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Educating the "Native": A Study of the Education Adaptation Strategy in British Colonial Africa, 1910-1936 Author(s): Michael Omolewa

Source: The Journal of African American History, Vol. 91, No. 3 (Summer, 2006), pp. 267-287 Published by: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20064091 . Accessed: 13/05/2013 17:24
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EDUCATING THE "NATIVE": A STUDY OF THE EDUCATION ADAPTATION STRATEGY IN BRITISH COLONIAL AFRICA, 1910-1936
Michael Omolewa*

This assist

essay

discusses

how

examinations

were

used

as

an

strategy" beginning in 1910 when British examinations boards were invited to


the conduct of secondary school in colonial examinations in Africa. covered all aspects of formal Although adaptation on secondary this focuses of education because its schooling, study as the highest level of education and its significant available, importance on colonial on the at the time. Much of recent literature impact society on the various has focused levels of schooling adaptation question beyond in rural areas.1 The essay basic village education the responses, examines to the suggestion in Nigeria, that secondary education should be particularly efforts, "adapted to local needs," and the results of the adaptation culminating in the introduction of the "Overseas School for Certificate Examination" territories in Africa was of Western education laid by Christian use to to missionaries who were introduce eager literacy training Christianity to their religion.2 converts The missionaries and win also used Western as catechists, to train Africans education and other positions messengers, to assist them in realizing the social and economic needed and development foundation transformations desired by Merchants and traders also business transactions. Thus the missionaries and their agents. European to handle their qualified required personnel considerable after consultations between the the local merchants and Society traders, Grammar the first Nigerian The candidates in 1936. with

"adaptation

Church Missionary
promote secondary

Society
and

(CMS), founded by the Church of England to


the Church Missionary School, was

evangelization, in Nigeria, school

was founded in Lagos in 1859.3


It is by no means 1872, Henry and resources, self-propagating, to surprising that the first secondary school in Nigeria

established by the Church Missionary

Society (CMS). Its secretary from 1841

in the development of adequate human Venn, firmly believed that the school must be self-supporting, and self-governing, and should African The African employ personnel.4

is Professor at the University Michael Omolewa of Adult Education and Permanent Delegate to UNESCO, of Nigeria Paris, France.

of Ibadan, Nigeria;

and Ambassador

267

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268 commercial equipped outsiders elite also required and business to handle political and economic

The Journal of African American History that was well-trained personnel between transactions Africans and and

the and record correspondence involving keeping regarding and Africans also and African of services.5 goods European exchange of post to recognize and the attractions the advantages began gradually salaries and and the increased education, wages, improved primary especially Andrew has observed Paterson that in South conditions of service. Historian source to be an alternative for education "Africans Africa, perceived a of in time land economic security dispossession."6 schools were established additional In a quick succession, secondary by the CMS and by other missionary in various parts of Nigeria, and the the Catholic Mission, Mission, Baptist including organizations, the Wesleyan

Methodist Mission,
Methodist in Society, 1922.

beginning
established

in the 1870s. The Qua Iboe, the Primitive

in Eastern Nigeria schools mostly secondary to spring up in schools also gradually began Secondary starting as community and various other parts of Africa, schools, high colleges, missions in often Christian with schools, grammar cooperation secondary and the necessary the curriculum, the teachers, that provided contacts; and raised funds for the communities the local buildings however, provided to the establishment of This was the background these educational services.7 mission schools

In Nigeria, for example, ethnic-based in Africa. as Benin City; Edo Oduduwa such schools Ile-Ife; College, College, secondary to to to the various needs of attend Owo began and Imade College, sprout up new the to of take and individuals communities eager advantage opportunities with the that emerged in the new and promotion for advancement society and administrative the colonial of the missionaries bureaucracy.8 coming was unwilling to have a direct colonial At first the British government in education of the in involvement However, Nigeria. secondary promotion soon recognized of colonial the establishment British officials that, following for clerks, messengers, in the demand increase rule and the subsequent various interpreters, the region, British a model officials in to maintain British control needed administrators 1909 in to establish Thus schools. it became secondary imperative in Lagos as to establish King's College decided administrators colonial Government education."9 "sound general school, providing secondary of the missions the work and supplement also began to complement and other

The colonial in various schools model secondary provinces. by establishing the policy to introduce and also began administrators provide legislation in the colonies.10 of schooling for the expansion framework to the British was the invitation This by process accompanied of the and to test the literary examinations board competence ability measure To this to its and school of the system quality. secondary graduates to were and introduced examinations London Mauritius, early end, University The administrators also colonial Africa. of East and West later to parts into the Examination Local of Cambridge the University invited Syndicate country in 1910 to assist in conducting the secondary school examinations.11

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A Study of the Education Adaptation In doing so the British colonial

Strategy regime

in British Colonial Africa, believed that it was

1910-1936 taking

269

of the decision of the University of Cambridge in its statute of 11 February


for the examination the syndicate of students who are not 1858, to establish of the university.12 members The University of Oxford, which had established on 18 June 1857, followed the University for Local Examinations Delegacy in 1929 in the of work school examinations Cambridge conducting secondary in Nigeria.13 a very powerful Examinations have remained for controlling instrument the content of instruction. influence curriculum and They design preparation, and dictate the teaching and learning a Nigerian As Fafunwa, process.14 an education "It is educational truism that examinations declared, specialist, control system the curriculum its and whosoever controls controls education."15 Historian a country's examination Little has the made Angela

advantage

following

important point:

[Examinations represent the ultimate goal of the educational career, they define what are the important aspects of a school curriculum and they dictate to a large extent the quality of the school experience for both teacher and student alike. Moreover, the quality of the
examination encouraged on impact system by the the inputs itself to the can have a considerable education which system, labour market.16 impact skills in on turn the quality of skill formation a considerable could have

Historian

E. Dillard has also observed that it is important to devote to closer of measurement the instrument in our effort to understand how educational "in addition to studying educational systems have developed, and the structure of schooling."17 content, curriculum, Mary attention

DEBATINGTHECONTENT OF COLONIALEDUCATION
the Africans much from the attainment of Western Initially, expected but they quickly became over and frustrated the education, disappointed was expressed in complaints results.18 This disenchantment from Africans and alike that the "imported" educational to achieve failed its Europeans system was considered Western education "too European," and therefore, objectives. ill-suited indigenous were being introduced and irrelevant of to African needs, and that in the process, the values love, community relationships, the same time, some complained of and profound that the new spirituality system had

"cutthroat intolerance, hatred, competition," even and It was further covetousness, pride, arrogance, disharmony, cheating. was too that there much too and little of suggested rote-learning application in the principles soon the schools. Colonial officials resolved taught being that massive reform was required.19 The United African plans States Education for and reform were promoted influenced in the by educational practices an the American Fund, by Phelps-Stokes

lost. At new values

philanthropic

foundation.
Commission,

In 1920 the Phelps-Stokes


led by Thomas Jesse

Fund

launched

its

Jones,

aWelshman

who

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270 had formerly taught at Hampton team of six observers that was

