump within the distance available in the filter/separator unit. The result was that a high proportion of the smaller droplets were being carried over into the outlet. To overcome this problem a second, separator-stripper stage was introduced. As shown in Fig. 3 the original stripper was of simple cylindrical construction wrapped with a specially treated metal mesh screen. This very fine mesh repelled the small water droplets and retained them on the screen surface until they, too, grew into larger droplets which ultimately sank under gravity to the sump. The introduction of the stripper stage opened the door to fundamental changes in filter/separator design in that it destroyed the original concept of having to allow large distances for the water droplets to fall out under gravity. By incorporating effective strippers it was found that the water carry-over possibility could be completely prevented and the distance between coalescer and stripper stages could, therefore, be made quite minimal. The result was that the shape and size of filter/separator units could be reduced to much smaller proportions and their manufacture was then possible in both horizontal and vertical, space-saving designs. Typical examples of these developments in the various configurations which are in current use are shown in Figs. 4, 5 & 6. Photographs of some of these units in various field installations appear elsewhere in this brochure.

Fuel +Small Water Droplets

Stripper Cartridge

Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet

Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt

Accumulated Water Water Drain Coalescer Cartridge

Fig 4: 'C' Type Filter / Separator

Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt

Coalescer Cartridge

Fuel +Small Water Droplets

Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet Alternative Outlet Position

Accumulated Water Water Drain

Stripper Cartridge

Fig 5: 'S' Type Filter / Separator

Head Lift Assembly Anti Vibration Plate Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt Coalescer Cartridges Fuel +Small Water Droplets Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet Mesh Stripper Coalescer Cartridge Fuel+Small Water Droplets Stripper Cartridge

Accumulated Water Coalesced Water Droplets Support Frame Accumulated Water Water Drain Inlet Fuel +Water+Dirt

Coalesced Water Droplets Clean/Dry Fuel Outlet

Fig 3: Filtration / Separation with Additional Stripper

Water Drain

Fig 6: Vertical Type Filter / Separator

the mechanisms of filtration/ coalescence/stripping

The free water droplets and solid contaminants in fuel are, in the vast majority of cases these days, no more than a haze of microscopic particles suspended in the fuel and invisible to the naked eye. The measurement of these particles is usually quoted in microns or, more correctly, micrometres. As an indication of these measurements in comparative terms the thickness of a human hair is approximately 50 microns whilst the smallest particle visible to the naked eye is about 40 microns. The majority of water and solid matter particles in a contaminated fuel are less than 30 microns, and it is the function of the filter/coalescer cartridge of the filter/separator unit firstly to remove the solids and then to merge the particles of water into larger droplets of five to ten millimetres in diameter before they are ejected to fall, under gravity, to the sump from where the water accumulation can be drained. The construction of a typical filter/coalescer cartridge is shown in Fig. 7. The fuel/water/solids emulsion first flows through a pleated assembly of fine-grade filter media supported by interpleated mesh screens of tough, fuel resistant woven material, the pleated configuration being necessary to obtain the optimum area consistent with maximum dirt-holding capacity and efficiency. Following the almost total removal of solid contaminant by this first filtration stage the fuel/water emulsion then passes through two wraps of coalescing media, graduating from a very fine grade material to a coarse grade material to effect the gradual coalescence of water particles from their original microscopic size to visible droplet size. The coalescer batts are supported by a high-strength mesh screen which is finally enclosed in the outer, specially treated cotton sock. The weave pattern of the outer sock determines the ultimate size of water droplet that emerges from the coalescer stage. The two perforated metal tubes, one at the inside diameter the other a little larger, are necessary to provide adequate rigidity to the whole assembly after it is finally sealed within the metal end caps using a high-quality fuel-resistant adhesive. The initial mechanisms of both filtration and coalescence in fibrous materials such as filter paper and fibreglass wraps are virtually identical in that they rely on the probability of collisions of particles with the fibres within the media. In both cases the media consists of numerous layers of fibres roughly perpendicular to the flow which forms a maze, and the liquid passing through this maze is forced to follow tortuous paths around the fibres. If the flow through a section of the media is visualised as hundreds of tiny streams or jets which are forced into many changes of direction and cross-sectional shape as they twist and turn through the maze of fibres, it will be easier to appreciate that the probability of solid or water particles colliding with a fibre is an extremely high one. After collision has occurred the mechanisms of filtration and coalescence are quite different. In filtration the solid particle becomes permanently attached to the fibre and
Inner Coalescer Wrap Outer Coalescer Wrap Outer Support Screen Outer Cotton Sock