The Journal of African American History

in Virginia.20 Institute a Jones assembled to travel to West to Africa colonial survey educational institutions and practices and to make recommendations. The team visited Nigeria to 16 December from 4 November to 1920, and traveled In its report published and Calabar. in 1922, the team Kano, Onitsha, that Western concluded education had little prospect for success in the was a colonies African it to was because soil that to let transplanted unwilling it grow. It was that formal to suit its should be adapted suggested schooling With environment. the commission education, regard to secondary argued that it should aim at training African leaders and suggested that activities of school should be determined with particular to the needs of secondary regard such were the subjects relevant considered Among leadership. sciences, social sanitation, studies, hygiene, physiology, mathematics, languages, rural and economics. The that formal report emphasized gardening schooling on "indigenous in all lands, concentrate to education" and be adapted should, local needs.21 were the team members education and anthropologists Among specialists from the Teachers Columbia all had a keen interest College, University. They in examining the educational and social of races, development "primitive" their folkways and history, because believed that be Africans should they to learn about these cultural beliefs made at all stages of their and practices This view was formal of the Advisory schooling. by the members supported on Native in Tropical Africa Committee Education in 1923 by the established was in London. Even the committee Office after the renamed on Committee in the its members to Education continued Colonies, Advisory a specific to design insist on the need educational and system, curriculum, for Africans, and to adapt the existing examination of formal system system was to suit that Western local education unsuitable needs, arguing schooling for Nigerians and other colonial subjects.22 The colonial officials who believed in that formal government schooling must the colonies take the culture of the "natives" into account shared their Colonial views with others in London and this theme was echoed throughout the

colonial period. The Imperial Education Conferences of 1912, 1927, 1937 and the Advisory Committee Reports on Education in the Colonies all emphasized this idea, and a 1925 white paper, titled "Education Policy in British Tropical Africa," highlighted the need to adapt education "to the
mentality, conserving their social and traditions of the various aptitudes, occupations peoples, as far as possible all sound and healthy in the fabric of elements 1925 white paper was dispatched to all the provincial life."23 The in African and Lord Lugard, of British chronicler colonial governors colonies, described it as "one of the principal of imperial policy landmarks in history, In October the twentieth the Under 1929, W. Ormsby-Gore, century."24 of State and the chairman of the Advisory for the Colonies secretary on Education in the Colonies, reiterated Committee the position that

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A Study of the Education Adaptation schooling peoples.


In all

Strategy to the

in British Colonial Africa, circumstances and

1910-1936 of

111

He

had to be adapted declared that:

lives

colonial

alike the need is felt for an education which will and develop the preserve parts and or immigrant, of the various whether traditions individuality peoples, indigenous a scientific and which or technical will them at the same time the means of acquiring give of the forms of nature on human and a wider outlook mastery experience.25

It appears that the British government its policy considered of adaptation to suit local needs as extremely of education In of this pursuance important. the British the of formation the International government policy, supported Institute of African and Culture, which instituted five prizes for the Languages in best books written Africans This action was taken, African by languages. according production to the authorities of the of vernacular literature.26 Institute, to give impetus to the

THE ROLE OF BRITISH UNIVERSITIES


for planning school curricula for the African secondary responsibility in the early decades of the 20th century in Africa remained with the or Ministries of Education of the various But the countries. Departments for changes in school initiative in the hands of the examinations remained colonies Committee of the Colonial Office whose concern, Advisory primary to more to historian Clive "was maintain direct control Whitehead, according over the spread and content of education, at the secondary level."27 especially were the actual examinations conducted the However, mainly University by of London School Examinations the Cambridge Board, University Syndicate for Local and the Oxford for Local Examinations. Examinations, Delegacy a decisive on the school As was examinations have influence noted, and examination bodies had their curriculum, university expressed willingness to consider from various quarters for appropriate modifications.28 suggestions on Native The Committee in Tropical Education Africa Advisory this fact in June 1929, and as early as 1930, the committee acknowledged to consider of bringing about in the content of the ways began changes educational in A colonial of schools.29 sub-committee the programs Advisory was later set up under Sir James Currie that corresponded Committee with the an to universities and the eagerness English expressed modify existing syllabi for the colonies to reflect The Advisory local needs. Committee assured officials that it was not interested in lower standards, but wanted university "to retain them the within ambit of English [colonial subjects] education, . . ."30 whilst making such modifications. was held An education conference in London 25 and 31 May between 1935 to review proposals for the reform of the syllabus for secondary school in the colonies. examinations was Another held at the Colonial meeting The

Office

in London on 5 December

1935 between the English examining bodies

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272

The Journal of African American History

it was agreed that a sub-committee At that meeting officials. and colonial and of the bodies to the set activities coordinate be should examining up boards of each the from two of consist should university representatives as well as individuals in the dependencies, with examinations concerned state the for of colonies.31 nominated by the secretary Committee the Advisory After several meetings, agreed on the format for It also agreed into subject groups. and the division examinations the existing should and mathematics for history, that the syllabi chemistry, physics, for be and substituted fauna flora that local It recommended remain unaltered. a and that in the botany used the European examinations, greater plants that on local geography. it recommended be should Finally, put emphasis more to meaningful language paper should be made essay topics in the English of topics inclusion the considered and therefore students the African "Native "Native markets," to the "natives," relevant considered including Music," All and "Polygamy."32 "Popular Superstitions," Dancing," school for universities conducting responsible English submitted the proposals considered in Nigeria examinations by the favorably as Africa. in Tropical on Native Education Committee However, Advisory as and Yoruba Hausa 1922, London University adopted early as October entrance its university for qualifying languages" special "optional on 18 October its meeting At examinations. 1922, the London University "Board of the the recommendation Senate senate-appointed approved Faculty two be these that and Literature" in Oriental of Studies languages Languages "Native the Senate the University examination suitable However, subjects.33 of African the adoption about decisions these in making that of it would grounds. Thus at its meeting only be guided on academic languages, to a be offered not suitable "Efik is that it resolved 5 February subject 1926, on the ground that there is not a sufficient Examination at the Matriculation in the language."34 test of proficiency literature to allow an adequate native a positive was but move, the study of indigenous In principle, languages of the the nuances not grapple with could that Africans the assumption adopted insisted as

English
indigenous

language was highly questionable. This probably explains why


peoples were with suspicious of the intentions of the colonial

the

officials

In October of authority. for positions 1930, therefore compete and Literature in Oriental Studies of Board London Languages University's at the as a special that recommended language recognized Igbo be over of four on it is that the the examination matriculation language grounds a for as was recommended also It million subject compulsory people. their to before sent the officials appointments region being governmental raised The London be confirmed. Senate, however, could University in factors" academic the "extra and refused to consider recognition objections them examination.35 at the matriculation of a language had suggested and Literature in Oriental The Board of Studies Languages men to to induce Igbo young is needed that "some stimulus study, and to help

whom they believed did not want them to master the English

language, and

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A Study of the Education

Adaptation

Strategy

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

273

them in the development of their own language; and the recognition of Igbo to in this way in this end."36 its final may However, help making in November to the Matriculation 1930 recommendation and School Examinations the Senate concluded that Igbo should not be approved Council, as a special at the examination. matriculation language It was ascertained from further inquiries that Igbo literature consists at present of the Bible, the Prayer Book, a Reader in the written language known as Union-Igbo, a few
books of a religious a language nature of many in one or other of the dialects, and a history of a town written

by a native of that town, more or less after the Union-Igbo model; and further that Igbo is
at present dialects.37