Flow Direction

Metal Centre Tube Filter Media Element Element Support Screen Metal Shell

Fig 7: Typical Filter / Coalescer Cartridge Construction

Fig. 8 shows how subsequently colliding particles gradually build up until a comparatively large opening surrounded by fibres is eventually blocked. When the media of the primary filtration stage becomes partially blocked in this manner the resistance to flow will increase rapidly, and it will become necessary to replace the cartridge. Failure to do so will result in the total blockage of the media and the subsequent build up of pressure across the cartridge could, ultimately, rupture the media causing a sudden explosion of dislodged contaminant from the filtration stage to the coalescer stage of the cartridge. Under normal circumstances such a failure would be disastrous. In FACET designs however the possibility of serious after-effects is off-set by the inclusion of a high strength wrap of p.v.c. mesh around the coalescer batts. If filtration media rupture does occur in a cartridge the subsequent compression of the coalescer batts against the high-strength wrap converts these fibreglass wraps into a highly efficient filter media which, in turn, imposes a high restriction to flow across the particular cartridge. The result is that the remaining cartridges have to cope with a slightly higher share of the total flow; this condition will be indicated by an increased pressure drop across the coalescer stage thereby forewarning the operator of the need to replace the cartridges. In the meantime the quality of the fuel flowing from the coalescer stage has suffered no deterioration although one of the cartridges may be operating under only a part-flow condition.

Fig 8: Mechanisms of Filtration

The mechanism of coalescence is different from that of filtration because the particles of water do not permanently attach themselves to fibres. Provided that the fibres are of the correct size, density and material a water particle which has become attached to a fibre will gradually slide along the fibre in same direction as the flow until, as shown in Fig. 9, it meets an obstruction such as an intersection of fibres. The water particle will momentarily be held at this point until other particles following the same or adjoining fibres merge in turn to form an increasingly larger droplet. As the droplet increases in size the flow around it will be imposing higher and higher forces at its surface (viscous drag) until, at some critical point, the droplet is torn away to follow another fibre and collide with another intersection and the process is repeated. By the time it arrives at the final layer of the fibrous wrap the droplet will have been enlarged by the merging of possibly hundreds of original tiny particles, and when it is finally torn from the fibrous medium it is confronted by yet another construction the cotton sock wrapped around the outside of the cartridge. The majority of water droplets will, by this time, be too large to pass directly through the small holes in the sock, and they will be held against its inside surface until further droplets collide and merge to cause further enlargement. Eventually, the large droplet will be forced through the sock in the form of an elongated tube of water which regains its spherical shape immediately after ejection from the sock and sinks to the bottom of the filter/separator unit. Because of the random nature of the fibrous batt used in the coalescer cartridge there will be differences in the effectiveness of the media from one section of the cartridge to another. Consequently, there will be slight inconsistencies in the size of the water droplets emerging from one area compared with another. Similar inconsistencies can be caused by excessive additive content, certain chemical impurities or microbial growths in the fuel, and through combinations of these possibilities there is likelihood that some of the water droplets emitted by the coalescer cartridge will be too small to fall to the sump within the short available distance within the vessel. To prevent the carry-over of these smaller droplets into the filter/separator outlet a bank of stripper cartridges is interposed between coalescer cartridges and the outlet to act as a safety screen. This screen is, in reality, a hydrophobic (water-repellent) barrier which allows the passage of fuel but prevents the penetration of water. The stripping mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 10 and is known as pore catchment. By combining water resistance and a critical pore or mesh size the media repels any suspended water droplets and, while they are held against the surface of the media by the flow trying to force them through the holes, further droplets following behind will collide and merge with the initial droplets until they are enlarged to such a size that they will fall, under gravity, to the sump area below.