The University

of London also faced problems introducing the study of

or African into the curriculum of the absence because of textbooks history were other written materials.38 Some colonial officials convinced that some came to their present of the indigenous destinations "at some time peoples or in the way and had nothing of history, unknown, customs, handicrafts, to notable."39 make them The textbooks devoted physique existing only a to the history of the African before of the coming paragraphs peoples T. R. the Europeans. the several author of Moreover, Batten, Englishman on African textbooks that "throughout the long ages before argued history, was controlled in the Africa nineteenth there powers by European century, were few changes in African of not Most colonial did officials ways living."40 consider the history of the "natives" worthy of study, because largely they saw "history" as a subject needed to inform the "natives" about the European As one of them put it: "We must tell them the story of "civilizing missions." in his great ships to show the new ways how the white man has come of few and planting, also factories and cinemas, and motor mining bringing railways break old entrance that the life."41 examinations lorries, up University on Henry included the Navigator and the European questions explorers as of of the African part possibly promotion "imperial" history. to the art curriculum, With regard Cambridge carefully University considered criticized with African the the proposals Syndicate's traditions."42 submitted by K. C. Murray, who as unsuitable art examination as early as 1931 had for developing art

education inNigeria because "they have little to do with art and nothing to do
to consult Africans then volunteered Murray who, a syllabus "a practicable would be able to design in art being people," In 1933 the Cambridge education. to that it was proposing Syndicate reported to "tropical needs and conditions."43 its course Overall, adapt by 1936 the out several new examination had worked for the Nigerian programs Syndicate but the examinations the retained titles "Junior School candidates, Certificate" and "School Certificate." Both examinations included "overseas such as geography, which to test the had some questions inserted subjects" candidates' of For "local the conditions." award of all knowledge certificates, were to candidates for the examinations the pass required English language

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274 paper, which

The Journal

of African American History

was to test the candidates' to write designed ability English were to Candidates offer to eight subjects and four correctly. required English chosen from at least two groupings of courses.44 The Cambridge like the other examination bodies, University Syndicate, to insist on the attainment continued to determine of specific marks the level of achievement of candidates, and emphasized that "special attention is paid no to the English test in In is circumstances Grade I, language awarding grades. to a candidate who fails to reach the pass standard the highest level, awarded in this test."45 This of course had implications for the mastery of other none was in the of which made country, European languages compulsory.46

THE CHALLENGE OF ADAPTATION


was of the adaptation in Nigeria strategy implementation fraught Western education was into Africa difficulties. introduced five centuries in Europe, had been established and more than one thousand after universities a had in in written form. Those after Western education been years practice were aware that while in Africa who pioneered Western education they were in in "fundamental" the of with universities Africa, schooling England dealing as been and Cambridge and English had Oxford schools established grammar The with as the 12th century.47 Some colonial officials assumed that formal was to to in a rural in be basic education Africa limited village schooling were to extend who the there those need but recognized begrudgingly setting, to level. the the education Christian Furthermore, secondary schooling were introduced Western education of traditional who missionaries ignorant on their with educational African systems, training, emphasis apprenticeship for elders, and fair play.48 and oral tradition, respect honesty, Many no educational there was officials assumed missionaries and colonial on which could that their build. later realized foundation They they were invalid. educational about the practices indigenous assumptions outcomes the new educational Moreover, system produced by unexpected on as status students. This successful such rewards jobs and social conferring far back drove some African students including to way interwoven Africans of rote-memorization success. examination who into communal were at times to achieve almost success, anything or even buying their the material, cheating, was which Unlike traditional education, a new breed of education life, Western produced from their own communities of alienated because to do

and the power official colonial

their estimated 1950s had to accept


Education practice

one on them by their new status. As conferred authority over of the educational "Some products observed, system in the own achievement The colonial and worth."49 office that,
in Africa does not has come under fire from various to quarters. . . .There that are those

who
the

say that the education we offer is too bookish,


country, and pay sufficient attention

is not related to the environment of


character training; primary

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A Study of the Education Adaptation Strategy


education out to have ought too many with people

in British Colonial Africa,


secondary

1910-1936
education

275
turns

an agricultural and rural bias; that a desire for white-collar employment.50

At independence, described Nigerian complacent" or West Cambridge believe The and

a Nigerian secondary and added

minister school that

of education, J. A. O. Odebiyi, Chief as "mercenary, materialistic graduates of a they "tend to think that possession certificate entitled them to

African owes that the world

Examinations Council them a living."51

of the adaptation further undermined its strategy implementation success. non became Indeed, cosmetic, potential adaptation incomplete, and exclusive. Those who benefited did not share alienating, participatory, went was the educational but for This the because vision, along gain. personal or who not officials did call for implemented adaptation any anticipate from the local people. contribution British examinations boards Eventually, new elements the adaptation and began into the program accepted introducing these minor did not greatly the overall affect changes of education. The Nigerian paper development secondary English language and even the addition remained of new essay topics for Nigerian compulsory, in the paper. Some essay candidates did not introduce major changes topics such as '"Where there's a will there's a way': How far can this proverb be However, to our everyday to Nigerian life?" were more candidates applied appealing who had come to sit for the examinations to the dictum. The fact prove only that the examinations had to be written in intelligible and meaningful English the Nigerian belief students' that "adaptation" meant only reinforced greater inWestern facility subjects. were not greatly of the subjects affected many However, by the and to be strategy. Arithmetic, adaptation geometry, algebra papers continued to test the candidates' of their geographical designed ability, irrespective location. for instance, and chemistry tested the same examinations, Physics were or in information whether in the colonies. taken Britain they Botany were among the "adapted" subjects, and geography but the basic requirements standard examinations reflected colonial questions and after before adaptation for remained and circumstances. one about in ten of the only For example, papers geography on the earth?its form, questions and use of maps; of distribution for the of tests.

included and atmosphere; construction movement, land and water; vegetation; of population; distribution and so forth. But one was in Africa, at least candidates added that dealt with question or America.52 of Great Britain, and either Africa regional geography on the history The examiners included of the exploration questions

Africa
African

and the growth of the British Empire, but not on the history of

The but the list of topics was groups remained, subject peoples. was some of the it to avoid for the candidates However, expanded. possible a was introduced still and to obtain It certificate. also newly subjects possible avoid any new topic inserted in the old subjects and still pass the examination.