FLOW DIRECTION

Fig 9: Mechanisms of Coalescence

The stripper cartridges are, like the coalescer cartridges, cylindrical in shape but the media is a simple wrap (horizontal units) or pleated element (vertical units) of special material. The optional materials available are a high strength siliconized paper, Teflon-coated fine mesh, or a unique woven synthetic material which has the distinct advantages of being both permanent and repairable. Stripper cartridges in the latter material simply require thorough cleaning at each service period, and where accidental damage has occurred special easy-repair kits are available. This system was developed to be particularly beneficial to service engineers working in remote areas where the spares situation may be difficult. The pore or mesh size of the media used in stripper cartridges is critical because of the need to ensure that the flow resistance of the media is not excessive. Without this precaution the pressure difference from the inlet to outlet sides of the media would tend to force the small water droplets through the pores, and the whole purpose of the strippers would be negated. In practice it has been found that water penetration occurs at pressure differences over 1.5 p.s.i. across the stripper stage and, for that reason, it is recommended that replaceable cartridges are changed at a 1.0 p.s.i. differential. Where permanent strippers are utilised the cartridges should be removed at the same time as the coalescer elements and cleaned according to the recommended method before being refitted for further service.
FLOW DIRECTION

SMALL WATER DROPLETS

MESH STRIPPER

Fig 10: Pore Catchment

additives
As indicated in previous chapters the 1960-1970 decade was one of important developments in the field of filter/separator design. The world-wide change to jet engines, and the rapid expansion of air travel generated an unprecedented demand for the heavier Kerosene-type fuels which led to urgent re-thinking on the part of engineers and scientists involved in the development of filter/separators. The difficulty of devising improved methods of separating water from the higher density fuel was an initial concern but this proved to be just the tip of the iceberg compared with the problems that were to follow in the same period. One of these problems arose from the fact that aircraft were flying at higher altitudes, which accentuated the occurrence of icing in fuel systems. Icing can only occur when the fuel contains free water but this free water can be formed simply by the temperature drop between the refuelling temperature at ground level and the operating temperature at high altitudes. From the explanation of free and dissolved water in an earlier chapter it will be appreciated that fuel being loaded into an aircraft at say 20 deg,C ground level temperature can be completely devoid of free water yet it can contain up to 80 parts per million of dissolved water, which is then available for conversion into free water as the fuel temperature drops with increasing aircraft altitude. The solution to the possible icing problem was to add a Fuel System Icing Inhibitor (F.S.I.I.) to the fuel which lowers the freezing point of free water in the fuel in the same way that Anti-freeze prevents icing of the cooling water system in a car engine. Adding this inhibitor in minute concentrations has proved to be an excellent protection against icing but is troublesome as far as filter/separators are concerned. Whereas plain, additive-free fuels will allow the agglomeration of small particles of solid contaminants into larger ones which are easily retained in a coarse filter media the effect of F.S.I.I. is to separate and disperse the agglomerations into their original smaller, discrete particles which then require a maximum area of much finer media to provide the necessary removal and service life characteristics. It should be pointed out that the anti-icing additive is not always included in fuels for commercial aircraft these days because these aircraft often include fuel heating systems. However its usage in military applications is more common. Another problem arose from the increased demand for fuel both in greater amounts and faster turn-round of aircraft. This increase in demand meant faster refuelling at higher flow rates which increases the build-up of electro static charge in the fuel. Research in this field indicated a significant risk of explosion and for this reason an anti-static compound was added to the fuel to increase its electrical conductivity thus allowing electrical charges in the fuel to be more readily conducted to earth through pipework and tanks and to be dissipated. This problem of dissipating electrical charge to earth when refuelling through insulated rubber hoses still exists and for that reason the earth bonding of refuelling equipment remains an essential precaution. The approved anti-static additives (Stadis 450 is the most common) have been developed from a combination of chemicals and, although their effective concentrations in fuel can be as low as 0.75 p.p.m., they make the filtration of solids and the separation of water from fuel more difficult. Anti-static additives have similar effects to anti-icing additives in that they disperse agglomerations into smaller particles with the consequent necessity to provide sufficient area of fine-grade filter media. Another fuel additive used currently is DCI-4A. Its function is to deposit a protective coating on all steel surfaces in contact with the fuel to prevent corrosion. Like the F.S.I.I. and anti-static additives this corrosion inhibitor is added to the fuel in extremely small concentrations and has the same tendency to disperse agglomerations of solid contaminant to make filtration and water separation much more difficult. All three additives have proved to be excellent antidotes in curing the ills for which they are intended although it has been necessary to develop the media, and construction of coalescer cartridges in particular, to cope with the aftereffects of these additional chemicals. One of the most important requirements for the effective coalescence of water particles is that the fibres in the coalescing media should remain in a smooth, clean condition so that the water globules can become attached and slide easily along their surface; if these fibres are contaminated with a build-up of solid particles the coalescing ability of the media will be seriously impaired. Furthermore where any of the three named additives are used their action in dispersing agglomerations of solid contaminants into particles of less than 1 micron in size makes it extremely difficult to prevent these particles from passing through all but the tightest of preliminary filtration media and contaminating the coalescing media. The use of such tight media would, of course, create flow restriction and high pressure drop situations, and to avoid these problems modern filter/coalescer cartridges have to be a realistic compromise based on the best possible filtration performance providing protection for the coalescing media whilst, at the same time, maintaining the lowest possible flow resistance.