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276 The Journal of African American History I shows the subject Table overseas examinations. Table I: School groups before and after the introduction of special

Examinations

Subjects

in Nigeria,

1916-1936*

Subjects offered to Nigerians


before adaptation_after

Subjects offered to Nigerians


adaptation_

Group I: Group II:

English English History History Religious Knowledge Latin

Religious Knowledge Latin


Yoruba

Group III:

Arithmetic Arithmetic
Geometry Geometry

Geography
Physics-with-Chemistry

AlgebraAlgebra Geography
Chemistry Botany

Biology
Group IV: Drawing Drawing Book-keeping Shorthand Art
Note were that the examination to "pass" was given in a minimum at the of end five of and that candidates education secondary at least three taken from groups,

expected

subjects

including Group (Sources: Reports


University Schools Local Examinations

I: of the Oxford Delegacy


Examinations Council, Syndicate, 1916-1936).

for
and

Local Examinations
the University of London

and

the Cambridge
and

Matriculation

as a modification as the English emphasis "adaptation" state for a of was The of itself secretary adaptation. negation lingua franca in came to this when close the colonies, reality acknowledging Ormsby-Gore, on 5 Associations an address at the annual Conference of Educational January to tended have examinations "external that he declared always 1937, Perhaps rather than it would be better to describe the the new system since continued on influence curricula, and have not always helped the true course of good education."53 It is significant negative aspects

on the for adaptation did not comment that the apologists was no consideration For example, examinations. of external

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A Study of the Education Adaptation Strategy given

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

277

to the view that examinations "an exaggerated inevitably generated a of selfish and desire of immediate and spirit rivalry, praise . . . Personal over reward. ambition and prevails public spirit . . . love of self as to love of others."54 Sir John And patriotism opposed out in Lubbock his of the criticism British examinations that pointed "every will be anxious, for the credit of the school, to obtain as large a schoolmaster as possible, of certificates and under these circumstances attention proportion . . ,"55 on the four subjects will be concentrated taken. it would Therefore, that the of to education failed the appear promoters adapted appreciate an on of based educational system examinations, problems solely problems race and nation. which transcended Historian that the adaptation observed Henry D'Souza strategy was largely to the New Zealand Maoris, restricted the black population in the Caribbean, the native peoples of the Philippines, in the sub-Saharan Africans region, and black South Africans. He has further explained that adaptation low "implied at comparable standards with that offered in Britain."56 institutions compared He Member method with the agreement expressed of Parliament, who had described the Woolworth basis." D'Souza concluded also a British of T. Smith, as "education on adapted schooling was that the adapted curriculum "a the 'native' by slowing down the educational an apologist content."57 Charles Loram, for was concerned with the "natives of Africa, description

of discriminating against the curriculum pace and watering in South the adapted curriculum South Africa," and in his view "industrial should be made the chief training end of Native Historian Andrew to the Paterson education."58 pointed with on Loram attributed which consensus" the of "certainty question in South Africa "all white colonial interest groups."59 among adaptation In the early form of "Negro the distinct industrial education" 1920s,

associated with Hampton and Tuskegee and aimed at maintaining Institutes of the southern the subordination as black working class was recommended for the in "native in colonies Africa. appropriate peoples" European P. S. Zachernuk Historian that "informed explained by the American-based on in and modeled what white Americans Commission, Phelps-Stokes part suited their African American colonial education underclass, policy to create knew Africans who in their and colonial loyal hoped place gendered racial hierarchies."60 Edward Berman contends that the recommendations of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education to Africa Commission had "strong racist and would have proved disastrous for the development of Africa overtones," thought

had they been adopted.61 He noted that "the belief in African


led many to conclude

inferiority and

and their American that Africans descendants depravity could not possibly benefit from a literary education."62 Berman also drew to the chairman of the Continuation attention of Committee the World who observed in 1914 that the "mental digestion" Conference of Missionary the "child race" is weak, and that these races "are more in getting successful than using it." The chairman then concluded that the intellectual knowledge of the had grown out of the "low state of his civilisation African infirmity

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278 and the effect on his mind Historian Kenneth King Commission Phelps-Stokes African

The Journal of African American History of centuries of barbarous lawlessness and cruelty."63 been critical of the recommendations of the were on because based of they assumptions as a recipe served for political and economic

has

and inferiority subordination.64 These researchers also suggested that the Commission failed on educational to have a direct influence in colonies African developments it was overly because and did not ambitious, spent too little time in Africa, consult well-respected of the African members intelligentsia.65 a more Rather than planning suitable educational and system, overworked on colonial officials embarked the half inexperienced program adaptation It is difficult to resist suggesting that if these officials had kept heartedly. their own children in the colony's would have to more schools, they appealed and educational outside the for competent experienced planners colony advice and

additional financial for assistance local educational sought from the Colonial Office. to colonial officials refused programs However, children with them of their because fears about the The bring tropical climate. official carried the information that "West Africa has reports consistently so unhealthy the reputation of being that almost had, and deserved, always be the fate of the white man who endeavoured death would to make it in this general his home. And condemnation has been E. included."66 Nigeria the first Chief Justice of Nigeria, also commented that "by the nature Speed, of our service the possibility which of bringing in up children precludes we are forced to maintain a residence for our family at home or at all Nigeria, events can live."67 The adapted in some climate where children schooling in the British in Africa was meant available colonies only to apply to African and historian Martin that the failure of Western children, suggests Carnoy a mass to produce was education of innovative and highly trained individuals not a failure at all, but the direct of the colonizing result function of in a capitalist adapted or otherwise, schooling, economy.68 certain for the real motives for the genesis of searching one must of the colonial look at the apprehensions were discovered that Nigerians suddenly investing heavily was a to upward mobility which considered passport schooling, strategy, system. Because In adaptation who officials in their formal in the colonial the

the colonial invested in little government comparatively courses scorned many self-education, began schooling, through Nigerians and sub-standard educational education and vigorously institutions, indigenous the English universities' examinations. embraced Many Nigerian youths began as their prime objective to consider of the certificate the acquisition for social on advancement. "these of young West misguided aspirations," Commenting the well-respected out nationalist Nnamdi Azikiwe Africans, Nigerian pointed that "the African is not, and never has been, a problem; there is no such thing as an African The real issue was the overarching educational problem." on and after one's name."69 certificates, credentials, emphasis "degrees the passing But these values were of the School rarely acquired through or the Overseas Certificate Certificate School examinations. Azikiwe did not

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A Study of the Education Adaptation

Strategy

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

279

the discontinuance of the external but he wanted them examinations, preach in the Nigerian inculcate by training that would supplemented youth a sense to suggest of dedication, It seems plausible and loyalty. that the patriotism, was not prepared to pursue colonial administration such an educational an element to have and there seems been of improvisation experiment, with the colonial because after officials adaptation shortly in Nigeria, education transplanted Western they began to regret the initiative to create the colonial of its failure "of their dreams." because For subjects was it that instead of "the citizens, suggested producing example, cooperative in which is one of ferment and conflict the individual, much present picture more evermore than in the past, sees himself and his private interests clearly, and his duties to it as something and society outside himself, and demanding British in Nigeria officials that frustrating."70 consistently complained were of the school to colonial system products existing generally disrespectful and generally toward discourteous the traditional Lord elders. authority was the no means a of Frederick first who governor Lugard, Nigeria, by or thinker the of the colonial school intellectual, profound despised products to the negative Lord Lugard drew attention comments system. frequently about them, and agreed that they were usually in "unreliable, lacking integrity, and discipline of any kind."71 and without self-control, respect for authority Other advocates of adaptation such as Lord Lugard's deputy, C. L. Temple on Native the joint-secretary of the Advisory Committee Mayhew, Sir at Professor of Education the of Education, Percy Nunn, University on Native of the Advisory and a member Committee in Education London, the colonial often defended educational For Africa, Tropical system. who in ethnology J. H. Driberg, became lecturer at Cambridge example, in for several after the that the years colonies, University serving argued "native" needed knowledge and skills in two crucial areas. A. The two most important things are the maintenance
a thorough knowledge which affect may its to astronomy), laws and

associated

of life and the perpetuation


of all the as economic insects activities such them, his physical and

of his
of

to have He has therefore species. his tribe and of all the circumstances the seasons of (which society, introduce he must him know member organised.72

or other pests, ... As a environment. in which it is

regulations

the way

In an address July 1931, mechanics,

biological in this country what teachers you ask many they understand by biology, they answer that they believe sex teaching. it has something to do with Let us get this idea out oif our heads when the significance in of biology considering certain he not A. Mayhew that Africa."73 did (which suggested subjects name), in the school from the list included could be eliminated He examinations. or we "in that Africa the Pacific most for the have tropical part explained

to the British Commonwealth Education Conference held in Sir Percy Nunn and that, instead of chemistry, argued physics, must be taught biology the African "the operation because of ... ever is laws to If him. laws?especially micro-biology present

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280

The Journal of African American History

races that seem at present to have but little to contribute, and that primitive can must of before work patient undergo long years they effectively . . "74 the best that we can offer. assimilate as the director of education As of 1930, reported early problems with of British certificates examination among Nigerians unemployment the clerical that only a small proportion could find and admitted boards, a were a As number of candidates that desired. result, large they employment in various parts of the country. occupations were from a legitimate that the candidates The director added "suffering are at the meeting In 1932 not of if they employed." September grievance on in Sir Michael Native Education the Advisory Committee Africa, Tropical The members drew the "the danger of an academic Sadler evoked proletariat." to the possibility of the overproduction of of the colonial officials attention of these "colonial graduates."75 W. R. McLean argued that "unless the product can be employed or indeed of any higher in the training, training, university as an economic error for the a political as well it is probably Dependency, in search of clerical similar local administration for the granting It appears perhaps Africans external governance for such training, facilities and to provide uncontrolled students."76 of British External locally to native degrees there was 1930s considerable that by the early irritation, over of the number officials colonial among qualified anger, growing the their competence and training who demonstrated by passing were the from excluded but who examinations, deliberately and administration of their native land.77 or

CONCLUSION
a product was who of the fear of colonial officials clearly Adaptation a threat to continued colonial leaders were that the new African believed of the skilled labor market of Africa, and the domination by the occupation was school therefore of African criticism The colonizers. graduates secondary to their who maintain wished a convenient officials colonial invention of the or not is whether real But the of authority. larger question position was was the colonial Colonialism under system. possible "adaptation" of choice or freedom and denied the subject peoples and alienating dominating them. of policies that affected and implementation input in the planning the no the of for the views and had officials colonized, respect Imperial of the indigenous not to meet the needs and aspirations designed, did not colonial their The of colonizers. those but system population, and who desired of the colonized, for the good function social, economic, schools were development. political racist had an underlying of "adaptation" In addition, the original concept the concluded that of Even the adaptation supporters European assumption. colonial had educational system only "questionable" produced imported that the secondary schools but often failed to acknowledge produced subjects,

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A Study of the Education Adaptation

Strategy

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

281

on to become efficient who went clerks, surgeons, graduates journalists, and Nigerian of religion, learned ministers barristers, powerful patriots. for some biased to brand these it was convenient colonial officials Perhaps also as potential and ne'er-do-wells. At the graduates agitators "promising" time, considered a very strong suspicion that they were among Nigerians of mastering and this explains their education, English incapable to "adapted" education. As one Nigerian nationalist "What resistance sniped, " to is good for the goose must be good for the gander! And this determination to Nigerian in Nnamdi Azikiwe's resist adaptation was clearly reflected advice wanted to begin higher
is no

same

there was

youth who

studies.
achievement which

There

Is possible to human beings which Is not possible to Africans. Your studies of Logic should
Lead Sons to the correct conclusions. return

Therefore go forth, thou


of Africa, Fleece.78 and

Home
Golden

laden with the

in 1930, Adeyemo then a student of Oxford Writing Alakija, University, admitted that there was chaos in the Nigerian educational "the system because not avoid to imitate African the European could attempting [and] the did not think it his duty to study the African's national institutions. European He would the African and advance modernise his mode of life from the But Alakija sub any plan to provide European point of view."79 challenged for Africans on European standard education because that would be based as mentally of the African In his opinion, deficient. "Africans conceptions a future." As part of his education, to be a nation of clerks without to foreign must be exposed the African influences and ideas. And he asked, ceases to be African "Should we say that the African he finds because it more to discard his gabardine for the Bond Street style?"80 convenient clear that the indigenous it was African had By the 1920s population of the various become of the intentions educational highly suspicious that had sought to "adapt" what "commissions" to be an they considered to meet educational the needs of colonial of program adequate subjects. Many the educated African elites had been angered by the various recommendations, which believed to go would scholars unprepared they only second-rate produce or other institutions on to the university of higher context in The learning. was which the adapted education not introduced did foster system partnership between the colonizers In fact, adapted was and the "natives." schooling on was and the resisted As indigenous imposed people, strongly by many. are not

Whitehead has aptly put it:

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282 British models were


on colonial them.

The Journal certainly followed but not because


Africans considered colonial and second educators

of African American History deliberately


subjects for this interwar

they were
colonial It was in the rate.

imposed
on that failed.

but rather because schools, less would have been Anything of adaptation, so popular

other

insisted reason

the policy

with

years,

in particular, wanted a carbon copy of British education and qualifications Africans, of London external acceptable for admission to British universities and University degrees. A study of the classics may have made little practical sense in tropical Africa, but Latin and Greek were part of the European educational gold standard to which Africans
aspired.81

were

was resisted Africans because adaptation they the decision a As R. J. Mason, themselves. . . . a "I that can think successful observer, put it, contemporary adaptation be made An alien people, themselves. and a ruling one, only by Africans so far however well-intentioned it may be, can only take another people own must the road. find their such Thereafter, way, along they seeking as they themselves feel the need."82 We should also point out that guidance to the colonies the nations that had exported educational models had to on as at reforms various is embark in the important evident points, changes in the curriculum, and accreditation educational in systems, strategies even

reason another Perhaps not allowed to make

and other developed countries.83 to note that most of the educated elite to that began important to attain independence from British rule were not those who colonial struggle had the advanced of the "unadapted" education In type found outside Africa. African nationalists the "adapted" of version fact, many up while grew was being encouraged. education The frustrations of the limited education and sown in the minds the fear and suspicion of the young who went people into a rejection the experiment blossomed of the colonial through apparatus, European It is including Perhaps we prepare Africans the educational it generated.84 programs should add that there was scant willingness for leadership, independent thinking, to use confidence education to

building, to work and the capacity and assertiveness. Character self-assurance, building, with others were not priorities. Nor was the system equipped to cope with the or equity issues of ethnicity and class, national social justice, and identity, access to of advanced these educational training. Certainly, programs equality were not geared to the problems solutions toward finding of hunger, poverty, or the challenges of democratic backwardness, technological governance.85 Yet these should have constituted the basis for genuine educational adaptation.