surfactants
The additives referred to are generally known as surfactants which is the technical term derived from the expression surface active agents meaning something which affects the interface between a solid and a liquid or between two liquids that do not mix. In the process of separating water from fuel the interface between the water droplets and the fuel is an extremely important consideration, and anything that degrades this interface will reduce the force keeping the liquids apart. This force is known as the interfacial tension (I.F.T.) and is tangible quantity that can be measured by various special instruments. For really effective coalescence the I.F.T. between the water and the fuel needs to be of the order of 30 dynes/cm. and while the figure for pure water and AVTUR for example, is over 40 dynes/cm. certain impurities in either the water or the fuel can reduce this figure to a critical level. The additives mentioned above undoubtedly cause reductions in the I.F.T. between water and fuel. But, provided that their concentrations in the fuel are not excessive, they will have only minimal effects on the separation process. There are, however, other impurities which severely affect the I.F.T. and degrade coalescence. One of the most important of these is the growth of microbes, particularly at the water/fuel interface in storage tank bottoms. Without delving too deeply into the field of Microbiology it is perhaps sufficient to know that some airborne microbes deposited in the fuel need both water and the nutrients from the fuel to survive and multiply. But, in multiplying, these microbes produce surfactants which contaminate the water and reduce its I.F.T. with the fuel to critically low limits which severely impairs coalescence. Worse still, the microbial growths cling to the water-wetted sections of the coalescer cartridge media and, by continuously depositing surfactants onto the fibres of the media and the outer sock, will reduce the size of coalesced water droplets to such small diameters that they will not separate out under gravity. Consequently, the stripper cartridges become grossly over-worked and through a combination of overloading and reduction in I.F.T. the strippers can break down and allow the minute water droplets to be carried over into the filter/separator outlet. FACET engineers have, for many years, been closely involved in problems related to microbial growths and have found that where such problems exist the need to introduce reduced cartridge change periods may be necessary. Where so-called permanent strippers are used these will need to be maintained strictly in accordance with the recommended cleaning instructions. If, however, microbial growth problems persist, causing obvious short life difficulties, the solution may be to change to replaceable paper strippers. These strippers, utilising pleated elements, offer a very much larger surface area and the resulting decreased velocity and lower pressure drop across the larger area should contribute to significant extensions in service change periods, whilst maintaining excellent fuel quality. In addition they can provide the added security of minimising surfactant build up because of their disposable nature. Where surfactants generate serious persistent problems one of the most direct solutions is to treat the fuel using FACET Fullers Earth cartridges. These units remove the surfactants by a process known as Ionic Exchange in which the surfactants are absorbed by active ingredients in the earth used in the construction of the cartridges, leaving the fuel clean and responsive to water separation treatment by the coalescing process. A measure of the success of this method is that these units are regularly used in Test Laboratory Installations where surfactants are deliberately added to evaluate and improve coalescer design and have to be removed before they contaminate the large quantities of fuel held in the storage area specifically for test purposes. As a matter of interest, indications of microbial growth are usually recognised by a series of dark brown patches which discolour the outer sock of the coalescer cartridges and the stripper media although these signs are not necessarily related to a significant loss of performance. It has been found that microbial activity can be reduced by using coalescer socks of cotton material. Unlike hydrocarbon based synthetic materials which nourish the microbes found in fuel systems cotton does not sustain such growth. The staining observed on the cotton sock results from the ability of the material to absorb water. Of course this does not happen with orlon, but orlon itself will be attached by bacteria and can, in extreme situations, be eaten away. Since the presence of water is one of the essential requirements for the microbial growths to be sustained and to expand, it is obvious that the regular draining of water accumulations from filter/separators and storage tanks is an equally essential precaution against contamination of this kind and should be regarded as an extremely important good housekeeping operation.