NOTES
of the National I am grateful to the staff and authorities the Cambridge Archives, Ibadan, Nigeria; University the Oxford University of Local Examinations, of Local Examinations, Cambridge; Syndicate Delegacy Rhodes House the University of London Senate House the Oxford; London; Library, Oxford; Library, Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, London; the Institute of Historical the London; Research, Missionary and the University of Ibadan in Nigeria Institute of Education, for giving me access to their rich London; on this subject. I am also grateful for the assistance collection of materials provided by the Information

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A Study of the Education Adaptation

Strategy

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

283

of London and to the University authorities for of the Caxton Service London; Publishing Company, I wish to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Mercy Senate Minutes. to quote from the University permission reviewers of this work. of Professor V. P. Franklin and the anonymous comments Ette, and the constructive of British See Clive Whitehead, "The Historiography Policy, Part II: Africa and the Rest Imperial Education 34 (July 2005): Kenneth of the Colonial 441-54; of Education [England] King, Pan Empire," History a Study of Race Philosophy in the Southern States of America and and Education: and Education Africanism in Natal: The Zwaartkops East Africa "Colonial Education Press, 1971), Peter Kallaway, (Oxford: Clarendon in Education 10 (Summer 1987): 17-33; and Educational in Southern Strategies 20 (March, Studies Journal 1920-1934," Rhodesia, 1994): 3-25, Henry D'Souza, of Southern African of Educational in British Tropical Africa from 1923 to 1939," "External Influences on the Development Policy "British Policy for African Education in Kenya 18/2 (1975), 35-43; D. G. Schilling, African Studies Review, of Wisconsin, "The Origins of Secondary Ph.D. 1972; Trevor Coombe, 1895-1939," thesis, University 3 (June 1967): 173-205; 4 (December and 5 Social Research, in Zambia," Afncan Education 1967): 283-315; inAfrica, British Paternalism 1920-1940 and Penelope Hetherington, 1978). (London, (June 1968): 365-405; Industrial Native Government Carol "Educational Summers, School Controversies: on the subject see Jacob Ade Ajayi, Christian Missions inNigeria, 1841-1891: The Making For discussion of a New Elite (Evanston, The Missionary IL, 1965); E. A. Ayandele, Impact onModern Nigeria (London, 1966); in Igboland, and Rivalry 1857-1914 F. K. Ekechi, Missionary 1972); C. K. Graham, The (London, Enterprise in Ghana from Earliest Times to the Declaration 1971). of Independence (London, of Education History of Secondary Grammar in Nigeria," See A. A. Adeyinka, "The Development School Education M.Ed. inNigeria, An Historical of Ibadan, 1974; A. A. Fajana, Education 1842-1939, Analysis University "The Development of Secondary School Education Grammar in 1972); Jacob Ade Ajayi, (Lagos, Nigeria, 2 (No. 3, 1963): 517-35. Society ofNigeria Nigeria," Journal of theHistorical Thesis, inNigeria, 1841-1891. on this subject are available accounts in Helen Kitchen, ed., The Educated in Africa Survey of Educational (New York, 1962); L. J. Lewis, African: Development in Nigeria ed., The New Elites 1965); Peter C. Lloyd, (London, of Tropical Society, Well: Marriage, Status and Social the Africa 1966); Kristin Mann, Marrying Among Change (London, Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos (Cambridge, MA, 1985). of Work Does Not Save Souls': Conceptions "'The Gospel of Industrial and Agricultural Andrew Paterson, in the Cape Colony, for Africans 45 (Fall 2005): 377 Education 1890-1930," History of Education Quarterly 404. n in the United States had shared a similar experience The African American of investing in community to provide equal or adequate funding for in response to the neglect by the state and local officials education or predominantly black public schools. For a comprehensive in the United all-black story of the experience Ajayi, Some Christian Missions of the comprehensive A Country-by-Country Schools and Progress "Introduction: Cultural Capital and African American The Journal Education" States, see V. P. Franklin, of 87 (Spring 2002); and "They Rose or Fell Together. African American 175-218; African American History, and Community Journal 172 (1990); and V. P. Educators 1795-1954," 36-64; Leadership, of Education Franklin and Carter Julian Savage, eds., Cultural Capital and Black Education: Communities African American and the Funding 1865 to the Present of Black Schools, (Information Age Publications 2004). on the origins of secondary discussion schools in Nigeria, their locations, school enrollment, The Development and retention Grammar School rates, see Adeyinka, background, of Secondary inNigeria; inNigeria, and Ajayi, "The Development of Secondary Education 1842-1939; Fajana, Education Grammar School," 517-35. Q see Philip Foster, Education on the subject, in Ghana For some useful discussion and Social Change and Chronological James Lewis, An Outline Table of the Development IL, 1965); Leonard (Chicago, of inBritish West Africa in British West Africa Education (London [n.d]); and Colin Wise, A History of Education student (London, 1957). in the Service The Catholic Education of Evangelisation: Impact in Eastern and Christianity "Colonization inWest Africa: 1989); F. K. Ekechi, (Leiden, Netherlands, 12 , (No. 1, 1971); M. McLean, Journal of African History "A Comparative 1900-1915," Study Education Policies of and Adaptationist in British Colonial Africa, 1925-1953," University inNigeria, 1842-1939. dissertation, 1978; and Fajana, Education "The Role of the University studies on the subject are Yoshiko of London Namie, helpful The School Between 1900 and University Institute 1939, with Special Reference Ph.D. dissertation, of Education, to Mauritius, the Gold Coast and "The 1989; and Michael Omolewa, See N. Omenka, 1886-1950 Nigeria, Igbo Case, of Assimilationist London, Ph.D. The For a useful 1888 to 1892," Perspectives African Activism

the Among Examinations Colonial Ceylon," London

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284 The Journal of African American History