fuel filter-monitor units

The FACET Fuel Gard Monitors incorporate waterabsorbent type media. Instead of separating water on a continuous flow basis and diverting the extracted water to a sump reservoir for draining the Monitor creates a complete barrier to the passage of free or emulsified water. The critical element in this system is a unique porous media which allow the free flow of fuel yet traps and retains any water droplets presented to it. In contrast to the stripper media of the Water Separator unit the Monitor element media does not reject the water droplet on its surface it absorbs the water through a chemical reaction in which the water droplet and the media to which it becomes attached merge together to form a highly viscous substance which is held in place by a matrix of surrounding fibres. Supporting wraps of porous media and fine mesh prevent the extrusion of the pastelike substance into the down-stream side of the element. Differential pressure across the element compresses the viscous paste against its support to form a small circular area which bars any further flow through its section. As each water droplet in the fuel is absorbed and converted into an impenetrable disc the element area open to flow decreases with a consequent increase in pressure drop across the cartridge. Eventually, as the element absorbs more and more water it becomes increasingly resistant to the fuel flow until, when it becomes completely watersaturated, it shuts down against any flow. To cope with the flow rates associated with aviation refuelling operations the Monitor Unit will employ groups of cartridges in tandem or in parallel. Each cartridge is of such robust construction that it can withstand a differential pressure in excess of 12 Bar (180 p.s.i.) without collapsing or shedding its absorbed water and retained dirt.
Protective Sleeve Filter Media Water Absorbtion Media

This feature is particularly useful when the unit has to cope with a random slug of water entrained in the fuel flow; rapid absorption will cause immediate shut-down of elements rather than allow further transfer of water to the outlet side of the unit. In normal operating conditions the retention of solids and absorption of water will be a gradual process and by ensuring that cartridges are replaced before the differential pressure across the unit exceeds the specified limit the user can easily prevent solids/water overloading, whilst at the same time providing fail-safe operation. A typical cross-section of the Monitor cartridge is shown in Fig. 12. The outer cotton sock is a protective sleeve to guard against damage to the multi-layer outer wraps of filtration media which trap and retain solid contaminants down to less than 1 micron particle size. The subsequent stage is the thicker water absorption element backed by fine pore media layers supported by a mesh screen wrapped around a very strong centre tube. The end caps are manufactured to provide superior strength with excellent support for the O-ring on the mounting/adaptor end. A further important feature of the Monitor cartridge is that its media is completely unaffected by surfactants in the fuel.

Fig 11: Typical Filter / Monitor Cartridge Construction

Moulded C/Tube Multi-Layer PVC Mesh Anti Extrusion Media

performance standards
Considering the stringency of the standards of performance currently expected of Filter/Separator units it is perhaps surprising to reflect that for the first thirty or forty years of aviation there were no specific requirements relating to the quality of fuel suitable for aircraft use. It has to be realised, of course, that until about 1939 the fuel capacity of the largest aircraft was no more than 700 gallons of a light gasolene which, because of its low density, was incapable of retaining water and solids in suspension for very long without discarding them to the bottom of storage tanks. With a little attention to good housekeeping in draining tanks regularly it was, therefore, comparatively easy to ensure the transfer of clean, dry fuel to the aircraft tanks by the use of simple gauzes and waterrepellent materials. Adding to this the fact that flying altitudes rarely reached the freezing zone meant that any possibility of icing depended solely upon climatic conditions rather than height attained in flight. It was not until the introduction of the jet engine in military applications and its use of the heavier Kerosene-type fuels that water contamination became rather more difficult to remove. As a result it was necessary to formulate minimum standard for the quality of fuel regarded as suitable for aircraft use and the first standards; U.S. Military Spec. MIL F.8508 was issued in 1953. This standard was accepted by most American oil companies until, about three years later, a new, far more stringent specification, MIL F.8505A was introduced. From 1956 onwards the formulation of filter/separator performance specifications graduated to the rather chaotic situation where individual oil companies and military authorities each had their own unique but different standards to cover the quality of fuel frequently being loaded into the same aircraft. Plainly, it was a situation which could not continue and resulting from logical argument and development by the American Petroleum Institute, with the cooperation of the filter/separator industry, a common A.P.I.Spec. was issued in 1973. This specification, referred to as A.P.I. 1581, has been accepted by the major oil companies and is now the most widely used standard defining the performance requirements and test methods to be used in qualifying filter/separators for aviation fuel. This A.P.I. Spec. represents a major achievement in terms of the International cooperation of National Institutions, oil companies and filter/separator manufacturers, and in deference to that achievement the salient points of the performance requirements are reproduced in Table 2. It will be seen from the information in this table that filter/separator units are classed according to their application and are required, under specific test conditions, to meet the minimum standard of performance laid down for units manufactured to suit the particular category and type. All of the listed types can be qualified as Category C for commercial fuel, Category M for military or pre-blended fuel, and Category M+100 for fuel with +100 additive present. Qualification to Category M+100 does not qualify the element for any other classification. Qualification to Category M also qualifies the elements to Category C. Testing for Type S automatically qualifies for Type S-LD and S-LW since the water and solids rates are lower for these classifications. To obtain A.P.I. approval for any filter/separator unit the manufacturers are obliged to follow rigid requirements in the conduct of the tests laid down in the overall specification. For this testing the system to be used is shown in Fig. 12 for full scale tests and Fig. 13 for single element tests. These systems require accurate control in the metering and injection of both solids and water according to specified concentrations based on the test flow rate applicable to the particular unit on test.

COMPONENT FWS Type S FWS Type S-LD FWS Type S-LW Filter Monitor

API/IP or IP spec

Particulate Dispersed Bulk water matter removal water removal removal Intermediate API/IP 1581/1582 High capacity Low capacity capacity Low capacity High capacity Low capacity Intermediate capacity Low capacity Low capacity Low capacity None Blocks filter

Typical location applied Into and out of airport storage Out of airport storage Into-plane only Into-plane (refueller and hydrant servicer)
Table 2: A.P.I. Specification Requirements.

API/IP 1581/1582 API/IP 1581/1582 IP 1583

Both systems are also essential for approval testing of Fuel Filter Monitors with absorbent type elements to the Institute of Petroleum / Energy Institute Specifications. These notes on API / IP Specifications provide only a very brief insight into the exacting standards demanded of manufacturers supplying filter/separators and filter/monitors to the aircraft refuelling industry under these regulations. There are many more detailed requirements relating to product integrity and quality standards which are far too extensive to cover in this brochure. The aim of such rigid specifications is, of course, to achieve standardisation of test methods to ensure that elements or complete units which satisfy these performance requirements can obtain an approval which is truly regarded as a world-wide qualification.

FACET Internationals Plants worldwide are well equipped to carry out all the required tests to Petroleum Institute Specifications and has, to date, been awarded numerous separate approvals to the requirements for both filter/separators and filter/monitors. By the use of these extensive test facilities the company is fully committed to the continued development of product to maintain and expand its reputation as an A.P.I. and I.P./E.I. approved organisation.

Fuel Tank Single Pass Capacity Receipt Tank

Cleanup Filter/Separator

Clay Treater

Fuel Tank

Cleanup Filter/Separator

Clay Treater

Slurry Vessel Slurry Vessel Heater Exchanger (optional) Single-Element Test Vessel Flowmeter Heater Exchanger (optional)

Full Scale Vessel

Flowmeter

Water Flowmeter

Filtered Water

Centrifugal Pump (2 950 RPM)

Flow rate >1,0 m/sec (3,3 ft/sec)

Filtered Water

Water Flowmeter

Centrifugal Pump (2 950 RPM)

Flow through piping >1,0 m/sec (3,3 ft/sec)