Promotion of London University Examinations in Nigeria, The Internationaljournal 1887-1951," of African Historical Studies 13 (No. 4, 1980): 651-71; and "Cambridge University Local Examinations and Syndicate the Development of Secondary Education in Nigeria, Journal of the Historical 1910-1926," Society of Nigeria 8 (No. 4, 1977): 111-30. 12 to the work of the University There is a comprehensive introduction of Cambridge Local Examinations to the University One Hundredth Annual Report Syndicate (UCLES) at the (UCLES) Archives, of Cambridge, (Cambridge, Eng., 1958). 13 "Oxford University 1JMichael Omolewa, Journal of Educational 1929-1937," Nigeria, J. Roach, Public Examinations inEngland, A. B. Fafunwa, History of Local Examinations and Secondary Delegacy and History 10 (No.l, Administration 1978): 39-49. (London, 1971). Education in

of 88 (Fall 2003): 413-28. on this subject, see L. J. Lewis, Society, For some discussion and Progress in Nigeria Schools, (Oxford, in Tropical and Social 1965); M. Read, Education Change Africa (London, 1955); Kenneth King, Pan and Education in the Southern States of America and Education: A Study of Race Philosophy and Africanism East Africa 1971). (Oxford, Eng., the West African Examinations Council," The Journal of African American History F. Lugard, The Dual Mandate on "Education." in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh, South Schools, Scotland, 1922), especially the section

inNigeria of Education 1974), 193. (London, 1 of Examinations "The Role in the Promotion of the 'Paper Qualification Little, "Angela Syndrome,'" International Labour Office; Paper Qualification Syndrome (PQS) and Unemployment of School Leavers: for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Comparative Regional Study, Jobs and Skills Programme 982), 177. "Examinations and Globalization Elites: The Case Standards, Educational Assessments, 17Mary E. Dillard,

in A

in Africa: A Study of West, See Thomas Jesse Jones, Education Education Commission (New York, 1922), 67; and Lewis, Society, 21 inAfrica. Jones, Education on Education "The Advisory Committee 22Clive Whitehead, Hist?rica 27 (No. 3, 1991): 385-421. Paedagogica in British Tropical Africa, Colonial Office, Educational Policy on Native in the British Tropical African Dependences," Education Cmd. 2374, 1925. 24M. Perham, 25W. October Lugard, The Years "Research

and Equatorial and Progress

Africa by the African inNigeria.

in the

[British]

Colonies

1924-1961,"

"Memorandum His Majesty's

Committee by the Advisory (HMSO) Stationary Office

Ormsby-Gore, 1929): 2.

1898-1945 1960), 661. of Authority, (London, and Experiment in Overseas Overseas Education,"

Education

1 (No.

1,

See E. A. Ukong-Ibekwe, "On the Study of Vernacular 1 (No. 4, 1935): 32. Teacher Languages," Nigerian 77 of British Imperial Education Policy," 442. "The Historiography Whitehead, 2 are included between the Colonial Office and the universities of the correspondence in the Copies Council Report submitted to the University of London Matriculation and School Examinations Senate in 1935 and 36. 29Ibid. 30Ibid. of the Missionary Box 225. Minutes of the Society of Great Britain and Ireland (hereafter, MSG), on Native Education of the Advisory in Tropical Africa, 9 September 1932. Committee SM, 1935-36. The topics that were added for the English language paper included: "The Value of Reading "Your Favourite Author or Character," "The Forest," "Native Salutations and Fiction," "Rain," "Wild Flowers," "The Choice of Career for an. Educated African," "The Good and Bad Characteristics of Native Greetings," Archives Religions." 33SM (18 October introduced Yoruba Examinations examinations Examinations 34SM 35Ibid. followed the example of London and 1922), 314. The Oxford Delegacy University as an optional candidates in 1929. The Cambridge Local subject for Nigerian University to conduct from December 1936, began, arrangement Syndicate by special special In December African Local for West candidates. of that year, the Cambridge University titled its examinations Syndicate "Special School Certif?cate for West Africa and the Bahamas." 1926), 2293. 1936, and discussed in those two years. See University of London Senate Minutes (hereafter, SM), 1935

meeting

(24 February

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A Study of the Education


36Ibid. 37SM

Adaptation Strategy

in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

285

(19 November 1930), 802. on this subject, see P. S. Zachernuk, discussion 8For a comprehensive "African History and Imperial Culture in Colonial Nigerian Schools," Africa 68 (No. 4, 1998): 484-505. See J. M. Welch, "Schools and Community Service in a Backward 3 (October Area," Overseas Education, 1931): 11. and Present, Treasure:

(London, 1943), iii. in a Changing World (New York, The Youth of Africa 1928), 109. See also, A Critique Nigeria: of British Colonial Administration (London, 1936), 15; and compare the observation "And so at the end of the last century, within the vast region enclosed by the by Sir Philip Mitchell: coast of Africa, with its widely of people from other countries, bounded spaced forts, towns, and settlements . . . , and the on the north by the Nigerian the Sahara, the Nile the West found Emirates, massif, Abyssinian itself in control of millions of people who had never adopted an alphabet or even any form of hieroglyphic or Calendar, no almanac no notation of time or measurements of length, writing. They had no numerals, no currency, no external trade except slaves ... no and no means of capacity, or weight, plough, no wheel, transportation except human head porterage on land and dugout canoes on rivers and lakes. These people had built nothing, nothing of any kind in material more durable than mud, poles and thatch. . . ."; quoted in J. F. Ade Ajayi, "The Continuity of African Institutions under Colonialism," inEmerging Themes of African History, ed. T. O. Ranger (Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, 1968), 190-91. 41B. Mathews, W. R. Crocker, Black ZK. C. Murray was a tutor with the Department see K. C. Murray, Art Examinations, Syndicate's 1933): 4. (October of Education in Nigeria in 1931. For his observation on the "Arts and Crafts in West Africa," Overseas 5 Education Annual to the University Report (UCLES) Archives.

40T. R. Batten, Past

Local Examinations Cambridge Syndicate, One Hundredth Local Examinations of Cambridge 1958, University Syndicate 4 are as follows: The group classifications Subject Compulsory English Language Group I: English Literature, Religious Knowledge Group II: Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, Italian Other Languages (Yoruba, Hausa, or any other approved Group III: Elementary Mathematics, General Science, Physics, Chemistry, History Geography Mechanics Physics Group IV: Art, Music, Botany, Additional Mathematics Chemistry, Biology and Physiology Hygiene

of Cambridge,

language)

Handicraft,

Technical

Drawing,

Housecraft

Annual Report for 1936, UNCLES, Archives. Syndicate of Local Examinations, see Michael of this subject, "The Teaching of French and German in Omolewa, Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, 18 (No. 3, 1978): 379-96; and "The Ascendancy Schools, 1859-1960," Nigerian of English inNigeria Schools 1882-1960," West African Journal ofModern Languages (No. 3, 1978): 152-66. Cambridge University For a full discussion See, Eric Ashby, Ecology ofHigher 4x J. A. Majasan, Development," in association Education "Yoruba Ph.D. (Cambridge, Education: with Mary Anderson, MA, 1966). University Universities: British, Indian, African: to Current A Study in the

dissertation,

Its Principles, Practices of Ibadan, 1967; O.

and Relevance Ikejiani,

ed., Nigerian

Educational Education (Lagos,

1964). on Educational of Education, Nigeria, Memorandum inNigeria 49Department Policy (Lagos, 1947). J. R. Bunting, "Certificates and Education," West African Journal of Education 2 (October 1958): 100. "The Aims 51J. A. O. Odebiyi, of Secondary Education in Western West African Journal Nigeria," 1 (June 1967): 43. Education

of

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286 The Journal of African American History


to note that the British examinations boards were not influenced It is particularly interesting by the on the need to ask African on African officials candidates advanced arguments by the colonial questions and tribal tales such as the artful antelope and the strong and sometimes stupid lion, or those on "witchcraft" or probably such topics of educational the examiners did not consider importance, Perhaps "superstition." as a universal that the fear of "the power of the evil eye" is as old as witchcraft phenomenon, recognized and in Africa had their origins in ancient beliefs of the Greeks man, and that many of the "pagan" practices and believed in magic Park, the great British fervently Ay ?ndele notes that Mungo explorer, and Human The Mungo Park Bi-Centenary E. Ayandele, Understanding: African Exploration superstition. Memorial Lecture, Scotland, 1971). (Edinburgh, of the Colonial JOW. Ormsby-Gore, "Educational Problems Empire," Journal of the Royal African Society 36 (April 1937): 165. Romans. The Quarterly Review 108 (October 1860): 569. "Competitive Examinations," to the of Public School Education, with Special Reference "On the Present System Sir John Lubbock, 27 Review and Cambridge School Examinations of the Oxford Recent Regulations Board," Contemporary (January 1876): 168. Sir John McNeil, of Education in British Tropical Africa "External Influences on the Development Policy Henry D'Souza, of the Review 18 (September Studies from 1923 to 1939," The African 1975): 36. For an examination in the South, into separate black secondary and normal schools of a form of "adapted education" introduction in the South, 1860-1935 see James D. Anderson, The Education 1988), 33-78. of Blacks (Chapel Hill, NC, 57 of Education "External Influences on the Development D'Souza, Policy," 37. 58Charles T. Loram, The Education (London, 1917), 146. of the South African Native "The Gospel of Work Does Not Save Souls," 59See Andrew Paterson, 60 in the South, 33-88; Zachernuk, The Education Anderson, of Blacks in Colonial Nigerian Schools," 487-488. Edward H. Berman, 1920 African Education 62Ibid. Edward York, H. Berman, 10. "Christian Missions in Africa" in African Reactions toMissionary Education (New "American Commission," Influence on African Comparative Education Education: Review 377. "African History The Role 15 (June and Imperial Culture Fund's

52

1971):

of the Phelps-Stokes 145.

1975),

in the Nigerian The Educated Elite 1974). (Ibadan, Nigeria, Society was also handicapped it chose to work with because that the Commission believes Ibid. Edward Berman on African see "American Influence the United outside "little known" J. E. K Aggrey, who was States; in the Intellectual 143-45; and Sylvia M. Jacobs, "James Emman Kwegyir Aggrey: An African Education," 80 (Spring-Fall United States," The Journal of Negro History 1996): 47-61. 64E. A. Ayandele, Archives, 1910-20, National 66See, Colonial Office List, "Report on Nigeria," of the British Empire 67E. A. Speed to Lord Lugard, 3 July 1914, Manuscripts House Library, Lord Fredrick Lugard Papers, Oxford, England. "Martin Control Carnoy, Education The and Education: Ibadan. (Mss. Brit. Emp.) 8. 74, Rhodes

"Colonial and Cultural 1974); see also, A. Fajana, (New York, Imperialism Journal in Nigeria, Education of Higher 1900-1950," of the Development notes that during this period 6 (December Historical 1972): 323-40. B. O. Oloruntimehin Society of Nigeria in the education of their colonial the French were also debating the need for "adaptation" subjects for similar see B. O. Oloruntimehin, for Colonial "Education on French colonial reasons. For a discussion education, in French West Africa from 1900 to the Second World War," Journal Dominance Society of of the Historical 7 (June 1974): 347-56. Nigeria 69Ben 144. N. Azikiwe, R. Miller, officers, "How Shall We Educate the African?" Journal of the African Society, 33 (April 1934),

inNigeria? Have We Failed 1947), 3. This was the broad view of the colonial (London, en und Politike with few exceptions. ed., Erziehung See, for example, Hans N. Weiler, inNigeria) 1964). (Freiburg, Switzerland, (Education and Politics Nigeria 7 5th Edition, with a new introduction in British Tropical Africa, by Frederick Lugard, The Dual Mandate Perham (London, 1965), 428. Margery Walter education At Home with the Savage (London, 1932), 234-35. on July 27, 1931, by Sir Percy Conference Education at the British Commonwealth Address delivered see Overseas and the text of Sir Percy's address, of this conference Nunn. For the report of the proceedings 3 (October Education 1931): 1-11. 72J. H. D?berg,

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A Study of the Education Adaptation

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in British Colonial Africa,

1910-1936

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A. Mayhew, in the Colonial Empire Education 1938), 3. (London, on Educational in E. R. J. Hussey, Memorandum (London, 1930). Policy Nigeria 7 on Colonial Education W. H. McLean, Memorandum Institutions (London, 1932) in box 225, MSG 77 Paterson has noted that in South Africa, Andrew "white labour began to express concern over the potential black workers, fears that influenced from equally qualified and competitive the introduction of the challenge 'Job Color Bar' in 1920"; see Paterson, "The Gospel of Work Does Not Save Souls," 382. 78 in Igboland Letter to Mbonu Ojike, quoted in F. K. Ekechi, Missionary 1857-1914 and Rivalry Enterprise 188. Dr. W. E. B. Du Bois, the Pan-Africanist and intellectual, also had a similar message (London, 1972), when he stressed that "we will fight for all time against any proposal to educate black boys and girls simply as or simply for the use of other people"; servants and underlings, "The Development in Ajayi, of quoted School Education fn.2. in Nigeria," Secondary Grammar 79 O. A. Alakija. "The African Must Have Western Education," Elders Review 80Ibid, 95. 8 "The Historiography of British Imperial Education Whitehead, Policy," 448. in Africa (London, 137 82R. J. Mason, British Education 1959), (July 1930), 94.

have also been interested and organizations in the subject of relevance and 3The international community as demonstrated with the publication of the report of the by the work of UNESCO quality of education Commission chaired by Edgar Faure in the 1960s; and later in mid-1990s the report of the International on Education for the Twenty-first Commission former French Minister of Century, chaired by Jacques Delors, and President of the Commission of the European See, Edgar Faure, Community. The Treasure Within (Paris, 1998). (Paris, 1972); and J. Delors, Learning: on the reaction of Nigerians to the establishment of Yaba Higher College, of Lagos, a model 84Commenting an adapted higher education states that "The educated elite protested program, Festus Ogunlade against the status of the college, which was below the rank of a university. They argued that its training would be inferior to what would be obtained and "would confer in overseas universities of the inferior status on products that the government's motives the college of sub-university institution." Nationalists in making suspected in inferior jobs under European standard was a trap to keep Nigerians thus postponing the day specialists, control its industry"; see F. Ogunlade, "Yaba Higher College and the Formulation of Nigeria would eventually an Intellectual Elite," M.A. Thesis, University on this subject is available of Ibadan, 1970, 2. A full discussion Economy Learning To Be The British in Clive Whitehead, Colonial Indian and Colonial Education 1858-1983 Service Educators, in Nigeria, "The School in the Service of 1842-1939; Omenka, Fajana, Education (London, 2003); "Western Education and the Nigerian and Otonti Nduka, Cultural Background." Evangelisation," oc see Brian Simon, Education account of the educational For a well-written reforms and changes in Britain, and the Social Order, 1940-99 (London, 1991). and Finance

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