Fig 12: Single-Element Test Facility

Fig 13: Full-Scale Test Facility

filter/separator modifications
It becomes necessary from time to time for users to consider up-dating their filter/separator installations by modifying the vessels to accept cartridges of improved construction and materials which have gained approval to the latest standard of A.P.I. Spec. requirements. But some caution is essential before embarking on such work. There is, unfortunately, a general impression that an existing unit simply fitted with the latest type of A.P.I. approved cartridges qualifies the unit for A.P.I. approval. This is not the case. For a conversion to gain A.P.I. acceptance requires an extremely thorough redesign which may entail different cartridge spacing, modified sealing surfaces, replacement metallic components to omit non-ferrous materials and a number of other important changes. These requirements cannot be satisfied merely by changing the type of cartridge. It has to be realised that each filter/separator has a unique geometry in the relationship of the position of cartridges to each other and their proximity to the vessel walls. Under A.P.I. regulations this geometry will be substantially different from the original vessel design and a conversion, to be acceptable, demands a great deal of complicated calculation and expert modification. Similar caution is necessary when the user contemplates modifying an existing filter/separator to accept filter/monitor cartridges of the absorbent element type. The internal constructional changes for such a modification are quite extensive and since, in the majority of instances, the Monitor unit with comparable flow rate capacity will be substantially smaller it may be far more economical to consider a complete change of vessels. Where such conversions are contemplated it is strongly recommended that FACET International should be contacted before decisions are made regarding such proposals.

precautionary notes
It was pointed out in the Introduction that this brochure is not meant to be a servicing manual but there are certain precautions in the use and care of FACET Filter/Separators and their cartridges which cannot be emphasised too often.
It should be borne in mind that to meet the exacting standards required of aircraft fuel quality the coalescer and stripper cartridges are individually assembled by hand and are subjected to rigorous quality control inspections throughout their manufacture. In consequence, these cartridges are rather expensive and they demand care in handling appropriate to their value both in terms of cost and their effectiveness in providing clean, water-free fuel for aircraft, to ensure the safety of the millions of people traveling by air throughout the world. Engineers involved in replacing cartridges in FACET Filter/Separators are therefore strongly advised to handle the cartridges with the utmost care. Where there is the slightest evidence of damage which could affect cartridge performance all risk should be avoided by discarding any elements of doubtful quality. This advice is particularly relevant to the surfaces of separator cartridges, whether they are replaceable or permanent types, and to the outer socks of coalescer cartridges; the idea that these socks are simply protective coverings for the internal media is completely wrong. As explained in a previous chapter the sock forms an important, integral part of the coalescence process and tears or holes in these socks should not be ignored. The same kind of care is necessary when handling monitor cartridges. Although the outer sock is correctly regarded as a protective sleeve for these items it is essential to ensure that any damage to the outer sock has not affected the layers of filter media beneath. Another vitally important precaution relates to the recommissioning of filter/separators after servicing. It is essential that bringing an empty unit on line is done at very low filling flow rates. If the unit is filled too quickly the fuel vapours rushing out through the air eliminator will be at such a high velocity that there is a serious risk of build-up of a high electrostatic charge, with consequent danger of explosion.

call on Facet for clear solutions

Keep your JET A1 in A1 condition with FACET filter/water separators, prefilters clay filter vessels and cartridges.
Facet filter/water separators updated to comply with the latest civil and military specification. FACET filter water separators provide clean dry fuel in airport and refinery installations worldwide. Facet water absorbent monitors remove solids and water from aviation fuels in full compliance with the latest Institute of Petroleum / Energy Institute specifications. Facet prefilters used upstream of a filter water separator the FACET prefilter will extend the life of coalescer and separator cartridges and significantly reduce overall filtration and separation costs. Facet clay filters using a process of preferential ionic adsorption FACET clay filters will clean up your fuel. Use FACET clay filters in multiproduct pipeline installations and wherever surfactant laden or discoloured fuel is a problem. Facet cartridges manufactured to the highest specifications FACET coalescer, separator, micro-filter clay and water absorbent cartridges are readily available to keep your equipment on stream at all times. Whatever your problem in filtration and separation call on Facet with more than 50 years experience in the industry we are both ready and able to help.

www.facetinternational.com - www.clarcor.com